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Lesson 1
Vocabulary Reference
Session 2 - News Review
probe
(here) a device for gathering information
orbit
the circular path one object takes around another in space
spacecraft
vehicle used in space
hostile
(here) difficult or dangerous
core
(here) the centre
Session 3 - LingoHack
on such a scale
(here) of a large size
judgement
ability to make good decisions
on record
officially measured
loggers
people who cut down trees
orbiting
moving around a planet or star
Grammar Reference
Relative clauses
Meaning and use
Relative clauses are used to give additional information about a noun, such as a person, place or
thing. Relative pronouns introduce a relative clause. They include who for
people, that and which for things, when for time, and whose to show possession.
Relative clauses belong to one of two categories: defining relative clauses and nondefining relative clauses.
1. Defining relative clauses add essential information to a sentence.
The woman who found my wallet handed it in to reception.
The student whose dog has run away has gone to look for it.
I remember the day when we first met.
These are the earrings that my mother gave me.
These clauses give essential information about the subject of the sentence. They define
the person, time or thing that we are talking about. If we remove the clause, the sentence does not
make sense.
2. Non-defining relative clauses add extra information to a noun or noun phrase.
My friends birthday, which was last weekend, was great fun.
My current girlfriend, who I love very much, calls me every night.
This extra information is not essential. If we remove the clause, the sentence still makes sense. This
type of clause is more common in written English.
Form
Defining relative clauses are made with noun + relative pronoun + rest of clause.
A kangaroo is an animal which lives in Australia.
The man who came for lunch was my uncle.
Winter is a time when it sometimes snows.
Non-defining relative clauses are made in the same way. An important difference, however,
between both types of clause, is the use of punctuation. With non-defining relative clauses, we
separate the clause with commas. We cannot use that in this type of clause.
Lesson 2
Vocabulary Reference
Session 2 - News Review
set to
ready to / likely to
to become
is going to become
follow in someone's footsteps
to do something (normally a job) which someone has done before you
take the reins
to take control of something
Session 3 - Lingohack
pressing
needs quick action
scene
(here) place where an incident happened
malnutrition
bad health caused by a poor diet
so-called
(adjective) named informally by many people
Grammar Reference
Will, going to, be likely to and might
Form - will and might
For will and might, the form is subject + will / might + infinitive.
We use the same form for all persons (I, you, he, she, and so on). You can contract will to'll in the
positive form - we normally do this in spoken language.
Positive
The new smartphone will have all sorts of special features.
We'll be connected 24/7 when everywhere has free wifi.
I've ordered a new phone for the office. It might arrive today.
Negative
This video call will not last long - we only have one thing to discuss.
We won't see much change in keyboard layouts for the next few years.
There might not be any announcements about the new technology room today - don't count
on it!
We can use the contracted form won't for all persons (I, you, he, she, and so on). Sometimes we
contract might not to mightn't, especially in speaking.
Lesson 3
Vocabulary Reference
plagiarise
use the words or ideas of someone else and pretend they are your own
rip off
steal something or copy something
a rip-off
something that is not worth the price OR something which is a copy of something else
bear a striking similarity
to have a very strong similarity
Session 3 - Lingohack
candidate
person who applies for a job or a post
damning
very critical
trend
general development in a situation
Grammar Reference
Future time
We use the present simple to talk about timetabled future events
I'd better hurry, my bus leaves in 5 minutes.
The exam starts at 9
Past time
1) Telling a story
This makes the events more immediate and exciting for the listener.
Last year I was swimming off the coast in NZ when suddenly I see a shark fin heading
towards me
2) Newspaper headlines
Journalists often use the present not the past in newspaper headlines to make newspaper stories
more exciting, fresh and immediate.
Man dies in forest fire.
3) With hear, tell, gather, say
This puts more emphasise on the information we heard rather than the fact you heard it.
I hear you're getting married!
She says she didn't like the present!
