AE 152 IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE

1st Semester, SY 2016-2017

Learning Unit No. 1
SOIL-WATER-PLANT RELATIONSHIPS
Objectives:
After reading this module, you will be able to:
a. Enumerate the components of a soil system and describe its compositions;
b. Describe why water is essential to plants;
c. Compile a list of at least 10 crops commonly grown in Ilocos Sur showing their
corresponding growth stage most susceptible to drought stress and rooting depth;
d. Enumerate the different classifications of soil moisture or soil water and describe their
relative quantities in clayey and sandy soils;
e. Define plant available water (PAW) mathematically;
f. Describe the different factors that determine when, where, and how much water a plant
needs; and
g. Explain the importance of knowing the interrelationships of soil, water and plants.
I.

Introduction

Plant growth depends on the use of two important natural resources soil and water. Soil
provides the mechanical and nutrient support necessary for plant growth. Water is essential for
plant life processes. Effective management of these resources for crop production requires
understanding their relationships.
Likewise, a proper understanding of soil-plant-water relationships is important to irrigation
scheduling. It is simply knowing when to irrigate and how much irrigation water to apply. An
effective irrigation schedule helps maximize profit while minimizing water and energy use.
II.

Soil

As shown in Figure 1, the soil system is composed of three major components: air, water,
and solids. An active root system requires a delicate balance among these three soil
components; but the balance between the liquid (water) and gas (air) phases is most critical,
since it regulates root activity and plant growth processes.
Soil is a mixture of mineral matter, organic matter, and pores. The mineral matter makes
up about one-half of the total soil volume. This mineral matter consists of small mineral particles
of either sand, silt, or clay. Organic matter is made up of decaying plant and animal substances
and is distributed in and among the mineral particles. Organic matter accounts for about 1 to 5
percent of the overall soil makeup. The combination of mineral and organic matter is referred to
as the solids. The pores, spaces that occur around the mineral particles, are important because
they store air and water in the soil. Approximately 50 percent of the soil makeup is pores.

Dr. Gregorio S. Roa, Jr., PhD, RPAE

Associate Professor V
ISPSC, Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur

AE 152 IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE

1st Semester, SY 2016-2017

Figure 1. Schematic representation of a soil system

composed of air, water and solids
The overall composition of soil is 45 to 49 percent mineral particles, 1 to 5 percent organic
matter, and 50 percent pores. The amount of water and air present in the pore spaces varies
over time in an inverse relationship. This means that for more water to be contained in the soil,
there has to be less air.
III.

Water

Water is essential to plants for a number of reasons. Water transports minerals through the
soil to the roots where they are absorbed by the plant. Water is also the principal medium for the
chemical and biochemical processes that support plant metabolism. Under pressure within plant
cells, water provides physical support for plants. It also acts as a solvent for dissolved sugars and
minerals transported throughout the plant. In addition, evaporation within intercellular spaces
provides the cooling mechanism that allows plants to maintain the favorable temperatures
necessary for metabolic processes.
Water is transported throughout plants almost continuously. There is a constant
movement of water from the soil to the roots, from the roots into the various parts of the plant,
then into the leaves where it is released into the atmosphere as water vapor through the
stomata. Stomata can be found on one (typically underside) or both sides of a leaf depending
on plant species.
Well-watered plants maintain their shape due to the internal pressure in plant cells (turgor
pressure). This pressure is also necessary for plant cell expansion and consequently for plant
growth. Loss of this pressure due to insufficient water supply can be noticed as plant wilting.
The major economic consequence of insufficient water in agricultural crops is yield
reduction. When too little water is available in the root zone, the plant will reduce the amount of

Dr. Gregorio S. Roa, Jr., PhD, RPAE

Associate Professor V
ISPSC, Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur

AE 152 IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE

1st Semester, SY 2016-2017
water lost through transpiration by partial or total stomatal closure. This results in decreased
photosynthesis since the CO2 required for this process enters the plant through the stomata.
Decreased photosynthesis reduces biomass production and results in decreased yields.
IV.

