ABSTRACT

Computerofdatacommunicationrefertoprotocolinvolvedintransmissionof
digitizeddatabetweentwoormoreonlineprocessinglocationsandisanintegral
part of the modern information and retrieval systems in terms of their online
access.Themoderninformationsystem,unliketheirprecursorwhichworkedin
anofflinemode,operateinanonlineinteractivemodewhereinausercaninteract
with a host from a remote terminal using a communication link. The article,
beforedescribingthecomputercommunicationnetworks,touchesuponthebasic
concepts,types,techniquesandprotocolsinvolvedindatacommunication.

Page 1 of 12

QUESTIONS
1. Name two well known transport protocols provided by the internet
transport layer.
b. provide a brief description of each service and indicate what type of application
might use that service.
2. describe the token bucket mechanism for congestion control.
b. with which other technique is token bucket usually combined to achieve
complete flow control.
c. what problems in the simpler approach are addressed by using a token bucket
mechanism.
3. suppose a service is defined as an operation or facility provided by protocol
layer N to the layer N+1 above it. Also suppose we define protocol as an algorithm
operating at protocol layer N that uses services provided by layer N-1 to implement
a style of communication.
i. given the definition of service and protocol above use these definition or any
other discussion to illustrate the fundamental difference between a service and a
protocol.
b. Discuss the use of formal analysis techniques for protocol.
c. Comment on why such techniques are used in analyzing protocol.
d. give some examples on the type of problems that such analysis can reveal.
4. Describe OSI 7 layer model, name each layer in the model and draw a diagram
that shows the ordeal of these layers. write a paragraph description of the areas or
functions that each layer is responsible for.
b. contrast the osi model you have just described with the TCP/IP reference model.
c. using a diagram show the correspondence between relevant protocol layers in
the two model.

Page 2 of 12

d. discuss the relative merits of each of these models in the context of modern
computer networking.
5. mention 6 devices used to connect network or internet working devices.
b. describe each of them indicating atleast two advantages and disadvantages of
each
c. explain the difference in operation of a repeater, bridge and router and show how
these relates to the ISO 7 layer model.

Page 3 of 12

ANSWERS
1. a)Two well known transport protocol provided by the internet layer are;
*User datagram protocol (UDP)
*Transmission control protocol (TCP)
b) TCP is a connection oriented data service that provides a reliable loss free
end to Peer to peer communication between applications is often managed
ENEe

using tcp. Applications like the simple mail transfer protocol and the domain name

server use the TCP .

UDP is an unreliable datagram service which provides end to end packet

delivery with
recovery and retransmission for applications that might wish to implement
their own
packet management and error recovery protocols such as streaming
applications and
NFS_ UDP is also often used in Client_Server applications where no special
packet
handling is required.
.

2. a) The token bucket approach to congestion tries to limit the impact of bursts of
network packets on routers along the path while retaining some exibility in terms
of allowing a brief increase in traffic in response to sudden demands bursts.
b) Token bucket is combined with leaky bucket which buffers incoming packets
and emits them in a constant rate stream.
c) token bucket provides some fexibility in responding to sudden requests for high
traffic volume allowing an intial burst of traffic to saturate the link and then
enforcing a constant bandwidth utilisation after the initial free token pool has been
exhausted.

3.a)

A service is a facility that can be used such as SendAPacket while

A protocol uses a number of services to manage the exchange of data ;Thus a
protocol may be compared to an algorithm and the services to the instructions
which are used to express that algorithm.
Page 4 of 12

b) Formal analysis of protocols is an important part of establishing confidence in

the correctness of proposed communications products .Formal analysis tools such
as petri nets and finite state machines represent the logical structure of the protocol
and allow designers to investigate the operation of the protocol in all possible
situations.

c) The use of some specification tools can assist in automatic verification using
computer analysis which eliminates the possibility of human error of an important
factor in many proof techniques.
d) State space expansion can identify failure modes and deadlock situations that
can arise if certain sequences of events occur In addition such analysis can reveal
redundant states and thus be used to optimise the protocol Safety properties can
also be proposed and verified.

