1E6 Electrical Engineering

DC Circuit Analysis
Lecture 1: The Nature of Electricity
1.1 Introduction
There is no coherent formal definition that can be given for electricity that says
this is what electricity is. In reality it is a property of the physical world which
is intrinsically present and which is observed and exploited rather than
explained. Most attempts to explain it centre on its behaviour and its effects
rather than its existence which must simply be accepted as part of nature. In
electrical and electronic engineering it is essentially a source of energy which can
be generated and converted into other forms of energy such as mechanical
energy to do work or used in its own right in electronic circuits to process
electrical signals which generally represent information in some form or other.

1.2 Atoms
All materials in the physical world, both natural and synthetic, are made
up of atoms. Our current knowledge and representation of the atom is based
largely on the work of Niels Bohr (1885-1962) a Danish physicist and Nobel
Prize winner, whose model of the atom is that of a nucleus at the centre as shown
in Fig. 1, surrounded by orbiting electrons. The three-dimensional orbits are
classified in groups known as shells. The nucleus contains two types of particle
which collectively account for the weight of the atom. The first of these is the
neutron which possesses the property of weight but is neutral in the electrical
respect in that it possesses no electrical charge. The second is the proton which
has the same weight as the neutron, but also possesses an electric charge, which
is nominated as positive by convention. The particles orbiting around the
nucleus are electrons, and these have negligible mass compared with the protons,
but have an equal and opposite charge which is nominated as negative. Atoms in
their natural state have the same number of protons and electrons and are
therefore electrically neutral.
Electrons orbiting the nucleus possess energy and also rotate on their own
axes while circling the nucleus in their orbits. This energy is different in
different orbits located at differing distances from the nucleus. At most two
electrons in the same atom can have the same energy. Two electrons can occupy
the same orbit but when they do so they spin on their own axes in opposite
directions.
Individual atoms have differing atomic numbers, which is essentially the
number of both protons and electrons which they possess. The Periodic Table,
shown in Table I, lists the known atoms in an ordered manner according to
various properties but primarily according to their atomic number.
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Fig. 1 The Bohr Model of the Atom

1.3 Electric Charge

Electric charge is observed as a phenomenon associated with the particles
in atoms. A particle is considered to have an electric charge when it reacts to the
influence of electricity, such as an electric field or the presence of other charged
particles. The protons and electrons in atoms possess the property of charge
with protons nominated as having positive charge and electrons nominated as
having negative charge. Charles de Coulomb (1736 1806), a French physicist
discovered many of the elementary laws of electrostatics which govern the
behaviour of fixed charges. Among these are the law:
Like charges repel each other while unlike charges attract each other
The unit of charge is the Coulomb, called after him and given the symbol, C.
The magnitude of the elemental charge on a single proton or electron is given
the symbol q so that:
Charge on Proton q = +1.6 x 10 -19 C ; Charge on Electron -q = -1.6 x 10 -19 C
A quantity of charge at some point in an electrical circuit is usually designated
by the symbol Q so that:
Electric Charge = Q Coulombs (C)
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Table 1

Periodic Table of the Elements

Charged bodies experience forces between them. If both bodies have the
same type of charge, then the force is one of repulsion tending to try to move the
bodies away from each other, if they are free to move. If the bodies have
opposite types of charge, then the force is one of attraction tending to try to
move the bodies closer together. It is this force of attraction between protons
and electrons which holds atoms together. The force F between two bodies
containing charges Q1 and Q2 and separated by a distance r is given by
Coulombs Law as:

Coulomb ' sLaw

F = ke

Q1 Q2
r2

where ke = 8.98 x 109 Nm2/C2 is known as Coulombs force constant. A positive

force is one of repulsion between the charges while a negative force is one of
attraction. Fig. 2 shows the lines of force between particles having like and
unlike charges. In the case of like charges it can be seen that the forces tend to
divert the charges away from each other, were they free to move, while in the
case of unlike charges they would tend to move towards each other.

