FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS

MIXTURE FORMATION IN IC ENGINES

SI Engine

CI Engine

1.

External mixture formation

1. Internal mixture formation
(in the carburetor)
(by fuel injection)
2. Homogeneous fuel-air mixture
2. Heterogeneous fuel-air mixture
3. Controlled external ignition (direct)
3. Internal self ignition (no direct control)
4. Quantity control (Load control or Throttling 4. Quality control (Quality of mixture is
control of mixture)
changed by changing the air/fuel ratio)
5. Range of ignitable mixtures
5. Range of ignitable mixtures: 0.7 < < 1.7
(operating range 0.5 < < 0.8)
(operating range 0.8 < < 1.3)
Compression-ignition engines are controlled by adjusting the amount of fuel supplied to the engine,
and hence are quality governed. When adjusting the fuel supplied to a CI engine the limiting
condition is given by the smoke limit, which is the appearance of black smoke in the exhaust.
Engines should not be operated with mixtures rich enough to produce smoke, although such a
mixture may give a greater power output. The efficiency under these conditions is low, and the
engine soon becomes dirty. The smoke limit occurs at about = 0.9. Spark-ignition engines are
quantity governed by the opening or closing of a throttle valve which regulates the mass flow of
charge to the cylinders. Some gas engines are throttled by alteration of the lift of the admission
valve, and this can be controlled from the engine governor. The governed speed can be adjusted to
select any value in its range. The maximum power can be achieved with slightly rich mixture ( =
1.2) whereas, maximum economy with slightly lean mixture ( = 0.9). In principle, the optimum
air/fuel ratio for a spark-ignition engine is that which gives the required power output with the
lowest fuel consumption, consistent with smooth and reliable operation. In practice, the
constraints of emissions control may dictate a different air/fuel ratio, and may also require the
recycling of a fraction of the exhaust gases (EGR) into the intake system. The relative proportions
of fuel and air that provide the lowest fuel consumption, smooth reliable operation, and satisfy
the emissions requirements, at the required power level, depend on engine speed and load.
Mixture requirements are different for full-load (WOT) and for part-load operation. At the fullload operating condition, complete utilization of the inducted air to obtain maximum power for a
given displaced volume is the critical issue. Where less than the maximum power at a given speed
is required, efficient utilization of the fuel is the critical issue.
Simple Approach
Power developed by the engine at constant speed and wide open throttle:

Maximum power is reached at each engine speed when all the air in the cylinder is most
effectively consumed. Fuel flow is increased until all oxygen is consumed (with best spark timing).

Minimum specific fuel consumption is reached at each engine speed when all the fuel in the
cylinder is most effectively consumed. Fuel flow is decreased for best sfc (with best spark timing).
Actual Approach
Actual air-fuel mixture requirements in an operating engine vary considerably from ideal conditions
upon which simple hypothetical carburetors were based. The carburetor must modify the A/F ratio to
satisfy these demands.
Idling and Low Load Range
An engine is said to be idle when it is disconnected from external source with nearly closed throttle
(020% of power). Rich mixture is required due to maximum exhaust gas dilution of fresh charge ( 1.3).
Cruising Range
In the economy or cruising range the exhaust gas problem is relatively insignificant. The primary
Page 1 of 16