4) When telling jokes
This makes the joke more immediate and dramatic for the listener (even if the joke is not very
funny!)
A man walks into a bar...
'Twinning' or gemination
When one word ends in a /s/ sound and the next word begins with a /s/ sound, they come together to
make a slightly longer /s/ sound. So, he looks sadbecomes he lookssad. Native speakers of English
often use gemination when they say phrases like these:
She's silly.
He's sitting over there.
Can you come this Saturday?
That's so unfair!
Lesson 4
Vocabulary Reference
Session 2 - News Review
repel
keep something away (for example: insects/water) by being unattractive or unpleasant to it
something/someone repels you
you find something/someone disgusting or unpleasant and want to stay away from it/them
deter
prevent/discourage someone from doing something by making it difficult or unpleasant for them to
do it
a pun
a funny way of using a word so that more than one meaning is suggested
steer clear of
avoid someone or something
Session 3 - Lingohack
breaking through
forcefully opening the way through (a barrier)
eluded
failed to be achieved
blazes
very large fires
prematurely
before its expected time
Grammar Reference
Linking words of contrast
We use words and phrases like though, although and even though to link two clauses together. We
call them linking words of contrast. We use despite and in spite of in front of nouns and gerunds.
Marta broke her leg a year ago. Marta ran a marathon last weekend.
Despite breaking her leg a year ago, Marta ran a marathon last weekend.
Binh loves football. Binh has never been to a professional football match.
Though Binh loves football, he's never seen a professional match.
Despite and in spite of go in front of nouns or gerunds. They can also go at the beginning or middle
of sentences.
Despite smoking 40 cigarettes a day, my grandfather lived to 100.
My grandfather lived to 100, despite smoking 100 cigarettes a day.
Elison of /t/
When a /t/ sound comes between two consonant sounds, it is often not pronounced. Fluent English
speakers may not pronounce the /t/ sound in these phrases:
I can't do it
We must go
Are we the first people here?
Lesson 4
Vocabulary Reference
Session 3 - Lingohack
questioned
(here) expressed doubts about
remotely
from a distance
insight
understanding
look up (C1)
improve
look forward to (C2)
be excited and happy about a future event
Grammar Reference
Stative verbs in the continuous form
Verbs with two meanings
Some state verbs can be used in the continuous form to talk about a temporary action or an action
happening in the present. However, some state verbs can be used as action verbs in the present
continuous form with a change of meaning. Here are some examples:
Bernard looks healthy. (his appearance now)
I was looking out the window at the rain. (watching the rain)
Does Maria have a piano? (own)
They are having lunch with their mother today. (eating)
I don't hear the music playing. (hear with my ears)
Our manager will be hearing our presentation today. (will be listening to)
Lola feels that we were rude. (thinks)
How has your father been feeling? (how is his health)
That perfume smells good. (has a good scent)
The boy is smelling the flowers. (sniffing at)
The new baby weighs 3 kg. (her weight is 3 kg)
The woman is weighing the apples. (measuring their weight)
They are good writers. (it's a fact)
Bob is being crazy. (behaving in a crazy way)
What do you see on the wall? (notice with your eyes)
They are seeing their cousins tomorrow. (will visit)
Informal English
In very informal English, the continuous form is sometimes used with state verbs. An example is
the restaurant advertisement that says, Im loving it! You might also hear someone say, Im
hating this movie. The -ing form of the verbs in these examples have a sense of being temporary.
(Right now) Im hating this movie.
(General opinion) I like the move I saw last week.
In fluent speech, if a word ends in an // sound and the next word begins with an //,
you'll often hear a /r/ sound linking them together, in phrases like these:
Law and order is important.
I ate four or five cakes.
We saw a good film.
It doesn't happen in all accents and some people say it's not the proper way to speak. But it is
something you will hear, although the /r/ sound is often not very strong. You may hear it in
sentences like these:
Can you draw a circle freehand?
We saw a good film last night.
