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then be used to predict and optimize the absorption and barrier properties of the treatment.
The transfer matrix method has been widely used in the
past to analyze and to measure the acoustical properties of
flow system elements e.g., automotive mufflers. The particular implementation of the transfer matrix method described here was made possible by taking advantage of the
reciprocal nature of sound transmission through typical
acoustical materials: that reciprocity places conditions on the
structure of the transfer matrices of these materials. The resulting mathematical constraints make it possible to determine the acoustical properties of homogeneous and isotropic
porous materials by using fewer measurements than are typically necessary when using a transfer matrix approach.
The procedure is demonstrated here through measurements of the acoustical properties of aviation-grade glass fibers. Good agreement was found between the measured
acoustical properties of these materials and predictions made
using well-established semiempirical formulas. Note, however, that the procedure applied here cannot be applied directly in its present form to materials that must be modeled
as poroelastic: i.e., those materials in which two compressional waves and a transverse wave contribute significantly
to the materials acoustical properties.
I. BACKGROUND
In 1946, Scott described a technique for directly measuring the propagation constant and for inferring the characteristic impedance of a porous material.4 The propagation
constant, or wave number, as defined by Scott comprised a
real component, the propagation factor, governing the phase
change per unit length and an imaginary component, the attenuation factor, governing the exponential decay of sound
pressure within the porous material. The attenuation factor at
a single frequency was determined by passing a microphone
probe through a deep sample and measuring the decay of
mean-square sound pressure with position. The propagation
factor was determined at the same time by measuring the
sound fields phase change with distance. The characteristic
impedance was inferred by measuring the normal specific
acoustic impedance of a sample sufficiently deep that reflection from the tube termination was negligible. The same approach was also described by Beranek.5 The disturbance of
the acoustical material caused by the microphone probe has
proven to be a problem with Scotts technique in application
to some types of materials. More recently, a nonintrusive
version of Scotts wave number measurement was described
by Lambert and Tesar.6 In their procedure, a long sample of
porous material was placed in a standing wave tube as in
Scotts approach. However, the single-frequency sound field
within the porous material was sampled at 1-cm intervals
along its length by means of a probe microphone inserted
through the tube wall. The real and imaginary parts of the
wave number can easily be calculated from the latter data.
Following Scotts work, Beranek7 used an elastic porous
material theory similar to that of Zwikker and Kosten8 to
relate the wave number and characteristic impedance of a
porous material to its macroscopic physical properties: i.e.,
flow resistance, structure factor as then defined, porosity,
1132
density, and the volume stiffness coefficients for the air and
structure. He suggested that the theory could be used as an
alternative to direct measurement of the wave numbers and
characteristic impedances of either limp or rigid porous material.
Ferrero and Sacerdote subsequently proposed a second
style of material property measurement based on two measurements of surface-normal impedance.9 In particular, they
showed that it was possible to determine the characteristic
impedance and wave number of a porous material graphically and analytically by measuring at a single frequency the
surface-normal specific acoustic impedance of two different
thicknesses of the same porous material, one thickness being
double the other. Their particular procedure has since become known as the two-thickness method. When using this
technique, however, it is sometimes difficult to mount a second sample without disturbing the first, and the procedure
becomes inaccurate when the product of the attenuation factor and the sample depth is sufficiently large that the difference between the surface impedances of the two thicknesses
of material is relatively small. The latter problem is particularly significant for fibrous materials having high flow resistivities.
Yaniv eliminated problems associated with the use of
two thicknesses of material by introducing the two-cavity,
single-frequency method: during the first surface impedance
measurement the sample was backed by a rigid wall, while in
the second measurement the sample was backed by a onequarter-wavelength deep cavity terminated by a rigid wall.10
The wave numbers and characteristic impedances of a number of materials obtained by using this procedure were compared both with predictions made using the Beranek theory
and with results obtained by using Scotts method. The twocavity method was shown to give results in good agreement
with Beraneks theory over the frequency range considered:
Scotts method was found to be less accurate for the materials that Yaniv considered. Like the two-thickness method,
however, the two-cavity method can become inaccurate
when the sample material is highly dissipative: i.e., when the
surface-normal impedance is relatively insensitive to backing
conditions.
Smith and Parott have also evaluated the two-thickness
method, the two-cavity method, and Scotts method.11 They
found that the significant advantage of the two-cavity
method compared with the two-thickness method lies in the
reduction of both measurement times and the variation associated with mounting test materials that is made possible by
using the former method.