interest lies in obtaining the maximum fuel economy (2075% of power, 0.80.9).
Power Range
When the throttle is fully opened, the mixture must be enriched to cater for the requirements of power
range (75100% of power, 1.2).
Transient conditions
Transient conditions are those conditions under which speed, load, temperature or pressure changes
rapidly. The principle transient conditions are: starting, warming up, acceleration and deceleration.
Air-fuel ratios that the automobile carburetors have to deliver at transient engine operation is different
due to different reasons.
Starting & Warm Up ( up to 3)
While starting from cold an extra rich mixture is required due to maximum exhaust gas dilution and
less ratio of evaporated fuel to air under cold conditions.
Acceleration ( 1.8)
Under steady running conditions an equilibrium condition is set up as the same amount of fuel and air
per minute enters the cylinder as leaves the carburetor. However when the throttle is suddenly opened
the liquid fuel supplied to the carburetor throat lags behind so the cylinder temporarily receives lean
mixture while the actual demand of the engine is rich mixture to get more instantaneous power, for
acceleration. Therefore to compensate for the temporary leaning additional fuel must be supplied.
FLAMMABILITY LIMIT
Flammability Limits Flame
FUELS
Velocity
Flammability limit may be interpreted as the range
Lower
Upper
(m/s)
of mixture strength over which the fuel is
combustible
following
localized
ignition.
Hydrogen
0.1
6.8
3.50
Laboratory experiments show that a flame will
Methane
0.5
1.7
0.43
propagate only within a range of air/fuel mixtures
0.5
2.5
0.47
strength i.e. between the so called lower and upper Propane
0.6
2.9
0.45
limits of flammability. The lower limit is the Butane
0.7
1.7
0.50
leanest mixtures ( < 1), while the upper limit is the Gasoline
Methanol
0.5
4.0
0.55
richest mixture ( > 1). Table gives flammability
Ethanol
0.6
3.3
0.52
limits and laminar flame velocity of various fuels.
FUEL SYSTEMS
The purpose of an engine fuel system is to provide the cylinder with a mixture of fuel and air in the
correct proportions for the engine requirements at any particular instant. There are basically two
methods available, one is called carburetion and is used for SI engines and the other is a type of
fuel injection which is a characteristic method for diesel engines. There are many different
designs of each. There are two types of fuel metering systems in SI Engines: conventional fuel
metering systems (mechanical fuel metering system: carburetor system); advanced fuel metering
systems (electronic fuel metering: EFI system). The SI engines for automotive purposes has been
developed on the basis of the carburettor although fuel injection is becoming more common, the
latter having been used for a long time for aircraft and special engines, such as military vehicles
and racing cars. The carburettor is a simple, cheap device which has served its purpose for many
years, but the trend to higher powered, multicylinder engines has shown the single carburettor
system to be inadequate. As a consequence multichoke carburettors and twin or triple carburettor
layouts have been used to meet increasingly sophisticated engine requirements, but several
designs of petrol injection systems have also been introduced. Oil injection system has good
control, accurate fuel metering, and good fuel consumption as compared to carburettor system
which has poor fuel consumption particularly at part load. In general the fundamental problem is
to measure, or compute accurately, the mass flow rate of air into the engine at any instant and to
mix the correct amount of petrol into it in such a way that the air and fuel mixture produced is
right for engine running condition. In an engine air flow rates, pressures and temperatures change;
also the engine is in dynamic operation with phases of acceleration and deceleration. Thus a fuel
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supply system, to be successful, must be able to cope with a wide range of running conditions and
demands.
CARBURETION
The term carburetion covers the whole process of applying continuously to a petrol engine mixture of
vaporised fuel and air which is suitable to each engine condition of load, speed, and temperature.
The function of the carburettor is to measure out the correct proportions of liquid fuel and air for
the particular engine condition. The liquid fuel must be atomized at the carburetor (i.e. broken up
into a fine spray to assist in the evaporation of the fuel, so that the mixture entering the cylinders
is homogeneous). The fuel leaves the Carburetor and travels through the manifold in three forms:
as vapor; as liquid droplets suspended in the air stream; as a liquid film on the manifold wall. As
the work of an engine is directly dependent on the mass of air inducted, for this reason complete
vaporization of the fuel in the manifold is not desired since the vaporized fuel would displace air.
On the other hand, too little vaporization in the manifold may lead to poor distribution of the fuel
from cylinder to cylinder. Based on experience, a figure of 60% vaporization in the manifold at
wide-open throttle will be selected as the optimum value for acceptable distribution and good
power. However at part throttle operation (here maximum power is not the objective) a complete
vaporization is the requirement for good distribution and good fuel economy.
Figure shows a simplified carburetion system.
The fuel enters the float chamber (D), the
function of which is to maintain a constant level
of fuel in the chamber by shutting off the supply
when this level is about to exceed. The float
chamber is vented to atmosphere through a small
hole in the cover, hence the pressure on the
surface of the fuel is constant and equal to that of
the atmosphere. The air is induced by the
depression created by the piston moving
downwards in the engine cylinder, and, after
passing through a filter, enters the carburetor at
about atmospheric pressure. The petrol engine is
quantity governed, which means that when less
power is required at a particular speed the amount
of charge delivered to the cylinders is reduced.
This is achieved by means of a throttle valve (B)
of the butterfly type which is situated in the air
inlet. The air on induction enters the venturi (A)
or choke tube. This is a tube of decreasing crosssection which reaches a minimum at the throat or
choke of the venturi, which is shaped to give the
minimum resistance to the airflow. The fuel
discharge jet is situated at the throat and is
subject to the air pressure there.
The pressure at the throat is below atmospheric since the air velocity has been increased from that at
inlet to the carburetor to a maximum at the throat. Thus the petrol surfaces, that in the float
chamber and that at the discharge jet are subject to different pressures. This pressure difference
acting on the fuel column causes the fuel to flow into the airstream, and the rate of flow is
controlled or metered by the size of the smallest section in the fuel passage. This is provided by
the main jet and the size of this jet is chosen to give the required engine performance, and is an
empirical selection. As the fuel flows out of the jet, it breaks into very small droplets which are
carried away by the high-velocity air. These droplets then evaporate and mix with the air in the
following intake manifold. As engine speed is increased, the higher flow rate air will create an
Page 3 of 16