Fig. 2 The Forces Between Like and Unlike Charged Particles

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1.4 Energy Bands

Electrons orbiting the nucleus in an atom also possess thermal energy,
once the atom is at an ambient temperature greater than absolute temperature
of 0OK. The energy which electrons can possess is quantised and can only have
certain permitted values. The energy possessed by an electron is also determined
by the radius at which the orbit it occupies lies from the nucleus of the atom. As
mentioned previously, only two electrons in an atom can have the same energy
but in this case spin on their own axes in opposite directions. This is known as
Paulis Exclusion Principle in that it excludes any two electrons in the same
atom from having precisely the same energy characteristics. This also applies
when atoms are in close proximity to each other as in molecules making up a
piece of the material formed from the particular element. This means that
corresponding electrons in closely neighbouring atoms must have slightly
different energy levels. When neighbouring atoms over a range of several
hundreds of atoms are examined all of the corresponding electrons have minute
differences in the energy levels they occupy. This gives rise to bands of energy
levels rather than individual discrete shells, where each band is essentially a
continuum of energy levels extending over a finite range. In the discussion of
solids the outermost band of an element which contains electrons at absolute
zero temperature is referred to as the valence band and it is in this band that the
electrons which partake in most chemical interactions reside. The next outer
band which is free of electrons at absolute zero temperature is referred to as the
conduction band. In some materials, at temperatures higher than absolute zero,
some electrons gain sufficient energy to be able to make a transition from the
valence band to the conduction band.
Fig. 3 shows a representation of energy bands in materials of three
different types namely: insulators, conductors and semiconductors. Insulators
are characterised by a large energy gap between the valence and conduction
bands. This means that at room temperature no electrons gain sufficient energy
to make a transition between bands so that electrons remain firmly bonded to
their atoms in the valence band.
In the case of conductors it can be seen that the conduction and valence
bands overlap. This means that there is a plentiful supply of free energy levels
close to those occupied by electrons in the upper region of the valence band of
metals. At room temperature electrons can easily move into the vacant levels in
the conduction band. With this plentiful supply of vacant energy levels to move
between the outer electrons of metals essentially break free of their parent atoms
and become free charge carriers each having the change q defined previously.
These free negatively-charged electrons can then easily be made to move under
the influence of an electric field for example. Popular materials used as
conductors in electrical equipment and wiring are: Copper(Cu), Nickel(Ni),
Aluminium(Al), Silver(Ag), Gold(Au) and Iron(Fe). Lead(Pb) is one of the
constituents of solder which when melted is used to connect wires together
electrically.
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Semiconductors have an energy gap between the conduction and valence

bands which is much lower than that of insulators. Consequently, at room
temperature a number of electrons can make the transition from the valence
band to the conduction band but this number is much smaller than in the case of
conductors. The extent of conduction in semiconductors can be controlled by
doping the semiconductor materials with impurities in the form of another
element from a neighbouring group in the Periodic Table. This process is used in
most active electronic devices and forms the basis of the semiconductor industry.
The most common semiconductors are Silicon(Si) and Germanium(Ge).

Fig. 3

Energy Bands in Solid Materials

1.5 Potential and Voltage

In the world we live in ground, which is generally taken as somewhere
deep in the earth, is considered as the electrically neutral point to which all
electrical effects can be referenced. In reality, it can be argued that this point is
actually somewhere in deep outer-space. However, ground serves as a
convenient reference to be considered as the electrical zero point. Anything
which is electrically connected to ground is taken to be at zero potential. If a
body has a quantity of positive charge present on it somehow, such as the proton
in an atom, it has a potential which is higher than ground and is said to be at a
positive potential relative to ground. If a body contains a quantity of negative
charge, such as the electron in an atom, it is said to be at negative a potential
relative to ground. As has been seen above, forces exist between charged
particles and forces are always associated with energy or the ability to do work.
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If like-charged particles in close proximity are free to move, the forces which
exist between them will cause them to move away from each other. This is an
indication that charge or a potential other than zero or ground is intrinsically
associated with energy. This is expressed in terms of voltage where this is
essentially the energy per unit of electric charge.

Voltage =

Energy
Volts (V )
Ch arg e

or

1 Volt =

1 Joule
1 Coulomb

Very often, and particularly in the field of Electronic Engineering, the terms
voltage and potential are treated as interchangeable and both are measured in
units of Volts named after Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), an Italian physicist
who discovered electrolysis and invented the battery.
If two points have different potentials or voltages relative to ground such
that one point is at a potential V1 while the other is at a potential V2, then we can
define the potential difference V between the two points as simply the difference
between the two potentials or voltages as measured relative to ground. The
potential difference will therefore also have units of Volts.