Utsuno et al. subsequently described a cross-spectral
implementation of the two-cavity method based on the twomicrophone method for measuring surface-normal
impedance.12,13 In their procedure, the wave number and
characteristic impedance were estimated on the basis of two
measurements of the surface impedance of a sample insonified by broadband noise: first when backed by a hard termination and then by an arbitrarily deep air space. Their approach allows results to be obtained over a broad range of
frequencies simultaneously and eliminates the need for a different backing depth at each frequency. However, in comB. H. Song and S. Bolton: Porous material properties
1132
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mon with other techniques based on surface-normal impedance measurement, this approach can be inaccurate when
applied to highly dissipative materials.
To address the latter concern, a third general type of
estimation procedure combining surface impedance information with measurements of transfer properties across the
sample has been developed by a number of investigators.
Such a procedure was implemented by Bordone-Sacerdote
and Sacerdote.14 In their procedure, transfer functions were
measured in two directions across a porous sample that divided a short tube terminated at both ends by acoustic drivers. By taking advantage of the reciprocal nature of sound
transmission through the sample, they were able to determine
parameters related directly to the wave number and characteristic impedance of the material under test. Although the
authors intention was to develop a procedure specifically
useful at very low frequencies, and which could also be used
to measure the materials dynamic flow resistivity, there appears to be no reason that this procedure could not work at
any frequency in the plane wave range. Note, however, that
the acoustic drivers which terminate the tube are required to
present a zero-velocity boundary condition when not in use:
this requirement may be difficult to satisfy when using conventional loudspeakers.
Some time later, Ingard and Dear described a simplified
two-microphone procedure for measuring the dynamic
flow impedance of a sample thin enough so that the acoustic
particle velocities on its two surfaces are negligibly
different.15,16 The latter requirement restricts the use of their
procedure to low frequencies. In this procedure a sample is
placed in a standing wave tube at a distance L from a rigid
termination, and the sound pressure is measured both at the
termination and at the front surface of the sample. At frequencies such that L is an odd number of quarter wavelengths, the normalized flow impedance of the sample is directly related to a ratio of the two sound pressures. This
procedure is of interest since the flow impedance as defined
by the authors may be related to the materials characteristic
impedance. However, owing to the requirement that the
sample depth be very small compared to a wavelength, this
procedure cannot be used to estimate a materials wave number, and as noted, it may only be applied at a discrete set of
frequencies determined by the length of the terminating air
space.
McIntosh et al. subsequently described a more general
apparatus and procedure for measuring the low frequency,
dynamic flow impedance of a sample.17 Their apparatus was
similar to that of Ingard and Dear except that a linear array of
microphones positioned in front of the incident surface of the
sample was used to estimate the complex pressure and particle velocity on the incident face of the sample at each frequency of interest. The sound pressure measured at a microphone mounted flush with the rigid termination was used to
estimate the same information at the transmission face of the
sample without restriction on frequency. The pressure and
particle velocity information could then be used to estimate
the dynamic flow resistivity at low frequencies: i.e., when
the sample thickness was small compared to a wavelength.
However, McIntosh et al. noted that the same information
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2a
j P 2 e jkx 1 P 1 e jkx 2
,
B
2 sin k x 1 x 2
2b
j P 3 e jkx 4 P 4 e jkx 3
,
2 sin k x 3 x 4
2c
j P 4 e jkx 3 P 3 e jkx 4
.
2 sin k x 3 x 4
2d
Here, the transfer matrix is used to relate the sound pressures and normal acoustic particle velocities on the two faces
of a porous layer extending from x0 to xd as in Fig. 1,
i.e.,
jkx 2
P 3 Ce
jkx 3
Be
jt
1a
1b
jt
1c
P 4 Ce jkx 4 De jkx 4 e j t .
1d
jkx 2
De
jkx 3
x0
T 11
T 12 P
T 21 T 22 V
xd
4a
AB
,
0c
4b
P xd Ce jkd De jkd ,
4c
Ce jkd De jkd
,
0c
4d
V x0
V xd
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5a
5b
P xd V xd P x0 V x0
,
P x0 V xd P xd V x0
2
2
P xd
P x0
P x0 V xd P xd V x0
2
2
V x0
V xd
P x0 V xd P xd V x0
P xd V xd P x0 V x0
.