even lower pressure in the venturi throat. This creates a greater pressure differential through the
fuel jet, which increases the fuel flow rate to keep up with the grater air flow rate and engine
demand. A properly designed carburettor can supply the correct air fuel ratio at all engine speeds,
from idle to wide open throttle (WOT). The throttle controls the air flow rate and thus the engine
speed. A rich mixture is required for starting and idling. There is an idle speed adjustment (F)
(throttle stop) which sets the closed throttle position such that some air can flow even at fully
closed throttle. This adjustment, which is usually about 515 of throttle plate rotation, controls
how fast the engine will run at idle conditions. Because the air flow rate through the venturi throat
will be minimal at idle conditions when the throttle is closed, the pressure in the throat will only
be slightly less than atmospheric pressure. The pressure differential through the fuel capillary tube
will be very small, resulting in a low fuel flow rate and very poor flow control. An idle valve (G)
is added which gives better fuel flow control at idle and almost closed throttle position. When the
throttle is closed or almost closed, there is a large pressure differential across the throttle plate,
and pressure in the intake system downstream of the throttle is very low. There is, therefore, a
substantial pressure drop through the idle valve, allowing for proper flow control and a greater
flow rate of fuel. Engines are usually run with a richer air-fuel mixture at low and idle speeds to
avoid misfires caused by a large exhaust residual resulting from valve overlap. Another butterfly
valve usually called the choke (H) is positioned upstream of the venturi throat. This is needed to
start cold engines. It is not really the air-fuel ratio that is important to for considering combustion,
but the air-vapor ratio; only fuel that is vaporized reacts in a combustion process. When an engine
is cold, a very small percent of fuel will vaporize in the intake and compression processes. The
fuel is cold and much more viscous, creating a lower flow rate and larger droplets which vaporize
more slowly. The metal engine parts are cold and inhibit vaporization. Even in the compression
stroke, which heats the air-fuel mixture, the cold cylinder walls absorb heat and reduce
vaporization. Engine lubrication is cold and more viscous, making the engine turn more slowly in
the starting process. As the engine turns over slowly with the starter, only a very small air flow is
generated through the carburetor. This creates only a very small pressure differential through the
fuel capillary tube and a very low flow rate. At starting conditions, the throttle is wide open, so no
substantial pressure differential is established through the idle valve. All of this creates very little
fuel evaporation, and if normal carburetor action were used, there would not be enough fuel vapor
in the cylinder to create combustion and get the engine started. For this reason, the choke (D) has
added to carburetors. When starting a cold engine, the first step is to close the choke. This restricts
air flow and creates a vacuum in the entire air intake system downstream of the choke. There is,
therefore, a large pressure differential across both the fuel capillary tube (C) and the idle valve,
causing a large fuel flow to mix with the low air flow. This gives a very rich air-fuel mixture
entering the cylinder, up to air fuel ratio 1 for very cold starts. With only a small percent of fuel
evaporating, a combustible air-vapor mixture is created, combustion occurs, and the engine starts.
Only a few engine cycles are required before everything starts to heat up and more normal
operation occurs. As the engine heats up, the choke is opened and has no effect on final steadystate operation. In modern automobile carburetors an acceleration pump is added which injects an
added quantity of fuel into the air flow when the throttle is opened quickly to give rich mixture
that assists in the acceleration process. A modern carburetor which meters the appropriate fuel
flow into the air stream over the complete engine operating range is a highly developed and
complex device. There are many types of carburetors but they may share the same basic concepts.
For example, Down Draft, Side Draft, Up Draft, Single Barrel, Multiple barrels, Double Barrels,
4- Barrels.
Deficiencies of Carburetor: The pressure drop in carburetor due to restriction in the flow passage
impairs the volumetric efficiency. In multi cylinder engines the charge supplied to various
cylinders varies in quality and quantity. Different carburetor auxiliaries fitted to the carburetors
made it a complex device. Problem of carburetor icing. Inaccurate fuel metering during cornering,
and tilted position.

Page 4 of 16

Carburetion
Spark-ignition engines normally use volatile liquid fuels. Preparation of fuel-air mixture is done
outside the engine cylinder and formation of a homogeneous mixture is normally not completed in the
inlet manifold. Fuel droplets, which remain in suspension, continue to evaporate and mix with air even
during suction and compression processes. The process of mixture preparation is extremely important
for spark-ignition engines. The purpose of carburetion is to provide a combustible mixture of fuel and
air in the required quantity and quality for efficient operation of the engine under all conditions.
Definition of Carburetion
The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture by mixing the proper amount of fuel with
air before admission to engine cylinder is called carburetion and the device which does this job is
called a carburetor.
Factors Affecting Carburetion
Of the various factors, the process of carburetion is influenced by
i.
The engine speed
ii.
The vaporization characteristics of the fuel
iii.
The temperature of the incoming air and
iv.
The design of the carburetor
Principle of Carburetion
Both air and gasoline are drawn through the carburetor and into the engine cylinders by the suction
created by the downward movement of the piston. This suction is due to an increase in the volume
of the cylinder and a consequent decrease in the gas pressure in this chamber. It is the difference in
pressure between the atmosphere and cylinder that causes the air to flow into the chamber. In the
carburetor, air passing into the combustion chamber picks up discharged from a tube. This tube has
a fine orifice called carburetor jet that is exposed to the air path. The rate at which fuel is
discharged into the air depends on the pressure difference or pressure head between the float
chamber and the throat of the venturi and on the area of the outlet of the tube. In order that the fuel
drawn from the nozzle may be thoroughly atomized, the suction effect must be strong and the
nozzle outlet comparatively small. In order to produce a strong suction, the pipe in the carburetor
carrying air to the engine is made to have a restriction. At this restriction called throat due to
increase in velocity of flow, a suction effect is created. The restriction is made in the form of a
venturi to minimize throttling losses. The end of the fuel jet is located at the venturi or throat of the
carburetor. The geometry of venturi tube is as shown in Fig. It has a narrower path at the center so
that the flow area through which the air must pass is considerably reduced. As the same amount of
air must pass through every point in the tube, its velocity will be greatest at the narrowest point.
The smaller the area, the greater will be the velocity of the air, and thereby the suction is
proportionately increased As mentioned earlier, the opening of the fuel discharge jet is usually
loped where the suction is maximum. Normally, this is just below the narrowest section of the
venturi tube. The spray of gasoline from the nozzle and the air entering through the venturi tube
are mixed together in this region and a combustible mixture is formed which passes through the
intake manifold into the cylinders. Most of the fuel gets atomized and simultaneously a small part
Page 5 of 16