Lesson 6
Vocabulary Reference
Session 2 - News Review
activist
person with a strong belief in a certain cause who takes action to achieve their aims
hunger strike
time during which someone refuses to eat as a protest
fast
period of time when a person chooses not to eat
'iron'
Here used as an adjective used to describe a person who is mentally and emotionally strong
Session 3 - Lingohack
wondering
asking oneself
to log
to make an official record
stylish
elegant and fashionable
unveiled
made public in a ceremony
strongly dislike
don't stand a chance (C2)
have little possibility of success
stand for (C2)
represents an idea or priniciple
stand to lose (C2)
be in a situation where you may lose an advantage
won't stand for (C1)
refuse to accept or allow a situation
stand out (B2)
be noticeably better than other people
stands by (B2)
supports someone in a difficult situation
stands (C1)
remains; exists in a place
Grammar Reference
Infinitives of purpose
We use infinitives of purpose to explain why we're doing something:
You're watching this video to get better at speaking English.
We can also use for + somebody to explain that we're doing an action on behalf of someone else:
We make these videos for you to get better at English.
In more formal English, we can use in order to or so as to to express purpose:
The government has raised taxes in order to fund the NHS.
People have taken to the streets so as to protest against the increase in taxes
We can add 'not' to make these negative - so as not to and in order not to:
He paid the fine in order not to go to prison.
I've worked really hard all my life so as not to be poor.
We can use the infinitive of purpose after a noun, pronoun or indefinite pronoun to explain what
we need it for or, what we intend to do with it:
I want a house to live in.
Do you have any more food to cook?
Do you have anything to eat?
Lesson 7
Vocabulary Reference
Session 2 - News Review
an upset
when someone beats the team or player that was expected to win
pull something off
to succeed in doing something that is difficult
egg somebody on
encourage someone or urge someone to do something (especially something they shouldn't do)
pandemonium
a situation in which there is a lot of noise or craziness because people are excited, angry, or
frightened
Session 3 - Lingohack
medal tally
number of medals won
feeds on
eats, consumes (especially for animals)
cheating
breaking the rules of a competition
Grammar Reference
Conditionals review
Meaning and use
Conditional sentences express a connection between two actions or states. One thing happens
because of another. These connections can be general, specific, likely, unlikely, real or imagined.
Although there are quite a few different ways of forming conditional sentences there are common
patterns known as zero, first, second and third conditionals.
Zero conditionals
Used to refer to general truths, scientific facts and the predictable results of particular actions. One
thing happens and because of this something else happens. In zero conditionals if and when have
the same meaning.
If you heat water enough, it boils.
When he scores, he celebrates by making a heart shape with his hands.
When its raining, he stays indoors.
First conditionals
Used when we want to talk about something that is likely to happen in the future after a specific set
of circumstances, the condition. If is used is when the condition is possible andwhen is used when
the condition is certain to happen.
If I go to the shops, Ill get some bread. (I might not go to the shops)
When I go to the shops, Ill get some bread. (Im definitely going to the shops)
If youve finished your homework by six, you can go out and play.
When youre having your party, please keep the noise down!
Second conditionals
Refer to an imagined present result of an unlikely or impossible present condition.
If I had the money, Id travel around the world. (I dont have the money)
If I were you, Id think about leaving him. (Im not you)
Third conditionals
Refer to an imagined past result of something that didnt happen in the past.
If I had known you were coming, I wouldnt have prepared the cheese dish.
(I didnt know you were coming. I prepared a cheese dish.)
If I had known then what I know now, I wouldnt have wasted so much time at university.
(I didnt know then what I know now. I did waste a lot of time at university.)
Form
Conditional sentences usually have two parts. There is the if clause (sometimes called
theconditional clause) and the result clause (sometimes called the main clause). The clauses can
come in any order.
If the if clause is first, the two clauses are separated by a comma.
There is no comma if the result clause is first.
Zero conditional
If clause:
if/when + present simple
Result clause:
present simple
When I turn it on, it makes a funny noise.