T 22
P x0 V xd P xd V x0
When the incident plane wave is assumed to have unit amplitude, the sound pressures and particle velocities on the
two surfaces of the porous layer become
P x0 1R,
7a
1R
,
0c
7b
V x0
P xd Te jkd ,
7c
Te jkd
,
0c
7d
V xd
2e jkd
,
T 11 T 12 / 0 c 0 cT 21T 22
R a
T 11 T 12 / 0 c 0 cT 21T 22
.
T 11 T 12 / 0 c 0 cT 21T 22
T 11 0 cT 21
.
T 11 0 cT 21
10
6a
6b
6c
6d
Once the transfer matrix elements are known, all of the other
acoustical properties of a porous layer, e.g., the reflection
and transmission coefficients, can be calculated, as will be
demonstrated next.
T 11
T 12
T 21 T 22
cos k p d
j p c p sin k p d
j sin k p d/ p c p
cos k p d
11
12a
1
k p sin1 T 12T 21,
d
12b
or
C. Calculation of reflection and transmission
coefficients
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pc p
T 12
.
T 21
13
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Sample
Bulk density
kg/m3
Flow resistivity
MKS Rayls/m
A
B
6.7
9.6
1.5104
2.4104
1.4103
2.5103
The magnitudes and phases of the averaged transfer matrix elements for the two materials considered here, calculated using Eqs. 6, are plotted in Fig. 4. Each of the elements is significant in this case, and each has a particular
physical meaning. Note first that the elements T 11 and T 22
are identical owing to the constraint, Eq. 5a, imposed by
FIG. 3. Normal incidence transmission loss of lining materials A and B. Solid line: sample A; dashed line: sample B. Dotted lines indicate one standard
deviation.
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FIG. 4. Transfer matrix elements for samples A and B. Dotted lines indicate one standard deviation. a Magnitude, and b phase. Solid line: sample A;
dashed line: sample B.
symmetry. Further, the element T 11 is the ratio of the upstream and downstream pressures in the case of a zero velocity state at the downstream layer surface, and it is thus
dimensionless. The element T 12 is the ratio of the upstream
pressure and downstream velocity when a zero-pressure state
exists at the downstream surface of the sample, and thus it
has the units of impedance. Conversely, T 21 represents the
ratio of the upstream velocity and the downstream pressure
1138
The wave numbers and normalized characteristic impedances of the materials considered here are plotted in Figs. 5
B. H. Song and S. Bolton: Porous material properties
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FIG. 5. Wave number within lining material determined by using transfer matrix method and predicted using semiempirical formulas: a sample A; b
sample B.
c ph
,
c
cp
14
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FIG. 6. Normalized characteristic impedance of lining material determined by using transfer matrix method and predicted using semiempirical formulas: a
sample A; b sample B.
are plotted in Fig. 7, where it can be seen that there is reasonable agreement between the measurements and the
Delany and Bazley prediction except at the lowest frequencies, for the reasons discussed above.
Note that, as expected, the phase speed is reduced in the
porous medium compared to that in air. As a result, higherorder duct modes may cut on within the porous material
at frequencies lower than they would in air, approximately
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FIG. 7. Normalized phase speed and attenuation per wavelength determined by using transfer matrix method and predicted using semiempirical formulas: a
sample A; b sample B.
p p 2 p / p .
15
As mentioned in the Introduction, homogeneous and isotropic limp or rigid porous materials may be modeled as
B. H. Song and S. Bolton: Porous material properties
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FIG. 8. Normalized complex density determined by using transfer matrix method and predicted using semiempirical formulas: a sample A; b sample B.
p pc p k p
,
0
0
16
cp
.
c
k pc
B. H. Song and S. Bolton: Porous material properties
17
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FIG. 9. Normalized complex sound speed determined by using transfer matrix method and predicted using semiempirical formulas: a sample A; b
sample B.
The normalized complex densities of the present materials are shown in Fig. 8, where it can be seen that there is
good agreement with the theoretical prediction at frequencies
above 1 kHz. Note that the complex density used here is a
bulk density in contrast to the pore-based complex density
referred to in Ref. 32: the two quantities differ by a factor of
porosity. The normalized complex sound speeds are shown
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in Fig. 9, where again it can be seen that there is good general agreement with the theoretical predictions.