will be vaporized. Increased air velocity at the throat of the venturi helps he rate of evaporation of
fuel. The difficulty of obtaining a mixture of sufficiently high fuel vapour-air ratio for efficient
starting of the engine and for uniform fuel-air ratio indifferent cylinders (in case of multi cylinder
engine) cannot be fully met by the increased air velocity alone at the venturi throat.
The Simple Carburetor
Carburetors are highly complex. Let us first understand the working principle bf a simple or
elementary carburetor that provides an air fuel mixture for cruising or normal range at a single
speed. Later, other mechanisms to provide for the various special requirements like starting, idling,
variable load and speed operation and acceleration will be included. Figure. shows the details of a
simple carburetor.

Figure: The Simple Carburetor

The simple carburetor mainly consists of a float chamber, fuel discharge nozzle and a metering
orifice, a venturi, a throttle valve and a choke. The float and a needle valve system maintain a
constant level of gasoline in the float chamber. If the amount of fuel in the float chamber falls
below the designed level, the float goes down, thereby opening the fuel supply valve and admitting
fuel. When the designed level has been reached, the float closes the fuel supply valve thus stopping
additional fuel flow from the supply system. Float chamber is vented either to the atmosphere or to
the upstream side of the venturi. During suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi. As
already described, venturi is a tube of decreasing cross-section with a minimum area at the throat,
Venturi tube is also known as the choke tube and is so shaped that it offers minimum resistance to
the air flow. As the air passes through the venturi the velocity increases reaching a maximum at the
venturi throat. Correspondingly, the pressure decreases reaching a minimum. From the float
chamber, the fuel is fed to a discharge jet, the tip of which is located in the throat of the venturi.
Because of the differential pressure between the float chamber and the throat of the venturi, known
as carburetor depression, fuel is discharged into the air stream. The fuel discharge is affected by
the size of the discharge jet and it is chosen to give the required air-fuel ratio. The pressure at the
throat at the fully open throttle condition lies between 4 to 5 cm of Hg, below atmospheric and
seldom exceeds8 cm Hg below atmospheric. To avoid overflow of fuel through the jet, the level of
Page 6 of 16

the liquid in the float chamber is maintained at a level slightly below the tip of the discharge jet.
This is called the tip of the nozzle. The difference in the height between the top of the nozzle and
the float chamber level is marked h in Fig.
The gasoline engine is quantity governed, which means that when power output is to be varied
at a particular speed, the amount of charge delivered to the cylinder is varied. This is achieved by
means of a throttle valve usually of the butterfly type that is situated after the venturi tube. As the
throttle is closed less air flows through the venturi tube and less is the quantity of air-fuel mixture
delivered to the cylinder and hence power output is reduced. As the throttle is opened, more air
flows through the choke tube resulting in increased quantity of mixture being delivered to the
engine. This increases the engine power output. A simple carburetor of the type described above
suffers from a fundamental drawback in that it provides the required A/F ratio only at one throttle
position. At the other throttle positions the mixture is either leaner or richer depending on whether
the throttle is opened less or more. As the throttle opening is varied, the air flow varies and creates
a certain pressure differential between the float chamber and the venturi throat. The same pressure
differential regulates the flow of fuel through the nozzle. Therefore, the velocity of flow of air II
and fuel vary in a similar manner. At the same time, the density I of air decrease as the pressure at
the venturi throat decrease with increasing air flow whereas that of the fuel remains unchanged.
This results in a simple carburetor producing a progressively rich mixture with increasing throttle
opening.
The Choke and The Throttle
When the vehicle is kept stationary for a long period during cool winter seasons, may be
overnight, starting becomes more difficult. As already explained, at low cranking speeds and
intake temperatures a very rich mixture is required to initiate combustion. Sometimes air-fuel ratio
as rich as 9:1 is required. The main reason is that very large fraction of the fuel may remain as
liquid suspended in air even in the cylinder. For initiating combustion, fuel-vapour and air in the
form of mixture at a ratio that can sustain combustion is required. It may be noted that at very low
temperature vapour fraction of the fuel is also very small and this forms combustible mixture to
initiate combustion. Hence, a very rich mixture must be supplied. The most popular method of
providing such mixture is by the use of choke valve. This is simple butterfly valve located between
the entrance to the carburetor and the venturi throat as shown in Fig. When the choke is partly
closed, large pressure drop occurs at the venturi throat that would normally result from the quantity
of air passing through the venturi throat. The very large depression at the throat inducts large
amount of fuel from the main nozzle and provides a very rich mixture so that the ratio of the
evaporated fuel to air in the cylinder is within the combustible limits. Sometimes, the choke valves
are spring loaded to ensure that large carburetor depression and excessive choking does not persist
after the engine has started, and reached a desired speed. This choke can be made to operate
automatically by means of a thermostat so that the choke is closed when engine is cold and goes
out of operation when engine warms up after starting. The speed and the output of an engine is
controlled by the use of the throttle valve, which is located on the downstream side of the venturi.
The more the throttle is closed the greater is the obstruction to the flow of the mixture placed in the
passage and the less is the quantity of mixture delivered to .the cylinders. The decreased quantity
of mixture gives a less powerful impulse to the pistons and the output of the engine is reduced
accordingly. As the throttle is opened, the output of the engine increases. Opening the throttle
usually increases the speed of the engine. But this is not always the case as the load on the engine
is also a factor. For example, opening the throttle when the motor vehicle is starting to climb a hill
may or may not increase the vehicle speed, depending upon the steepness of the hill and the extent
of throttle opening. In short, the throttle is simply a means to regulate the output of the engine by
varying the quantity of charge going into the cylinder
The basic purpose of using a carburetor is to:
Page 7 of 16

