Plasma

membrane

semi-permeable
regulates the movement of substance

Cytoplasm

biochemical reactions and living process

occurs

Cell wall

mechanical strength and support plant

cells

Vacuoles

plant elongation

Nucleus

controls the activities of the cell

Mitochondria

release energy and sites for cellular

respiration

Ribosomes

sites for protein synthesis

Endoplasmic
reticulum

Smooth ER
synthesize lipids
Rough ER
transport proteins

Golgi apparatus

processing, packaging and transport

centre

Lysosomes

digestive compartments in a cell

Centrioles (animal
cell)

cell division

Chloroplasts

captures energy for photosynthesis

UNICELLULAR

non-organelles

CELL COMPONENTS

CHAPTER 2: CELL STRUCTURE AND CELL ORGANISATION

(Amoeba sp.)

Amoeba live in freshwater

Constantly changing shape in response to stimuli
Use pseudopodium (false feet) for movement and feeding
Cytoplasm is 2 layers, inner (endoplasm) and outer (ectoplasm)
Pseudopodia also used for eating, surrounding food (phagocytosis), packaging it in a
food vacuole and digests it with lysozyme (lysosome
enzyme)
Exchange of substances through plasma membrane
Os moregul a ti on
by diffusion

Water goes into the cell by osmosis and fills the

Regul a te wa ter
contractile vacuole, when full, blows out the water
from time to time(osmoregulation)
Amoeba sp. reproduces by binary fission, but
produces spores when cannot do binary fission
MULTICELLULAR
1. Cells grow, change shape and differentiate in multicellular organisms.
2. Mature cells carry out different functions, like different medical specialists are experts
in their field, like a cardiologist in the heart, the neurologist in the brain, etc.
3. They undergo specialization to carry out their functions more efficiently.
4. Organisation is in this form:

Cell

Tissue

Organ

System

Multicellular
Organism

5. Cells that carry out a function are grouped into tissues.

6. Different tissues that carry out a function are grouped into an organ.
7. Several organs that contribute to one section of an organisms functions (circulatory,
8.

muscular) are grouped into a system.

Several systems make up an organism.

ANIMALS
There are 4 main types of tissue in an animal:

Tissues in animals

Muscle tissues
(movement)
Epithelial

tissues
protection,
secretion and
absorption

Smooth muscle
(intestine, blood
vessels, urinary and
reproductive tract)
Skeletal muscle
(arms and legs)

Cardiac muscle
(heart walls)

Connective tissues
(bind structure,
provide support and
protection)
- Tendons
-Ligaments
- Cartilage
- Bones
- Blood
Fat cells

PLANTS
Two main types of tissue in plants:
Meristematic tissue
o Consists of small cells with thin walls, large nuclei, dense cytoplasm and
no vacuoles
o Young, actively dividing cells, undifferentiated, located at root tips and
shoot buds
Permanent tissue
o Differentiated/partly differentiated mature tissues
o Three types of permanent tissue:
Epidermal tissue
Ground tissue (parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma)
Vascular tissue ( xylem tissue, phloem tissue)

Nerve
tissues (transmit
nerve impulses,
control and
coordiante body
activities)
- neurons
dendrites and
axons

Tissues work together to perform a specific function. These are called organs. Examples
are lungs, heart, kidneys, brain etc.
Example: The skin:
Consists of various tissues joined together
2 main layers, the epidermis and the dermis
Epidermis is made of epithelial tissue, which constantly divides
Dermis is made of connective, nerve, epithelial and muscle tissue
Blood is supplied through blood capillary network
Nerve endings are scattered throughout the skin, transmit impulses to nervous
system
Epithelial cells produce hair follicles, sweat glands and oil glands

Organs in plants are leaf, stem, root and flower.

Systems are root and shoot systems.
o Root system all plant roots.
o Shoot system stem, leaf, bud, flower and fruit.
Stem, branch for support system.
Leaf for photosynthesis.
Flowers for pollination.

Internal environment consists of blood plasma, interstitial fluid and lymph.

Physical factors include temperature, blood pressure and osmotic pressure.
Chemical factors include pH, salt and sugar content.
Homeostasis is maintenance of constant internal environment for optimal cell
performance.
Any change in the internal environment will cause homeostasis to kick in and
work to cancel the change. This is governed by the negative feedback
mechanism.

CHAPTER 3: MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCE ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

The structure of the plasma membrane (fluid mosaic model)

Function: regulates the exchange of
Hydrophilic head
substance between the content of a cell and the
external environment
A polar head is attracted to water
Hydrophobic tails
A pair of non- fatty acid tails is repelled by
water
The pl asma membrane is
generally described as s emipermeable or selectively
permeable because it only l ets
certa i n substances through.

Wa ter s oluble s ubstances such as

gl ucose and amino a cids and ions
need to aid by ca rrier protein.

Lipid-soluble molecules (A,D,E,K,

glycerol)
Water
Small uncharged molecules (O 2 and CO 2 )

Differences between Passive Transport and Active Transport

PT (osmosis, facilitated and simple
AT
diffusion)
Does not require energy
Require energy from cell respiration
Substances move with concentration
Substances move against concentration
gradient
gradient
Will continue until an equilibrium is
Process leads to accumulation or
reached
elimination of the substance from the
cell

Osmosis
The movement of water
molecules from region of their
higher concentration to a
region of their lower
concentration through a semipermeable membrane.