If you multiply ten by twelve, what do you get?
Milk goes bad if you leave it out too long.
First conditional
If clause:
if/when + present simple
Result clause:
will / 'll + infinitive without to / imperative
If it rains, youll get wet.
If it rains, put your coat on.
If youre leading at half time, Ill let your dad know.
If youve won, give me a call as soon as possible.
Second conditional
If clause:
if + past simple (exception: verb 'to be' takes 'were' in 1st and 2nd person)
Result clause:
would / 'd + infinitive without to
If I knew what was wrong, Id fix it myself.
Id be out on my bike if it werent raining so hard.
Third conditional
If clause:
if + past perfect
Main clause:
would / 'd + have / 've + past participle
If I'd known it'd break, I wouldn't have tried to pick it up.
If you hadn't insisted on changing your shirt we wouldn't've missed the bus.
Take note: modals
Most first, second and third conditional clauses commonly use will or would but it is possible to
use other modal auxiliaries instead. For example:
First conditional
If you go to the shops, can you get some bread, please?
If you go to the shops, could you get some bread, please?
If I go to the beach at the weekend, I might try out my new wet suit.
If I get a phone call this afternoon, it may be good news.
When we go on holiday this year, we should book a nicer hotel.
Second conditional
If I had enough money, I could travel around the world.
If I were elected, I might be able to do some good.
Third conditional
If youd told me earlier, I couldve done something about it.
If we had caught the right bus, we mightve been on time.
Lesson 8
Vocabulary Reference
Session 2 - News Review
kick off
begin or cause something to begin
pass the baton
give responsibility for something important to another person or group
wrap up
finish something
peer
look carefully or closely
Session 3 - Lingohack
peer
look carefully or closely
underestimated
thought something was lower than it really was
put (something) down to
(phrasal verb) gave something as a reason for something else
Grammar Reference
5 ways you can use past forms to talk about times other than the past
1. When a plan isn't certain
I was thinking of going to that party later.
In this example, the use of the past continuous makes the plan less definite in the speaker's mind
than if she had used a present continuous sentence I am thinking of going to the party later.
2. To be polite
I was wondering if your report was ready.
In this example, the use of the past continous and past simple make the speaker sound more polite
than if he had used present tenses I am wondering if your report is ready. This is because the past
sounds less direct.
3. To sound more urgent
It's time we left.
In this example, the use of the past tense makes the speaker sound more urgent than if she had used
the present tense It's time to leave. By using the past, the speaker gives the idea that we should have
left already.
4. With 'wish' and 'if only'
I wish I had more time.
If only I had more time.
After wish and if only, we have to use the past tense. Present tenses are not correct. However, these
sentences have a hypothetical present of future meaning.
5. With 'suppose' and 'what if'
Suppose we went on holiday to Thailand.
What if we finished before the deadline?
When we use past tenses after suppose and what if, the situation sounds less likely than if we had
used present tenses Suppose we go on holiday to Thailand.
We also use the past continuous to describe a scene or situation in the past or for an action that
continued for some time.
The stars were beginning to come out.
The dog was barking loudly.
Form
Past simple: positive
For regular verbs, the past simple ends in -ed. Irregular verbs have different forms. The past simple
form is the same for all persons (I, you, he, she, etc).
Suddenly the jeep skidded and stopped.
Jake thought that we had a puncture.
Past continuous: positive
The past continuous is subject + was/were + -ing form. There are no short forms ofwas/were.
Fortunately, we were carrying a toolkit.
Past simple: negative
We make the negative past simple with didnt + infinitive.
We didnt stay inside the jeep because that was even hotter.
Past continuous: negative
We make the negative past continuous with wasnt/werent + -ing form
Despite the heat, Jess and Debs werent wearing hats.
Past simple: question
The past simple question form is did + subject + infinitive for all persons. The short answers
are Yes, I did. / No, I didnt.
Did the helicopter land in the desert? Yes it did.