Measure the airflow of the engine

Deliver the correct amount of fuel to keep the air-fuel mixture in the proper range

Mix the air and fuel finely and evenly

The proper air-fuel mixture is required to be delivered to the engine cylinder at the various
commonly faced conditions during the vehicle operation, namely:

Cold start

Hot start

Idling or slow-running

Acceleration

High speed/high power at full throttle

Cruising at part throttle

The deficiencies of the elementary/early carburetor:

At low loads the mixture becomes leaner; the engine requires the mixture to be enriched at low
loads.

At intermediate loads, the mixture equivalence ratio increases slightly as the air flow increases.
The engine requires an almost constant equivalence ratio.

As the air flow approaches the maximum wide-open throttle value, the equivalence ratio
remains essentially constant. However, the mixture equivalence ratio should increase to 1.1 or
greater to provide maximum engine power.

The elementary carburetor cannot compensate for transient phenomena in the intake manifold.
Nor can it enrich the mixture during engine starting and warm-up.

The elementary carburetor cannot adjust to changes in ambient air density (due primarily to
changes in altitude).

Modern Carburetor Design:

The changes required in the elementary carburetor for better and more efficient performance are:

The main metering system must be compensated to provide essentially constant lean or
stoichiometric mixtures over the 20 to 80 percent air flow range.

An idle system must be added to meter the fuel flow at idle and light loads.

An enrichment system must be added so the engine can provide its maximum power as wideopen throttle is approached.

Page 8 of 16

An accelerator pump which injects additional fuel when the throttle is opened rapidly is
required to maintain constant the equivalence ratio delivered to the engine cylinder.

A choke must be added to enrich the mixture during engine starting and warm-up to ensure a
combustible mixture within each cylinder at the time of ignition.

Altitude compensation is required to adjust the fuel flow to changes in air density.

It is also necessary to increase the magnitude of the pressure drop available for controlling the
fuel flow.

Advantages of Carburetors:

Carburetors are much easier to adjust/less technical skills required

Cheaper to repair & rebuild

Less special equipment required.

Problems with Carburetors:

Have mechanical parts due to wear and tear needs periodic adjustments and maintenance.

Flexibility limitations.

Intake manifold length problems in the case of multi cylinder engines

Carburetors aren't very efficient as they can't make changes on the fly like fuel injection can.

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS

The fuel injection systems for conventional spark-ignition engines inject fuel into the engine intake
system. Fuel Injectors are nozzles that inject a spray of fuel into the intake air. They are normally
controlled electronically, but mechanically controlled injectors which are cam actuated also exist.
A metered amount of fuel is trapped in the nozzle end of the injector, and a high pressure is
applied to it, usually by a mechanical compression process of some kind. At proper time, the
nozzle is opened and the fuel is sprayed into the surrounding air.
ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION
The process of supplying air-fuel mixture to the engine cylinder(s), whereby a carburetor is replaced
by fuel injector(s) and fuel is metered proportionally to air flow with the help of microprocessor is
called electronic fuel injection (EFI). In fuel injection system the fuel speed at the point of delivery is
greater than the air speed. Unlike a carburetor, however, pressure, and not engine vacuum is used to
feed fuel into the engine. An EFI system functions by the rapid and accurate assessment of data
received by various sensors and by responding automatically to the slightest pedal movement.
Microprocessor (ECU) controlled fuel injector(s) supply the engine with the optimum amount of fuel
under all driving conditions. Information concerning, manifold air pressure, engine speed, crankshaft
angle, water temperature etc. are collected by sensors and relayed to ECU. By using this data, ECU
calculates the required opening time of fuel injectors and sends the pulse.
History of Electronic Fuel Injection: Automakers found that the traditional engine control could not
control the engine sufficiently to meet emission limits and maintain adequate engine performance at
the same time. In 1970s, electronic control systems in vehicular engine were introduced. The
motivation for electronic engine control came from two main requirements: stringent exhaust emission
Page 9 of 16

legislation and thrust to improve average fuel economy.