4.The OSI 7(open system interconnection ) layer model is a model developed by

the IOS(international organization of standardization) to ensure national and
worldwide data communication. it consist of 7 layers namely: The physical layer,
the data link layer, the network layer, the transport layer, the session layer, the
presentation layer and lastly the application layer.
OSI 7 LAYER MODEL
LAYER 7
Application layer
LAYER 6
Presentation layer
LAYER 5
Session layer
LAYER 4
Transport layer
LAYER 3
Network layer
LAYER 2
Datalink layer
LAYER 1
Physical layer
PHYSICAL LAYER: This layer activates, deactivates and maintains the
physical connections .voltage and data rate needed for data connection are
defined in the physical layer,the physical layer is responsible for converting
digital bits to electrical signals.

Page 5 of 12

 DATALINK LAYER:This layer synchronizes the information which is to be

transmitted over the data.Error controlling is easily done at this
layer,encoded data are passed to the physical layer at the datalink layer.
NETWORK LAYER:This layer is responsible for routing signals through
different channels to the other end.it decides which route a data should stay
or go and divides outgoing data into packets and assembles incoming data
into message.
TRANSPORT LAYER:This layer decides if data transmission should be on
a parallel path or single path, in otherwords it is responsible for
multiplexing.
SESSION LAYER: It is responsible for synchronizing and managing the
conversation between two different applications i.e it transfers data from one
application to another.
PRESENTATION LAYER: This layer plays the role of translator i.e. it
makes sure that the data sent to the receiver is well understood.
APPLICATION LAYER: This is the topmost layer and its duty is to
manipulate data or information in various ways. This layer provides services
such as file transfer, mail services, directing services, network resources etc.

b. The contrast with the TCP/IP model should note the correspondence between
the OSI and TCP layers at the Network and Transport level. The discussion will
also indicate that the Host to Network layer of TCP/IP corresponds pretty well to
the Data Link and Physical layers of the OSI model .Session and Presentation
layers are not present in TCP/IP and really are not needed as has been shown by
experience over the last few years.

Page 6 of 12

c.

The TCP/IP and OSI Models.

Application

Application
Presentation
Session

Host-to Host
Transport

Internet
Network
Networ
k
access

Data link
Physical

d. A discussion of the merits of TCP/IP vs OSI as a reference model for

networking,In terms of discussing relative merits students should touch on the
following key ideas:
o Political influence on the OSI model thus the OSI protocol stack
represents a design philosophy created by committee.
o OSI failed to gain wide acceptance in the industry and consequently is
largely of academic interest.
o OSI provides a much better model of layering and clearly dense and
separates protocols interfaces and services This allows for greater
flexibility and allows the layers to be viewed and implemented
independently of each other.
o TCP/IP describes a protocol it is not really a standard.
o TCP/IP is in very wide use and is well understood.
o TCP/IP has proven very robust and well engineered.
5. six(6) devices used to connect network or internet connecting device are:
Router
Gateways
Repeater
Page 7 of 12

 Bridges
Hub
Modem
ROUTER
Router is a device that connect two or more networks that uses the
similar protocol.it consist of hardware and software:hareware can be a
computer while software consists of special management program that
controls flow of data between networks.Routers operates at a network
layer of OSI model.They use logical and physical address to connect
two or more logically separate network.
Advantages
a.They use high level of intelligence
to route data
b.Routers can also act as bridge to
handle non-routeable protocols such
as NETBEUI(network bios extended
user interface)

Disadvantages
a.High level of intelligence take
more processing time which can
affect performance.
b.Routers are very complicated
,installation and maintenance are
difficult.

GATEWAYS
Gateways are devices which connects two or morenetworks that uses
different protocols.they are similar in function to routes but they are
more powerful and intelligent devices.A gateway can actually convert
data so that network with an application on a computer on the other
side of the gateway e.g a gateway can receive email messages in one
format and convert them into another format.gateways can operate at
all seven(7) layers of the OSI model.
Advantages
a.user level authentication is allowed
b.Application commands are analyzed
inside the payload portion of the data
packets.
c.connection between internal and
external host are disallowed.