E. Prediction of reflection coefficient for the hardtermination case
1143
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applications. For example, the reflection coefficient of a porous layer positioned in front of either an anechoic or rigid
termination can be calculated based on a knowledge of the
transfer matrix elements by using Eqs. 9 and 10, respectively. In Fig. 10, the magnitudes of the directly measured
reflection coefficients for the two materials in the hardtermination configuration evaluated as R h B / A ) are
compared with the predicted ones based on the measured
transfer matrix elements.
The measured results shown are the average of ten indi1144
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FIG. 11. Wave number within lining material determined by using transfer matrix method in combination with different sample thicknesses, as noted: a
sample A; b sample B.
tions of the reflection or transmission coefficients of an arbitrary thickness of that material may be made by using the
transfer matrix approach. In addition, the transfer matrix approach may be extended to non-normal incidence cases to
predict the oblique incidence behavior of sheets of porous
materials, either alone or in combination with other acoustical elements.3,16,32
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V. VERIFICATION STUDIES
A. Effect of sample depth
Finally, it was of interest to perform a sequence of experiments to verify the capabilities of the transfer matrix procedure described here. First, the effect of sample depth will
B. H. Song and S. Bolton: Porous material properties
1145
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FIG. 12. Normalized characteristic impedance of lining material determined by using transfer matrix method in combination with different sample thickness:
a sample A; b sample B.
be demonstrated. The wave number and characteristic impedance are both inherent properties of a homogeneous fibrous material, and thus, if the proposed procedure works
properly, the estimated values of these quantities should not
depend on the depth of the sample under test. Here, measurements were made using ten 5-cm-deep samples and ten 2.5cm-deep samples of both materials A and B: those results
were compared with the estimates made using the 7.5-cm1146
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FIG. 13. Normal incidence transmission losses of lining material A estimated by using the transfer matrix method in combination with three different
termination conditions.
It was pointed out earlier that a knowledge of the tubetermination impedance is not required when using the
present approach: it was of interest to confirm this feature of
the transfer matrix method. Second, it was of interest to illustrate the errors introduced in transmission loss estimates
when no account was made of reflections from the termination. Measurements of the transmission loss of the 7.5-cm
depths of sample A made using the transfer matrix procedure
in combination with three termination conditions nearly
anechoic as described in Sec. III, rigid and open are shown
in Fig. 13. It may be seen that the differences between the
three estimates are small even when the termination conditions are dramatically different. Noticeable discrepancies occur below 500 Hz, which, however, is the lower limit of the
frequency range over which results are known to be accurate
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FIG. 14. a Wave number and b normalized characteristic impedance estimated for material A by using the transfer matrix method in combination with
three different termination conditions.
as may be seen from Fig. 17. Note, however, that the twoload results are distorted by a small oscillatory error at high
frequencies that presumably results from the highly reactive
downstream sound field in the rigid termination case. Thus, it
may be concluded that the transfer matrix method presented
here yields results that are of the same or better quality than
B. H. Song and S. Bolton: Porous material properties
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FIG. 15. Normal incidence transmission losses of lining material A estimated using the ratio C / A for three different termination conditions.
FIG. 16. Comparisons of the normal incidence transmission loss of sample A estimated by using the transfer matrix method and two-load method.
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FIG. 17. a Wave number, and b normalized characteristic impedance for material A estimated by using the transfer matrix method and two-load method.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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P A
V A
T 12 P B
T 11
T 21 T 22 V B
V B
R 1
T 11 T 12 / 0 c T 21 0 cT 22
,
T 11 T 12 / 0 c T 21 0 cT 22
A11
T 1
2e jkd
,
T 11 T 12 / 0 c T 21 0 cT 22
A12
R 2
T 11 T 12 / 0 c T 21 0 cT 22
,
T 11 T 12 / 0 c T 21 0 cT 22
A13
T 2
A14
where
P A 1R 1 ,
A2
1R 1
,
0c
A3
V A
P B T 1 e
jkd
A4
T 1 e jkd
V B
.
0c
A5
In case b, the sound pressures and normal particle velocities at surfaces A and B are related by
P A
V A
T 11 T 12 P B
T 21
T 22 V B
A6
jkd
T 2e
V A
0c
P B 1R 2 ,
1151
A8
A9
A15
A10
A1
R 2 1
.
0c
A16
1151
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1152
23
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24
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25
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26
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27
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28
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29
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