Past trends of vehicle design were: more power and bigger size; little or no concern on fuel efficiency
and exhaust emission. Present trends and needs are: fuel efficiency and smaller size; emission
consideration; yet smooth and reliable operation.
Advantages of Electronic Fuel Injection: Improved atomization (fuel is forced into intake manifold
under pressure which helps break fuel droplets into a fine mist); smoother idle (lean fuel mixture
can be used without rough idle because of better fuel distribution and low speed atomization);
improved fuel economy (high efficiency because of more precise fuel metering, atomization and
distribution; lower emissions (more accurate and efficient air-fuel mixture reduces exhaust
pollution); better fuel distribution; better cold weather drivability (injection provides better control
of mixture enrichment than a carburetor choke); increased engine power (precise metering of fuel
to each cylinder and increased air flow can result in more power); elimination of carburetor plate
icing.
The Benefits of Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI)
There are numerous benefits in replacing carburetors with electronic fuel injection (EFI) for fuel
delivery on UAV engines. However, the achievement of these benefits necessitates a comprehensive
integration and calibration for each engine installation. Only companies that have the extensive
experience and appropriate equipment can successfully undertake these tasks. Power4Flight and our
partners Currawong Engineering and Cobra Aero are world leaders in designing, manufacturing,
integrating and calibrating EFI systems for various small engines, both two and four strokes.
How EFI Systems and Carburetors Work
Carburetors provide fuel control by purely fluid dynamic means, utilizing jets and similar devices to
control fuel flow while sliding or rotating valves control airflow. The relationship between the airflow
and the fuel flow is essentially adjusted mechanically, but various methods have been used over the
years in an attempt to provide a form of compensation for different operating conditions. Small
carburetors are usually very basic and do not incorporate the advanced compensation devices found on
larger carburetors. However, even if small carburetors could be equipped with larger standard
compensating systems, the end result would not be as effective as EFI.
In EFI systems, the carburetor is eliminated. Airflow regulation continues to be achieved using a
butterfly or a rotating valve, but an electronically controlled fuel injector delivers the required quantity
of fuel. The amount of fuel and the amount of air delivered can be regulated independently. The
system provides the required fuel/air delivery based on the information provided by various sensors.
These include the inlet manifold air and cylinder head temperature sensors, the crank position sensor,
the barometric and manifold pressure sensors, and the throttle position sensor. An electronic control
unit (ECU) performs the computations that are required to optimize both fuel delivery and ignition
timing. EFI systems enable the fuel/air ratio to be continuously adjusted according to the operating
conditions (altitude, ambient temperature etc) and the engine requirements (throttle opening,
power/overrun conditions, cold/hot start etc).
Lower Fuel Consumption
EFI systems invariably produce lower fuel consumption than carbureted engines. This follows from
the sophistication of the electronic control system that constantly monitors and adjusts the air/fuel
Page 10 of 16