Potential Difference

V = V1 V2

Volts

Potential Difference is specified as positive when the potential V1 relative to

ground is more positive (or less negative) than the potential V2 relative to
ground. Therefore, in practice, it can be either positive or negative depending on
the magnitudes and polarities of the potentials V1 and V2.

1.6 Electric Field and Electromotive Force

When forces exist between bodies, the energy associated with these forces
is considered to act in a field. In the case of forces associated with charged
particles or bodies the energy gives rise to an electric field. The lines of force
between charged particles shown in Fig. 2 essentially show the direction of the
electric field which exists between these charges by virtue of their electric
potentials. The electric field can be seen as acting from a point of positive
potential towards a point of negative potential as shown by the direction of the
field lines. The electric field is therefore thought of as acting along a path. Its
strength depends on the magnitudes of the potentials between which it acts and
the distance between the points at which these potentials are located so that:

Electric Field Strength E =

Potential Difference V
=
V /m
Dis tan ce
d
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When an electric field acts along a path where charged particles are free
to move it give rise to an influence on the mobile charge carriers called an
electromotive force or emf. This force is not strictly a Newtonian physical or
mechnical force but rather an electrical one and is actually measured in Volts
just as is the potential difference which gives rise to it. The electromotive force in
an electric circuit must come from some source of electrical energy such as a
battery. The voltage between the terminals of the battery is essentially the emf
which it generates.

1.6 Current
The energy bands shown in Fig. 3 for conductors indicate the overlap
between the valence and the conduction bands. In good conductors there is a
plentiful supply of free energy levels in the conduction band and electrons at
room temperature can easily make the energy transition to these free levels and
can then move between adjacent atoms with ease. When charged particles which
are free to move are placed in an electric field, they experience an electromotive
force as a result of the field. If an electric field or emf is applied across a piece of
material which is made of an element that is a good conductor, this will give rise
to a continual flux of charged particles through the conductor as shown in Fig 4.
This constitutes a flow of electric current. The quantity of this mobile charge
passing through a unit area of the material per unit time is referred to as the
charge flux density, J.
conducting
material

A
flux of charge
through material

uniform
cross
sectional
area

charge flux density

Fig. 4 Charge Flux Density in Conducting Material

Therefore, not only the quantity of charge which flows, but also the rate at
which it flows through a conductor is of importance in determining the total
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electric current. Electric current is defined as the quantity of charge flowing

through a piece of conducting material per unit time and is measured in units of
Amperes, named after the French physicist Andre-Marie Ampere (1775 - 1836).
This unit is generally shortened to Amps in Electrical Engineering. If a quantity
of charge, Q, flows through the conductor in a time, T, then the resulting
current is given as:

Current =

Ch arg e
Time

I=

Q
T

Amperes ( A)

The quantity of charge and the direction of flux depend on the strength
and direction of the electric field and the magnitude and polarity of the charge
on the particles. In the case of electricity and electric circuits the mobile
particles which contribute to the current flow are electrons which are negatively
charged. Unfortunately, in the discoveries of Physics of the 17th, 18th and 19th
centuries many of the conventions regarding polarity and direction were already
established before this was known. The direction on an electric filed is taken as
acting from the point of the more positive to that of the more negative (least
positive) potential (i.e. from plus to minus). Consequently, electrons being
negatively charged particles flow in a direction opposite to that of the electric
field. However, the direction of current flow is always specified as being in the
direction of the electric field. This is sometimes referred to as the direction of
conventional current. Another fundamental principle of electric current is that it
must always flow in a loop or circuit, hence the term electric circuit. This is
illustrated in Fig. 5 below.

Direction of
Conventional
Current
Direction of
Electric Field

Current Flow in
Loop or Circuit

Fig. 5

An Illustration of an Electric Circuit

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This illustration shows the electric circuit composed of a battery and a light
bulb. The battery provides the emf and the resulting electric field acts from its
positive terminal towards its negative terminal and hence around the loop
formed by the battery the conducting wire and the light bulb inserted into this
loop in between sections of the wire. It can be seen that conventional current is
taken as flowing in a clockwise direction around this circuit, while in reality
electrons are actually travelling in the opposite anti-clockwise direction.

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