Past continuous: question
The past continuous question form is was/were + subject + -ing form. The short answers are Yes, I
was. / No, I wasnt.
How were you feeling when it arrived?
Lesson 9
Vocabulary Reference
Session 2 - News Review
flee
to quickly leave a place, normally because it is dangerous or unpleasant
some
used here as an adverb before a number to mean 'approximately'
hub
a place which is the the centre of a particular activity
sorties
short missions
rickety
not stable; likely to break
Session 3 - Lingohack
marine reserve
area of ocean protected by the law
orbiting
moving in a circular path around an object (especially for planets)
mourning
sadness because someone has died
Grammar Reference
Verb patterns: gerunds and infinitives
Gerunds are the -ing form of a verb, and infinitives are the to + base form. These words can be
confusing; they combine the meaning of a verb with the grammar of a noun.
My father asked me to phone him. I enjoy talking with my father.
So, how is to phone like a noun? Imagine the first sentence said: My father asked me a question.
You can see how a question and to phone have the same grammatical role. Similarly, you could
replace talking with the noun conversation.
Using gerunds and infinitives correctly with verbs can be difficult because some verbs go with only
the infinitive or only the gerund, and others can go with either one.
I enjoy going to the movies. (enjoy + -ing form only)
Jason wants to visit a museum on Friday. (want + infinitive form only)
Tony likes eating at restaurants. Tony likes to eat at restaurants. (like + either -ing or
infinitive form)
Another difficulty is that sometimes choosing the infinitive or the gerund will change the meaning
of the sentence.
Mary stopped eating at six.
(Mary was eating, and at six oclock, she stopped.)
Mary stopped to eat at six.
(Mary was walking home, and at six oclock she stopped walking and went into a caf to
eat.)
The best way to learn which verbs take infinitives, gerunds, or both, is to notice them in context
when you read, or to consult grammar references. Here are some of the most common verbs:
Followed by a gerund (-ing form)
admit, advise, consider, discuss, dislike, dread, enjoy, finish, mind, practise, recommend, suggest
Followed by an infinitive
agree, appear, choose, decide, expect, fail, hope, learn, need, refuse, seem, wait, want
Lesson 10
Vocabulary Reference
Session 2 - News Review
underestimated
(here) thought to be lower than it really is
livelihoods
ways of earning money in order to live
soaring
rising quickly
plummeting
falling quickly and suddenly
staggering
very shocking and surprising
bear the brunt of
suffer the worst part or effect of something bad or harmful
Session 3 - Lingohack
outbreaks
sudden occurrences of disease or war
passed away
died
spotted
noticed after looking carefully
Grammar Reference
Future continuous
Meaning and use
We use the future continuous to talk about events that will be in progress at a particular time or over
a period of time in the future. These are usually plans or predictions.
This time next year hell be working in Dubai
A taxi will be waiting outside the station when you arrive.
At four o'clock tomorrow Ill be lying here again.
We can also use the future continuous to say that a future action will be in progress at the same time
as another action.
Ill be thinking of you when Im sitting on the beach in the Bahamas.
The future continuous can also be used to talk about a future event that will happen in the normal
course of things. This means the action is certain to happen without any effort or decision being
made by the speaker.
I'll give John his birthday present since Ill be seeing him at work on Monday.
I can give you a lift as Ill be going into town anyway to do the shopping.
Flight attendants will be circulating around the cabin to offer you refreshments.
We can also use the future continuous to politely enquire about a persons plans for the future. This
is used to ask about someone's plans without any pressure.
Will you be coming to dinner tonight?
Will you be wanting dinner?
Form
Future continuous positive
subject + will + be + -ing form of verb
Ill be starting in the south and making my way north by train.
Future continuous negative
subject + wont + be + -ing form of verb
They wont be staying very long as they have to get back.
Questions
Future continuous questions are made with:
will / wont + subject + be + -ing form of verb
We can also use question words.
Why will they be arriving so late tonight?