ratio to maintain optimal combustion conditions. Small carburetors tend to deliver a rich mixture
(excessive fuel to air ratio) at both low power output and at high power output. Carburetors are
particularly inefficient when used in varying power conditions, as it is difficult to optimize the air fuel
ratio for all throttle settings. Effective altitude compensation is difficult to achieve with carburetors,
whereas with EFI, altitude compensation is built into the system and works seamlessly. Whilst the
precise fuel consumption reduction will vary from engine to engine and duty cycle to duty cycle, it is
reasonable to expect a reduction in fuel consumption of 15% to 30% following conversion of a
carbureted engine to EFI. This applies to both two and four stroke engines.
Works with Heavy Fuel
Currawong has a heavy fuel variant of its EFI system that capitalizes on the precision fuel delivery
performance of EFI. The heavy fuel system supports operation with Jet-A, JP-5 and JP-8 fuels. It is
extremely difficult to operate a small engine on heavy fuel using carburetors, although attempts have
been made by others to do this. EFI, in conjunction with other proprietary advances, is the key to
effective and efficient heavy fuel operation.
More Power
EFI equipped engines generally provide higher power and torque than a carbureted version of the
same engine. It is difficult to optimize power and/or torque across a wide range of engine speeds with
carburetors, whereas EFI systems are capable of optimizing air/fuel ratios and ignition timing over the
whole range of operating speeds while at the same time compensating for other factors in order to
maintain optimum performance on a continuous basis. Typically EFI equipped engines produce around
5% to 10% more power than a carbureted version of the same engine.
Enhanced Reliability
Engines equipped with EFI systems are inherently more reliable than carbureted engines. This follows
from the ability of the EFI control systems to maintain optimum air/fuel ratios during all phases of
flight. EFI systems are far less susceptible to icing, compared to carburetors. Random engine
stoppages, oiled spark plugs and other problems associated with sub-optimal air fuel ratios are
eliminated. Carburetors tend to go out of tune. This necessitates constant adjustment and a significant
risk of failure on long missions due to drift in the settings. EFI engines on the other hand remain
constantly in the same state of tune. This not only improves reliability but also reduces the amount of
routine maintenance that is required.
Excellent Starting
A major benefit of EFI systems is the greatly improved cold and hot starting performance. This
follows from the ability of the system to calculate the optimum air/fuel mixture for starting as well as
from the superior atomization that results from injection of the fuel as compared to fuel delivery from
a carburetor. Two stroke engines are notoriously difficult to start in standard form, but with EFI they
become as easy to start as a four stroke. The ability of an engine to be started under a wide range of
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operating conditions, from very hot to very cold ambient temperatures, from sea level to high altitude
and from engine temperatures that range from cold start to hot start is vitally important in UAV
operations. It is particularly critical to hybrid propulsion systems where the engine may be stopped
and re-started during flight.
Complete Altitude Compensation
Currawong EFI systems have been developed to have optimum altitude compensation. Ambient air
pressure is continually monitored and the ECU continuously calculates the ideal air/fuel ratio for that
altitude while also optimizing the air/fuel ratio for the other variables (temperature, throttle position
etc.). It is difficult to achieve altitude compensation with carbureted engines, particularly where
operation at varying altitude is required. Invariably a compromise carburetor setting is required,
meaning that at least part of the time the air/fuel mixture is not optimal, resulting in excessive fuel
consumption when the mixture is over-rich in fuel and potential damage to the engine when the
mixture is over-lean.
Autopilot Integration
Because EFI systems are electronically managed, integration with on-board avionics systems is not
only possible, but is also widely applied. Flight controllers can digitally control the throttle and
ignition on/off. In addition flight controllers receive real time engine telemetry including RPM,
temperatures, pressures, and fuel consumption. This data are enormously valuable for verifying the
correct operation of the engine system and maximizing the reliability of the whole aircraft. Off the
shelf, our EFI systems are integrated with the Cloud Cap Technology range of Piccolo Avionics. In
addition, through the open and fully documented API and the CAN bus interface, the EFI system can
be readily integrated with other avionics.
EFI Sub Systems: An EFI System can be divided in to four sub systems: fuel delivery system; air
induction system; sensor systems; computer control system.
Classification of EFI
A: With respect to number of injection point: Single-Point or Throttle-Body Injection (SPI or TBI);
Multipoint Injection (MPFI).
B: With respect to place of injection: Direct Injection; Indirect Injection.
C: With respect to injection control: Electronic Fuel Injection; Hydraulic Fuel Injection; Mechanical
Fuel Injection.
D: With respect to Injection Timing: Intermittent Injection; Timed Injection; Continues Injection.
E: Injector Opening Relationship: Simultaneous Injection; Sequential injection; Group Injection.
MEASUREMENT OF AIR FLOW
Direct measurement: This system directly measures the mass of air entering the engine. The
information from the air flow sensors are sent to ECU.
Speed-density System: In the speed density system, the primary input to the ECU are the output from
the manifold air pressure (MAP) sensor, the engine speed sensor and the temperature sensor installed
in the intake manifold to monitor air temperature and water temperature, the latter being used to
indicate fuel enrichment requirements during cold start and warm up.
SINGLE-POINT THROTTLE-BODY INJECTION
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In single-point fuel-injection systems one or two electronically controlled injectors meter the fuel into
the air flow directly above throttle body. They provide straightforward electronic control of fuel
metering at lower cost than multipoint port injection systems. Two injectors, each in a separate airflow passage with its own throttle plate, meter the fuel in response to calibrations of air flow based on
intake manifold pressure, air temperature, and engine speed using the speed-density EFI logic.
Injectors are fired alternatively or simultaneously, depending on load and speed and control logic used.
Under alternative firing, each injection pulse corresponds to one cylinder filling. Smoothing of the
fuel-injection pulses over time achieved by proper placement of the fuel injector assembly above the
throttle bore and plate.
MULTIPOINT PORT INJECTION
In multipoint port injection systems the fuel is injected into the intake port of each engine cylinder.
Thus these systems require one injector per cylinder (plus, in some systems, one or more injectors
to supplement the fuel flow during starting and warm-up). There are both mechanical injection
systems and electronically controlled injection systems. Most modern automobile SI engines have
multipoint port fuel injectors. In this type of system, injectors spray fuel into the region directly
behind the intake valve, sometimes directly onto the back of the valve face. Contact with the
relatively hot valve surface enhances evaporation of the fuel into the stationary air just before the
intake valve is open, there is a momentary pause in the air flow, and the air velocity does not
promote the needed mixing and evaporation enhancement. When the valve then opens, the fuel
vapor and liquid droplets are carried into the cylinder by the onrush of air, often, with the injector
continuing to spray. Any backflow of hot residual exhaust gas that occurs when the intake valve
opens also enhances the evaporation of fuel droplets. Each cylinder has its own injector or set of
injectors which give a fairly constant fuel input cycle-to-cycle and cylinder-to-cylinder, depending
on the manufactured quality of the injector parts. Even with perfect control of the fuel flow, there
would still be variations in air/ fuel ratio due to the imperfect air flow cycle-to-cycle and cylinderto-cylinder. Multipoint injector systems are better than carburetors or throttle body injector
systems at giving consistent air/fuel delivery. Some multipoint systems have an additional
auxiliary injector or injectors mounted upstream in the intake manifold to give added fuel when
rich mixtures are needed for startup, idling, WOT acceleration, or high speed operation. The
amount of fuel injected each cycle and injection pressure are controlled by the Electronic
Management System (EMS). Injection pressure is generally on the order of 200 to 300 kPa
absolute, but can be much higher. Engine operating conditions and information from sensors in
the engine and exhaust system are used to continuously adjust air/fuel ratio and injection pressure.
Sensing the amount of oxygen in the exhaust is one of the more important feedbacks in adjusting
injection duration for proper air-fuel ratio. This is done by measuring the partial pressure of the
oxygen in the exhaust manifold. Other feedback parameters include engine speed, temperatures,
air flow rate, and throttle position. Engine startup when a richer mixture is needed is determined
by coolant temperature and the starter switch. The advantages of port fuel injection are increased
power and torque through improved volumetric efficiency and more uniform fuel distribution,
more rapid engine response to changes in throttle position, and more precise control of the
equivalence ratio during cold start and engine warm-up. Fuel injection allows the amount of fuel
injected per cycle, for each cylinder, to be varied in response to inputs derived from sensors which
define actual engine operating conditions.
DIRECT FUEL INJECTION
Some SI and all CI engine fuel injection systems have the injectors mounted in the cylinder head and
inject directly into the combustion chamber. This gives very constant fuel input cycle-to-cycle and
cylinder-to-cylinder. Modern experimental two-stroke cycle automobile engines use this system to
avoid losing fuel out of the exhaust system during scavenging and valve overlap. This type of
system requires very precise injectors giving extremely fine droplets of fuel. Fuel is added during
the compression stroke, which allows an extremely short period of time for evaporation and
mixing, less than 0.008 second at 3000 rpm. High turbulence and swirl are also important.
Injectors that spray directly into the combustion chamber must operate with much higher
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pressures than injectors that spray into the intake system (some as high as 10 MPa). The air into
which the fuel must be injected is at much higher pressures within the combustion chamber,
whereas air pressure in the intake system will be at one atmosphere or less (or slightly above one
atmosphere under some conditions with turbocharging).

