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BME332:Strain/Deformation

BME332:IntroductiontoBiosolidMechanics

Section3:TheConceptofDeformationandStrain
I.Overview
Inthelastsectionwederivedthestressequilibriumequationsbasedonconsiderationsofforcebalancewithinthematerial.Thestress
equilibriumequations,althoughderivedforthedeformedstateofthatmaterial,didnotentailanyassumptionsaboutthematerialorthetypeof
deformationitencurs.Welearnedthatformostsituations,thestressequilibriumequationsareindeterminate,andwecan'tsolveformaterial
stressesdirectlyfromtheseequations.Wethereforeneedtoconsiderotheraspectsofthematerialandtissuemechanics.Thenextlogicalstepis
toexaminethenhowthematerialdeforms.Itisatthispointthatweintroduceourfirstsignificantassumptionsconcerningcontinuum
mechanics.Ifwemakenoassumptionsaboutthesizeofdeformation,thentheresultingstraintensorisvalidforeverysituation.However,this
straintensorisnonlinearandleadstocomplexanalysis.Therefore,ifthedeformationissmall(typicallylessthan34%),thenwecanusea
smalldeformationanalysis,whichislinearandsimplertouse.Intissuemechanics,hardtissuesfitunderthesmalldeformationmodel,butmost
softtissuestypicallyundergolargedeformation(strains>5%).Inthissection,wewilldiscussandderivedeformationandstrainmeasuresfor
bothsmallandlargedeformation.Bytheendofthissection,youshouldbeableto:
1.Understandconceptsofthesmalldeformationtensor
2.Understandconceptsofinitialanddeformedconfiguration
3.Understandtheconceptofdisplacement
4.Understandtheconceptofthedeformationgradienttensor
5.Understandtheconceptofthelargedeformationstraintensor
6.Understanddifferencesbetweensmallandlargedeformation
II.SmallDeformationStrainTensor
Wefirstconsiderthecaseofsmalldeformation,sincethisisapplicabletoboneandismuchlesscomplexthanlargedeformation.
Considerthedeformationofaninfinitesimalcube(oncemore!)inthex1direction:

Weknowthatifthedisplacementsaresmall,thenwecanapproximatethenormalstraininthe11directionas:

Ifweinthelimitallowboth

and

bothtoapproachzero,thenwearriveatthefollowingstraindisplacementrelationship:

Thiscorrespondstoournotionthatstrainisdefinedasthechangeinlengthoverlength.Notethatthisisanapproximationofstrainforsmall
deformations.Thus,itisourdefinitionofstrainthatrendersthisdiscussionforthesmalldeformationpartofsmalldeformationelasticity.We
canalsodothesamechangeinlengthforthex2andx3directionstoarriveat:

Next,letusconsiderapuresheardeformationasshownastheinfinitesimalcubebelow:

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Here,thetotaldeformationisthesumoftheangles1and2,andcanbewrittenas:

Notethat1isdefinedtoequal2,1=2.Nowweusesometrigonometry.Wenotethatthetangentof1andthetangentof2canbe
writtenas:

Ifweassumethattheangleofdeformationissmall(againreferringbackthatthissectionissmalldeformationstrain),weknowthatthetangent
ofasmallangleisequivalenttotheangleitself,assumingwedefinetheangleinradians.Thus,wemaywritetheaboveas:

Wecanthusrewritetheangulardeformationfromaboveas:

Notethatwehaveaddedanextradefinition12.Thisisthedefinitionoftensorialshearstrainthatisonehalf12thatisthedefinitonof
engineeringshearstrain.Ifwetakenthelimitasalldeltaquantitiesgotozero,thenwehavethefollowingdefinitionoftheshearstrain:

bydefinitionshearstrainsaresymmetricasweseebelow:

Thedefinitionoftheothershearstrainsfollowsdirectlyas:

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Giventhedefinitionofnormalstrains,andtheshearstrainsgivenabove,wecanwriteacompactdefintionofsmallstraininindicialnotationas:

NotethatthesmalldeformationstrainisasecondordertensorjustliketheCauchystresstensor.Ithasninecomponentsfor3D.Wecanwrite
thesmalldeformationstraintensorinmatrixformas:

Howdoestheadditionofthestraindisplacementrelationshipaffectourabilitytosolvethemechanicsproblem.Well,nowwehaveintroduced
12moreunknowns,theninestrainseijandthethreedisplacementsui.Wehaveintroduced,however,only9additionalequations,namelythe
straindisplacementequations.
III.DefinitionofReferenceandDeformedConfigurations,andtheRelationshipsbetweenThem
Weexplicitlymadetheassumptioninderivingthesmallstraintensorthatstrainswere"small"forbothnormalandshearstrain.Whilethis
assumptionisvalidforbone,itisnotvalidforsofttissues.Ofcourse,onemayaskwhybotherwithassumingsmalldeformationatall.Aswe
willseeinthissection,largedeformation,whilevalidforalldeformationsituations,ismuchmorecomplexandintroducesnonlinearityintothe
problem,calledgeometricnonlinearity.
III.A.Reference(Initial)andDeformedConfigurations
Thefirststepindefininglargedeformationstrainmeasuresistodefinetherelationshipbetweenwhatisknownasthereference,initial
orundeformedconfigurationofabody,andthedeformedconfigurationofthebody.Thereferenceorundeformedconfiguationisthecondition
ofthebodyin3Dspacebeforeloadshavebeenappliedtoit.Thedeformedconfigurationisthelocationandshapeofthebodyafterloadshave
beenappliedtoit.Itisimportanttonotethatthebodymayundergorigidbodymotioninadditiontostrainwhenloadesareplacedonit.An
illustrationoftherelationshipbetweentheinitial(notethatIwilluseinitial,reference,andundeformedconfigurationinterchangeably
throughoutthissection)anddeformedconfigurationisshownbelow:

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III.B.Displacement:RelationshipbetweenapointintheReferenceandDeformedConfiguration
Notethatwehavedefinedavectorin3Dspacex'inthereferenceconfigurationofthebodyandavectorxinthedeformedconfigurationofthe
body.Wenotethattherelationshipbetweenthetwopositionvectorsinspace,whichrepresentthelocationsofapointinthereference
configurationandapointinthedeformedconfiguration,isthedisplacementvector,asshownbelow:

Byvectoraddition,wecandirectlywritetherelationshipbetweenthepositionvectorsintheinitialanddeformedconfiguration:

III.C.DeformationGradient:RelationshipbetweenamaterialvectorintheReferenceandDeformedConfiguration
Theaboveresultstellsushowapointdisplacesfromthereferencetothedeformedconfiguration.However,wewouldalsoliketoknowhowa
pieceofmaterial,again,aninfinitesimalpiece,isstretchedandrotatedasthebodymovesfromthereferencetothedeformedconfiguration.The
infinitesimalmaterialvectorinthereferenceconfiguration,dx',isshowninredinthereferenceconfiguration.Thematerialvectorafterithas
beenstretchedandrotated,dx,isshowninredinthedeformedconfigurationbelow:

Sincethelengthofdx'canchangewhengoingtothedeformedconfigurationaswellasitsorientation,wecansaythatdx'deformsintodx.The
questionthenbecomeshowtorelatedxinthedeformedconfigurationintodx'ofthereferenceconfiguration.Thiscanreadilybedonethrough
thechainruleas:

Theaboveequationgivesarelationshipbetweenamaterialvectorintheundeformedanddeformedconfiguration.Wedefinethemappingitself
asthedeformationgradienttensor:

whereFijisthedeformationgradienttensor.WeknowbytherulesofindexnotationthatFisasecondordertensor,sinceithastwoindependent
indices.ItisalsoimportanttonotethatFISNOTSymmetric.Wecanalsowritethedeformationgradienttensorinmatrixformatas:

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III.D.RelatingtheDisplacementVectorandDeformationGradientTensor
Wenowhavetwoentitiesthatrelatequantitiesinthereferenceconfigurationtothedeformedconfiguration:thedisplacementvectorandthe
deformationgradienttensor.Thenextlogicalquestioniswhetherthesequantitiesthemselveshaveanyconnection.First,letusbeginwiththe
displacementvectorthatrelatesapositioninthereferenceconfigurationtoapositioninthedeformedconfiguration:

Theaboveequationactuallyrepresentstherelationshipbetweenthethreecoordinatesinareferenceanddeformedconfiguration:

Nowletusdifferentiateeachonoftheaboveequationswithrepectto

,and

Let'sfirstlookatandgroupthelefthandsideofthedifferentiateddisplacementrelationship.Ifwegroupalltheseterms,weendupwiththe
deformationgradienttensor.Now,let'stakealookatthefirsttermontherighthandsideineachoftheaboveequations.Ifwegrouptheseterms
inamatrix,weobtain:

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Letuslookmorecarefullyateachentryintheabovematrix.Obviously,ifwedifferentiatesomethingwithrespecttoitselfweget1.Thus,the
diagonaloftheabovematrixwillallhaveones.Foralltheoffaxisterms,wearedifferentiatingaonecoordinatepositionwithrespecttooneof
thetwoothercoordinatepositions.Sinceonecoordinateposition(e.g.1,2,3)doesnotdependontheothercoordinatepositions,thesetermsare
allzero.Thisleavesuswiththeidentitymatrix,whichisequivalenttothekroneckerdelta2ndordertensorwedefinedinthesectionon
mathematicalpreliminaries:

Finally,weconsiderthetermontherighthandsideofthedifferentiateddisplacementequation.Wecanalsowritethisinamatrixfromas:

Wecanalsorecognizefromthemathematicalpreliminarysectionthattheaboveentityisthegradientofthedisplacement.Wecantherefore
recognizethatdifferentiatingthedisplacementequationwithrespectto

,and

givesusthedeformationgradienttensorbeing

equaltothekroneckerdeltasecondordertensorplusthegraidentofthedisplacement.Thisrelationshipiswritteninbothmatrixandindex
notationbelow:
MatrixNotation:

IndexNotation:

IIIEDecomposingtheDeformationGradientTensorinStretchandRotationTensors
Aswenotedearlier,thedeformationgradienttensorincludesbothrigidbodyanddeformationmodes.Therefore,weshouldbeableto
decomposethedeformationgradientintorigidbodyanddeformationcomponents.Sincetranslationdoesnotchangeanyvectororits
components,wecanthereforeconcludethatthedeformationgradienttensorcontainsonlydeformationplusrotationcomponents.Toverifythis,
considerpuretranslation.Inthiscase,wemaywritedirectlyxintermsofx'plusatranslationalcomponent:

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Ifweplugtheabovetranslationcomponentintothedeformationgradienttensordefinitionwehave:

Inpuretranslation,allpointsinthebodywillmovethesameamountineachofthethreeorthogonaldirections.Thismeansthats1,s2,ands3
willnotdifferatdifferentpointsinthebody.Thus,thegradientsofs1,s2ands3withrespecttox'willallbezero.Thisleavesuswiththefact
thatthedeformationgradienttensoristheidentityunderpuretranslation:

wealsonotthatwhenthereisnodisplacementatallthedeformationgradienttensorwillalsobeequaltotheidentitytensor.Thus,the
deformationgradienttensordoesnotdistinguishbetweenstatesoftranslation.
Thus,weknowthatthedeformationgradienttensorwillonlycontaintherigidbodymodeofrotationinadditiontostretch.Wetherefore
postulatewithoutproofthatthedeformationgradienttensorcanbedecomposedintoarotationmultipledbystretchorastretchmultipliedby
rotation.LetusdenotetherotationtensorbyR.Ifwedecomposethedeformationgradienttensorsuchthatwerotatefirstandthenstretch,we
denotethisstretchtensorbyU.Wethereforecanwritethisdecompositionas:

Ifwefirststretchandthenrotate,wedenotethestretchtensorbyV,andcanwritethedecompositonas:

Graphically,wecanrepresentthisdecompositionas:

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Wefurthernotethattherotationtensorhasspecialproperties,namelythatitisorthogonal.Thismeansthatthetransposeoftherotationtensor
multipliedbyitselfwillgivetheidentitytensor:

Thispropertywillplayaroleinthedefinitionofotherdeformationtensors,whichthemselvesplayasignificantroleindefinitionofmany
constitutiveequations.
IV.DefinitionofLargeDeformationorFiniteStrainTensorandotherDeformationTensorsintermsoftheDeformationGradient
Tensor
Oncewehavedefinedreferenceconfiguration,deformedconfiguration,displacement,anddeformationgradienttensor,wecanderivethe
largestraintensor.Wecannotusethedeformationgradienttensorasastrainmeasuredirectlybecauseitcancontainrigidbodymodeslike
translationandrotation.Forastraintensor,ourgoalistoobtainsomemeasurethechangeinlengthofamaterial.Onewaytomeasurelengthis
totakethedotproductofthematerialvectorweusedwhendefiningthedeformationgradientwithitself.Thus,thelengthsquaredds'^2ofthe
materialvectorinthereferenceconfigurationis:

Wecanlikewisewritethelengthsquaredofthematerialvectords^2inthedeformedconfigurationas:

Thestraintensorshouldbeameasureofhowmuchthematerialvectorinthereferenceconfigurationisstretchedintothedeformed
configuration.Wewouldessentiallylikethestrainmeasuretooperateonthematerialvectorinthereferenceconfigurationandgeneratethe
differenceinthesquareofthelengthsofthematerialvector.Wemaywritethisideaincompactindexnotationas:

Notethattheaboveequationrepresentsthedifferencetwoscalars,thesquareofthelengthofmaterialvectorsinthereferenceanddeformed
configuration.Ifweexpandthisequationwecanseethismoreclearly:

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NotethatE,whichwillbedefinedasthelargedeformationorfinitestraintensor,has9componentsin3Dmakingita2ndordertensor.Two
thirdsofthestrainequationaboveiswrittenintermsofdx'.Therefore,todefineEijwewillneedtowritethesquareofthelengthofthematerial
vectorinthedeformedconfigurationalsointermsofthereferenceconfigurationvectordx'.Onewaywecandothisistousethedeformation
gradienttensor,whichgivesthematerialvectordxinthedeformedconfigurationintermsofthematerialvectordx'inthereference
configuration.Wealsoneedtowritetherelationshipusingthedeformationgradienttensorsuchthatweobtainpreandpostmultiplicationby
dx'ianddx'j,respectively.First,sincethequantitydxidxiisascalarwithrepeatedordummyindices,itdoesn'tmatterifwewritetherepeated
indexwithi,j,k,oranyotherletter,itwillproducethesameresult.So,letuswritethedotproductwithak:

Next,wecanwritethedeformedconfigurationmaterialvectorintermsofthedeformationgradienttensorandthereferenceconfiguration
materialvectorsas:

Thisgivesusthedx'jpostmultiplicationterm.NotethatifwechangetheorderofFanddx',thiswillnotchangetheresult.Also,sincejisa
repeatedordummyindexintheaboveequation,wecanreplaceitwithanyotherrepeatedindex,includingi.Ifwecarryouttheseoperations,
weobtain:

JusttoshowthattheFkjdx'jandthedx'iFkigiveequivalentexpressions,wewillexpandeachexpression.For

For

wehave:

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wecanseethatthetwoaboveequationsareequivalent.Wecannowsubstitutetheexpressionswiththedeformationgradientintothestrain
equationtoobtain:

ThelasttaskindefiningEijistosomehowrewritethedx'idx'itermasadx'idx'jterm.Todothis,wecansimplyapplytheKroneckerdeltaas:

Wecanexpandtheaboverelationshipas:

whichshowsthatmultiplyingbythekroneckerdeltagivesusbacktheoriginalquantity.Wecannowsubstituteinforthekroneckerdeltaterm
intothelargestrainequationtogive:

Wenotethattheaboverelationshipcanbeseparatedintermsofdx'ias:

sincebothdx'ianddx'jarenonzeroandarbitrary,thenthequantityinthebracketmustbezero.Thisgives:

Wedividebytwotocomeupwithourfinaldefinitionofthefinitestraintensorintermsofthedeformationgradienttensoras:

Wewillexpandtheaboveexpressionforonenormalandoneshearstress.First,considerthenormalstressE11.Inthiscase,iandjarefixedat
1.However,kintheaboveisarepeatedordummyindex,andthereforetermsmustbesummedoverk.Thus,wecanwrite:

WealsoshowanexampleoftheshearstrainE12:

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Inadditiontothefinitestraintensor,otherdeformationtensorsareofterndefinedintermsofthedeformationgradienttensor.Anoftenused
deformationmeasure,especiallyinhyperelasticconstitutivetensorsusedtocharacterizesofttissues,istherightCauchydeformationtensor.
Thisisdefinedas:

TherightCauchydeformationtensorcanalsobedefinedinmatrixformas:

WecanexpandboththeindexandmatrixnotationoftherightCauchydeformationtensoras:

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BycloselyexaminingtheexplicitexpressionforC,wecanseethatCissymmeric,thatisCij=Cji.
InadditiontotherightCauchydeformationtensor,wecandefinetheleftCaucydeformationtensorinbothindexandmatrixformas:

WecansimilarlyexpandtheleftCauchydeformationtensoras:

FromtherightandleftCauchydeformationtensors,wecanfurtherdefinerelationshipsbetweenthesetensorsandthestretchtensors.First,
considerthedefinitionoftherightCauchy:

WenextsubtitutethepolardecompositionofFforeachFintheaboveequation:

However,weknowthatsinceRisanorthogonaltensor,wehavethefollowingrelationship:

ThisresultshowsthattherightCauchydeformationtensorisequaltothesquareoftherightstretchtensor.Likewise,wecanshowthattheleft
CauchyDeformationtensoris:

ThusgivingthattheleftCauchyDeformationtensoristhesquareoftheleftstretchtensor.
WecanfurthermorefindtheeigenvaluesofbothUandV.TheeigenvaluesofUarecalledtheprincipalstretches.Theseareusedtoconstruct
someconstitutiveequations.
V.DefinitionoftheFiniteStrainTensorintermsofdisplacementgradient,comparisontothesmallstraintensor
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Inthefinalpartofthissection,wewillderivethefinitestraintensorintermsofthedisplacementgradient,justasthesmallstraintensor
wasdefinedintermsofthedisplacementgradient.Wewillthenbeabletocomparethesmallstrainandfinitestraintensor.Tobegin,recallthat
wecanwritethedeformationgradienttensorintermsofthedisplacementgradientas:

Wecanalsowritethefinitestraintensorintermsofthedeformationgradienttensoras:

NowletuswriteeachdeformationgradienttensorintermsofthedeformationgradienttensorwiththeindicesFkiandFkj:

Ifwesubstitutetheseexpressionsintothefinitestraintensorwrittenintermsofthedeformationgradient,weobtain:

Expandingtheabovestrainexpression,wehave:

Nowlet'slookateachtermofthisexpression,startingwiththetermwithkroneckerdelta'smultipliedtogether.Wecanexpandthisas:

Lookingattheexpansion,weseethattheproductofthekroneckordeltasitselfleavesakroneckerdelta.Infact,whenaquantityismultipliedby
aKroneckerdelta,weactuallyexchangethenonrepeatedindex:

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Substitutingthiskroneckerdeltaintothestrainexpressiongive:

Leavinguswith:

Next,weturnourattentiontotheterm

.Again,wecanexpandthisforiandj,summingoverk:

Herewenotethattheresultingdisplacementgradientindicesmatchthoseofiandj.Thus,weseeagainthattheresultofoperatingonaquantity
withthekroneckerdeltaallowsustoreplacethesummedorrepeatedindexoftheproductwiththeremainingfreeindependentindexofthe
kroneckerdelta:

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Wecanclearlydothesameindexswappingwiththeotherdisplacementtermthatismultipliedwithakroneckerdelta:

Ifwesubstitutetheseresultsintothestraintensor,weobtainthefinitestraintensorintermsofdisplacementgradients:

Now,recallingthesmallstraintensorwehave:

Wenotetwomajordifferencesbetweenthesmallandfinitestraintensor.First,thefinitestraintensorcontainsaquadraticproductofthe
displacementgradient.Thismakesthefinitestraintensornonlinear.Also,notethatunlikethesmallstraintensor,wedidnotmakeany
assumptionsaboutthesizeofdeformationforthelargestraintensor.Thus,thelargestraintensorisexactforanydeformationstate.Thesmall
straintensordoesnotcontainthequadraticterms,andisthereforealinearizedversionofthesmallstraintensor.Anothersubtlebutcriticalpoint
tonoteisthatthefinitestraintensordisplacementgradientsaretakenwithrespecttothereferencecoordinatesx'.Thesmallstraintensor
displacementgradientsaretakenwithrespecttothedeformedcoodinatesx.Thisisacriticaldifference,especiallywhenweconsiderthatstress
andstraintensorsmustbematchedtoproduceacorrectexpressionforenergy.SinceboththeCauchystresstensorandthesmallstraintensor
aredefinedinthedeformedcoordinatesystem,theyareenergeticallyconjugate.However,forthefinitestraintensor,sinceitisdefinedinthe
referencecoordinatesystem,weneedtoderiveanewstresstensor.Also,definingnewstresstensorsisalsoimportantwhenwelookatmaterials
ortissuesthatundergolargedeformation,sincetheseproblemsareinherentlynonlinear.Therefore,fortheseproblemsweneedtowritenotonly
newstresstensors,butanewstressequilibriumequation.Wetaketheseissuesupinthenextsection.Finally,aswementioned,wehave
developed9newequations,but12newunkowns.
EquationsType

#ofEquations

UnknownQuantity

#Unknowns

IndependentUnknowns

Equilibrium

StrainDisplacement

stressij
straineij,displacementui

12

Thus,eventhoughwehaveconsideredbothstressbalanceandkinematics(displacementsandstrains),westilldonothaveadeterminate
system.Weneedtorelatestressandstraintoclosetheloopandmakethesystemsdeterminate.Thisiswherethenatureofthematerialortissue
playsarole,sincethisnaturedeterminestherelationshipbetweenstressandstrainweuse,knownastheconstitutiverelationship.
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