Wa ter molecules can move across

pl a sma membrane.

Molecules that can move freely across

the plasma membrane by simple
diffusion

Movement of substance across the plasma membrane

Molecules that cannot move freely

across the plasma membrane and require
the aid of transport protein (pore
proteins and carrier protein)
Water-soluble molecules (glucose, amino
acids)
+
+
2+
Inorganic ions ( K , Na , Ca )

Simple diffusion
The movement of particles
(molecules or solutes) within a gas
or a liquid from a region of high
concentration to a region of lower
concentration.

Facilitated diffusion
The movement of hydrophilic
molecules or ions across the
plasma membrane with the help
of transport proteins.

Active transport
The movement of particles across
the plasma membrane against the
concentration gradient, that is
from a region of low
concentration to a region of high
concentration.

Isotonic

water diffuses into

and out of the cell at
equal rate
no net movement
of water

Normal cell
shape

Hypertonic

water diffuses out

of the cell by osmosis
the cell shrinks

Crenation

Hypotonic

Isotonic
Solutions with equal
solute concentration

Solutions

Hypotonic

Hypertonic
Solution with a
higher solute
concentration

Hypotonic
Solution with lower
solute concentration

ANIMAL CELLS
Observation
Discussion
water diffuses into
the cell by osmosis
the cell swell up
and eventually burst

Turgid

Isotonic

Water diffuses into

and out of the cell at
equal rates.

Normal cell
shape

Hypertonic

Water diffuses out

of the large central
vacuole by osmosis.
Both the vacuole
and cytoplasm lose
water to
surroundings and
shrink.
The plasma
membrane pulls away
from the cell

Plasmolysis.
The plant
cell becomes
flaccid and
less turgid.

Condition

Haemolysis

PLANT CELLS
Water diffuses into
the large central
vacuole by osmosis.
The large central
vacuole expands,
causing the cell to
swell.

CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE CELL

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE CELL

Chemical compounds
(more than two elements)

Elements
(one atom)

Organic
( Carbon and
hydrogen)

Inorganic
(x carbon)
(eg: water)

The Effects and Applications Of Osmosis In Everyday Life

1. Wilting of plants
Problems can arise if chemical fertilisers are added in excess to the soil.
The soil solution becomes hypertonic to the cell sap of the root hair cells.
Water moves out of the plant by osmosis.
When flaccidity spreads throughout the plant, wilting occurs.
2.

Preservation of foods
Food can be preserved by using salt or sugar.
When salt or sugar is added to the food, it creates a hypotonic condition
for the microorganisms that spoil the food.
Water passes out from the microorganisms into the concentrated
solution. This results in slower growth of the microorganisms or even
death.

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Monosaccharides

Fats

Disaccharides

Oils

Polysaccharides

Proteins

Nucleic acid

Enzymes

Waxes

Phospholipids

Steroids

Carbohydrates
(C,H,O)

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
1. Primary source of energy
2. Monosaccharides (Glucose, Fructose, Galactose)
a. Reducing sugars
3. Disaccharides ( Maltose, Sucrose, Lactose)
a. Joined together through condensation
b. Break down by adding water (hydrolysis)
c. Maltose & lactose ( reducing sugar)

Lipids (C,H,O)

Proteins (C,H,O,N)

Nucleic acids (DNA

and RNA)

Water

Sucrose (non-reducing sugar)

4. Polysaccharides ( Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen)
1. Fats and Oils
a. 1 glycerol: 3 fatty acids (saturated or unsaturated)
2. Waxes
3. Phospholipids (plasma membrane)
4. Steroids
a. Include cholesterol and hormones (progesterone,
testosterone, oestrogen)
1. Made up of one or more polypeptides (monomers: amino
acids Essential and non-essential)
2. Broken down into amino acids by hydrolysis
3. Protein structures: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary
1. Store genetic information)
2. Basic units ( nucleotides)
a. Nitrogenous base
b. Pentose sugar
c. Phosphate group
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
1. A polar molecule
2. Functions:
a. Medium for biochemical reactions
b. Solvent
c. Transport medium
d. Providing support and moisture
e. Maintain body temperature
f. Lubrication
g. Maintaining osmotic balance and turgidity
h. High surface tension and cohesion

ENZYMES:
Metabolism (anabolism and catabolism)
Consists of intracellular and extracellular
Biological catalysts
Proteins
Naming: -ase
Uses:
o Food processing
o Tenderising meat
o Detergent manufacturing

General
charateristic

Bind with substrate to produce product

Not changed or destroyed

Highly specific
Needed in small amounts
Metabolic reactions: Reversible

The activities can be slowed down or inhibited

Require cofactors to function

Mechanism
(Lock and Key)

Factors
affecting the
activity of
enzymes

pH
Optimum pH (enzymatic reaction rate is the fastest)
Changing in pH, changing the charges on active site causing
reducing the ability of both molecules to bind

Temperature, C
Low C, slow reaction
the temperature every 10 C, the reaction is doubled until the
optimum temperature is reached
Max C will causing the enzyme to denatured
Substrate concentration, [subs]
Low [subs], rate of reaction increases with the [subs]
Increase [subs], more products are formed, increase rate of
reaction
Constant rate, enzyme is saturated, all active sites are filled up
Enzyme concentration, [enzyme]
reaction rate is directyly proportion to the [enzyme] until
maximum rate is achieved