TOPOLOGY

Network design or Architecture The way a network is physically connected together. It

has effect on network selection and management.
Common topology are: Star, Ring, Bus, Distributed Star.
Factors that influence choice of topology:- The complexity & cost of network cable installation
- Redundant, or fail-safe design
- Fault isolation
- Strategy for physically expanding and reconfiguring the network.
Ring - Provides redundancy through the use of a backup cable path which can be used
for
network reconfiguration resulting from media failure.
- Provides built-in hardware features to isolate failed station loops from the active
ring.
Star It is the superior choice for fault detection and isolation.
Bus More difficult to diagnose since there is no built-in means to isolate faulty cable
segments

ARCHITECTURE OR TOPOLOGIES (LAN

Network designs have three categories : Star network, Ring network, and Bus network.
- A Star network: Contains a central connecting device called or Hub or Switch and
one or more workstations connected to the central device, forming a Star.
The Star arrangement is logical. e.g. Ethernet 10 Base T, Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM).
- In a Ring network, there is no central system, rather, a series of computer systems
communicate with one another from one node to the next node in one direction only
(closed loop). The ring arrangement is logical e.g. IBM Token Ring, Fibre Distributed
Data Interconnect (FDDI).
- The Bus network is a kind of Broadcast topology characterised by a single
communication channel shared by all communicating computers e.g. consists of a
single, long cable to which computers attach.
In the Bus network, one computer is allowed to transmit message onto the bus while
others are required to receive or not to transmit, at any one time e.g. Ethernet
Thicknet and Thinnet (10 Base 2)
In the Bus network, the message usually bears the address of the intended receivers so
that others will share it.

Star - Asynchrous Transfer Mode (ATM) uses an electronic switch or a hub to

which computers are attached by means of fibre optics cables.
- Twisted Pair Ethernet (10 Base T)
Twisted pair wiring

Hub/
Switch

Ring IBM Token Ring Concept of TOKEN (Broadcasting)

- Fibre Distributed Data Interconnect (FDDI)
- Copper Distributed Data Interconnect (CDDI)
- Uses two layers of rings in a counter rotating form. Outer carries data, while inner is used when the
outer ring fails.
Bus Ethernet Thicknet & Thinnet (Broadcasting)
* Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
* Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision
1st Collision applies a delay of o to d
Subsequent collision applies a delay of o to nd where n is an even
factor this scheme is referred to as the Binary Exponential Back off

HARDWARE ADDRESSING IN LAN & FRAME TYPE IDENTIFICATION

LAN Technologies use an Addressing Scheme to provide direct communication.
Each workstation on the LAN is assigned a unique numeric value called a PHYSICAL ADDRESS, HARDWARE
ADDRESS or MEDIA ACCESS ADDRESS (MAC ADDRESS)
Each Packet or Data Frame transmitted from a Workstation on a LAN consists of two address fields SOURCE
address field, DESTINATION address field.
Senders address makes it easy for the receiver to generate a reply to the sender in case of errors or for
acknowledgement.
Categories of Addressing
Static: Hardware manufacturer-assigned. Does not change except NIC is changed.
Configurable: provides a mechanism for users to set the address manual through setting of switches or electronic
using EPROM. Configuration usually done once when NIC is first installed.
Dynamic: A physical address is assigned to a workstation when the workstation first boots. It uses a random number
that does not correspond to any other workstation's address.
Unicasting - a single destination address
Broadcasting makes a copyof message available to all connected computers on the network. A reserved BROADCAST
address is needed in the DESTINATION field e.g. 11111111 could specify broadcast & 10000001 the stations
address
i.e. either address in the destination field could lead to forwarding of the packet to receiving hosts Operating System.
Multicasting A restricted form of Broadcasting. NIC is programmed with specs of which multicast frames
i.e. destination addresses to accept or reject.

Packet Frame
Syn

Dest Addr

Source Addr

Packet / Frame formats

Frame Header

Frame type

Data

Error Checking code

Frame Data Area or Payload

General format
Frame header contains info. Such as Source & Destination addresses.
Frame Data Area or Payload contains information or message being sent.
Preamble Dest
Source
Frame
Data
CRC
Address.
Addr
type
8Bytes

6bytes

6bytes

Ethernet frame format

46-1500

INTERNETWORKING COMPONENTS & SYSTEMS

Internetworking Connecting multiple physical networks into a large, logically

uniform communication system.
Motivation
- Constraints of specific networks e.g. LANs provide high speed communication
within a short distance.
- Diverse networking requirements by large organizations implies multiple
physical networks.
- Choice of different networks suited to different tasks.
Concept of universal service:

INTERCONNECTIVITY, STANDARDS, PROTOCOLS

Network entities : Computers, Applications, Networks
Multivendor disparate products exist for these entities. For Interconnectivity & Inter-operability or
OPENNESS between diverse, disparate products, upward compatibility, there is need to have certain
common denominators in network entities design & implementation.
These common denominators are provided by many national and international organizations.
Protocol refers to rules, conventions, guidelines, agreed to/adopted by a group of stakeholders for the
design & implementation of products.
A protocol or protocol suite adopted by a group & widely circulated and accepted becomes a
STANDARD.
Standards could be :
- Dejure
- National
- Universal
- Defactor
- International
Examples of Standards and Regulations Organizations:
ISO International Standards Organization
IEEE Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers
ITU International Telecommunications Union
CCITT Consultative Committee in International Telegraphy and Telephony
NCC National Communications Commission
SON Standards Organization of Nigeria

ANSI American National Standards Institute

ECMA European Computer Manufacturers Association
DoD Department of Defense, United States of American
Develop your note on the history & functions of the above bodies especially in the areas of Computers
& Networking.
Connectivity levels / layers : Communications is made possible generally by 3 layers / levels
- Cognitive,
- Language
- Transmission

Understanding the concept

Expression
Physical means of communication

Independent layers but each depends on at least are layer for effectiveness.
OSI 9Open Systems Interconnection) reference model of ISO.
X.200 of CCITT
TCP/IP
LAN Protocols

The model is a framework for defining standards for linking heterogeneous computers.
The OSI is concerned with the exchange of information between a pair of open systems and not and
with the internal functioning of each individual system.
The OSI model/architecture has seven layers which are listed with a brief definition as follows :
* Physical Concerned with mechanical, electrical functional and procedural
characteristics of physical links
* Data link Provides for the reliable transfer of data across the physical link.
* Network - Responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating network connections
* Transport Provides reliable, transparent transfer of data between end points.
* Session Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between cooperating applications
* Presentation Performs transformations on data to provide standardised application interface e.g.
encryption, text compression.
* Application Provides services to users of the OSI environment e.g. transaction services, file
transfer etc.