Disadvantages
a.it is slower than packet filters
b.needs the internal client to know about
them.
c.Every possible type of connection
cannot be supported.
Page 8 of 12

REPEATER
Repeaters are used within network to extend the length of
communications.Data are processed through transmission media in the
form of waves or signals.The transmission media weakens signals that
move through it ,this is called Attenuation.If the data is to be
transmitted beyond the maximum length of communication media;
signals have amplified.The device that are used to amplify the signals
are called Repeaters.
Advantages
a.Repeaters easily extend the length of
networks
b.it can connect signals from the same
network type that uses different types of
cables.

Disadvantages
a.Repeaters cannot be used to connect
segments of different network types.
b.They cannot be used to segment
traffic on a network to reduce
congestion.

BRIDGES
Bridges are used to connect similar network segments.A bridge does
not pass the signal it receives ,when a bridge receives a signal it
determines its destination by looking at its destination and sends the
signal towards it,Bridges works at the datalink layer of the OSI model.
Advantages
a.Bridges like repeaters can connect
similar network types with different
cabling.
b.Bridges extend network segments by
connecting them together to make one
logical network.

Disadvantages
a.Bridges possess the information about
the data they receive which can slow
performance.
b.They are unable to detect problems
cause they are not transport protocolsensitive

Page 9 of 12

HUB
Hubs are basically multi ports repeaters for UTP cables .some hubs
have ports for other type of cables such as coaxial cables.hub ranges
in size from four ports and for specific network types. Types of hubs
are namely:
*Passive hub
*Active hub
*Switch/intelligent hub
Advantages
a.Hubs need almost no configuration.
b.Active hubs can extend maximum
network media distance.

Disadvantages
a.Passive hubs can greatly limit
maximum media distance.
b.Hubs have no intelligence to filter
traffic so all data is sent out on all ports
whether it is needed or not.

MODEM
Modems are device that convert digital signals to analog and vice
versa.The word modem stands for Modulation and Demodulation,
the process of converting digital signals to analog signals is called
Modulation while the process of converting analog signals to digital
is called demodulation.Modems are used with computer to transfer
data from one computer to another computer through Telephone lines.
Two types of modem are:
*Internal modem
*External modem
Advantages
a.inexpensive hardware and telephone

Disadvantages
a.very slow performance
Page 10 of 12

lines
b.easy to setup and maintain.

b.might take time to connect due to

network range.

c.The difference in operation of a Repeater, Bridge and a Router are:

According to the network administrative interview QS 2009;
Repeaters,bridges and routers are devices used to link individual LANs
together to form larger internetworks. Each one operarates within a specific
layer of the OSI model:
REPEATERS operate at the physical layer of the OSI model, they simply
listen to all network traffic on one port and sends it back out through one or
more ports extending smaller networks into a larger, single network. A
repeater receives frames, regenerates them and passes them along.
BRIDGES operates at the datalink layer. They use the data link layer and its
physical addressing to join several networks into a single network
efficiently.bridges join two or more network segments together ,forming a
larger individual network.They function similarly to a repeater except that a
bridge looks to see whether data it receives is destined for the same segment
or another connected segment.Bridges use a routing table to determine
whether data is destined for the local network or not.
ROUTERS divide larger networks into logically designed networks.Routers
may seem a lot like bridges ,but they are much SMARTER .Bridges cannot
evaluate possible paths to the destination to determine the best route.This
can result in inefficient use of network resources.The drawback to a routers
inherent intelligence is their SPEED .Because they process so much
information ,Routers tends to be SLOWER THAN Bridges.

Page 11 of 12

REFERENCES
Aguboshim F.C (2006) Computer software and application packages
TCP/IP vs. OSI retrieved from the web (www)
www.careerride.com Ton-nw2.blogspot.co.ke/2009 network-administrator-interview
Aguboshim F.C (2008) Data Communication and Network Technology
Google.com
WWW.Tutorialsweb.com Repeaters, router, bridges and gateways

Page 12 of 12