Air-fuel Requirement in SI Engines

The spark-ignition automobile engines run on a mixture of gasoline and air. The amount of mixture the
engine can take in depends upon following major factors:
(i) Engine displacement. (ii) Maximum revolution per minute (rpm) of engine.
(iii) Carburettor air flow capacity. (iv) Volumetric efficiency of engine.
There is a direct relationship between an engines air flow and its fuel requirement. This relationship is
called the air-fuel ratio.
Air-fuel Ratios
The air-fuel ratio is the proportions by weight of air and gasoline mixed by the carburetor as required
for combustion by the engine. This ratio is extremely important for an engine because there are limits
to how rich (with more fuel) or how lean (with less fuel) it can be, and still remain fully combustible
for efficient firing. The mixtures with which the engine can operate range from 8:1 to 18.5:1 i.e. from
8 kg of air/kg of fuel to 18.5 kg of air/kg of fuel. Richer or leaner air-fuel ratio limit causes the engine
to misfire, or simply refuse to run at all.
Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Ratio
The ideal mixture or ratio at which all the fuels blend with all of the oxygen in the air and be
completely burned is called the stoichiometric ratio, a chemically perfect combination. In theory, an
air fuel ratio of about 14.7:1 i.e. 14.7 kg of air/kg of gasoline produce this ratio, but the exact ratio at
which perfect mixture and complete combustion take place depends on the molecular structure of
gasoline, which can vary somewhat.
Engine Air-fuel Ratios
An automobile SI engine, as indicated above, works with the air-fuel mixture ranging from 8:1 to
18.5:1. But the ideal ratio would be one that provides both the maximum power and the best economy,
while producing the least emissions. But such a ratio does not exist because the fuel requirements of
an engine vary widely depending upon temperature, load, and speed conditions. The best fuel
economy is obtained with a 15:1 to 16:1 ratio, while maximum power output is achieved with a 12.5:1
to 13.5:1 ratio. A rich mixture in the order of 11:1 is required for idle heavy load, and high-speed
conditions. A lean mixture is required for normal cruising and light load conditions. Figure 9.36
represents the characteristic curves showing the effect of mixture ratio on efficiency and fuel
consumption.

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Fig. 9.36. Effect of air-fuel ratio on efficiency and fuel consumption.

Practically for complete combustion, through mixing of the fuel in excess air (to a limited
extent above that of the ideal condition) is needed. Lean mixtures are used to obtain best economy
through minimum fuel consumption whereas rich mixtures used to suppress combustion knock and to
obtain maximum power from the engine. However, improper distribution of mixture to each cylinder
and imperfect/incomplete vaporization of fuel in air necessitates the use of rich mixture to obtain
maximum power output. A rich mixture is also required to overcome the effect of dilution of incoming
mixture due to entrapped exhaust gases in the cylinder and of air leakage because of the high vacuum
in the manifold, under idling or no-load condition. Maximum power is desired at full load while best
economy is expected at part throttle conditions. Thus required air fuel ratios result from maximum
economy to maximum power. The carburettor must be able to vary the air-fuel ratio quickly to provide
the best possible mixture for the engines requirements at a given moment.
The best air-fuel ratio for one engine may not be the best ratio for another, even when the two engines
are of the same size and design. To accurately determine the best mixture, the engine should be run on
a dynamometer to measure speed, load and power requirements for all types of driving conditions.
With a slightly rich mixture, the combustion flame travels faster and conversely with a slightly weak
mixture, the flame travel becomes slower. If a very rich mixture is used then some neat petrol enters
cylinder, washes away lubricant from cylinder walls and gets past piston
to contaminate engine oil. A very sooty deposit occurs in the combustion chamber. On the other hand,
if an engine runs on an excessively weak mixture, then overheating particularly of such parts as
valves, pistons and spark plugs occurs. This causes detonation and pre-ignition together or separately.
The approximate proportions of air to petrol (by weight) suitable for the different operating conditions
are indicated below:
Starting
9 : 1:
Idling
12 : 1
Acceleration 12 : 1
Economy 16: 1
Full power 12 : 1

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It makes no difference if an engine is carburetted or fuel injected, the engine still needs the same airfuel mixture ratios.

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