Soil-Water Relationship

Soil properties directly affect the availability of water and nutrients to plants. Soil water
affects plant growth directly through its controlling effect on plant water status and indirectly
through its effect on aeration, temperature, and nutrient uptake and transport.
The proportion of the soil occupied by water and air is referred to as the pore volume.
The pore volume is a function of soil texture clayey soil has higher pore volume than sandy soil
(see Figure 2). But for a given soil texture, it can be altered by tillage and compaction. The ratio
of air to water stored in the pores changes as water is added to or lost from the soil. The pore
volume is actually a reservoir for holding water. This is called water holding capacity (WHC) of
the soil.

Figure 2. Schematic representation of soil water content

and classification of soil water
Soil holds water in two ways as a thin film on individual soil particles, and as water stored
in the pores of the soil. Water or moisture content (MC) of soil indicates the amount of water
stored in it at any given time. The soil MC is described as saturation (top of diagram in Figure 2),
field capacity (FC), permanent wilting point (PWP), and oven dried (bottom of diagram in Figure
2).
When the soil is at or near saturation, some of the water is free to drain or percolate due
to the force of gravity.

Dr. Gregorio S. Roa, Jr., PhD, RPAE

Associate Professor V
ISPSC, Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur

AE 152 IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE

1st Semester, SY 2016-2017
FC is the amount of water remaining in the soil after percolation has occurred. It is
defined to be at approximately one-third atmosphere pressure or approximately 0.3 bar. At FC, it
is very easy for the plant to extract water from the soil.
PWP occurs when the potential of the plant root is balanced by the soil water potential.
Thus, plants are unable to absorb water beyond this tension. This occurs at approximately 15
bars. Crops will die if soil water is allowed to reach the PWP.
Soil that has been oven dried is used as a reference point for determining soil water
content. This is when all soil water has been removed from the soil. The soil water tension in an
oven-dried soil sample is approximately 10,000 bars.
Not all of the water in the soil reservoir is available for plant use. As shown in Figure 2,
these are classified as drainage or gravitational water, capillary water and hygroscopic water.
The water that percolates below the root zone due to the force of gravity is gravitational water.
It is deposited and forms part of the groundwater water in the aquifer. Unless it is beyond the
root zone, gravitational water is not readily available to plants.
During prolonged heavy rainfall or basin irrigation, the soil is at saturated condition
wherein all pore spaces are filled with water (see Figure 3). After 2 to 3 days, the soil is at FC.
Under this condition, it contains the greatest amount of water that is potentially available to
plants. The actual volume of water present when the soil is at FC depends on the soil texture.

Figure 3. Soil at saturated condition

Water between the FC and PWP is called capillary water. This is the water retained in the
soil pores after gravitational water has drained. Plants get most of their water from capillary
water.

Dr. Gregorio S. Roa, Jr., PhD, RPAE

Associate Professor V
ISPSC, Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur

AE 152 IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE

1st Semester, SY 2016-2017
Surface tension or pressure holds capillary water around the soil particles, as shown in
Figure 4. As water is removed by plants or by evaporation from the soil surface, the films of water
remaining around the soil particles become thinner and are held by the soil particles more tightly
(see Figure 5).

Figure 4. Soil at field capacity

Figure 5. Soil at permanent wilting point

As water is depleted from the soil, the surface tension becomes high and the plant hardly
takes up water. This is called temporary wilting point (TWP) wherein wilting is evident during

Dr. Gregorio S. Roa, Jr., PhD, RPAE

Associate Professor V
ISPSC, Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur

AE 152 IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE

1st Semester, SY 2016-2017
daytime but the plant recovers during nighttime when evapotranspiration is relatively less. When
the same condition persists and no water is added to the soil, the surface tension becomes even
more higher until the plant is unable to take up any of the remaining water and permanent
wilting results. When the plant has removed all available water, the soil water or moisture
content has reached the PWP. The plant will eventually die even when water is added to the
soil.
Plant-available water (PAW) is the volume of water stored in the soil reservoir that can be
used by plants. It is the difference between the volume of water stored when the soil is at field
capacity and the volume still remaining when the soil reaches the permanent wilting point
(shown as the lower limit of FC in Figure 2).
The amount of PAW stored in the soil reservoir is commonly expressed as the depth of
water per unit depth of soil. Typical units are inches of PAW per inch of soil depth or inches of
PAW per foot of soil depth. Different types of soils have different PAWs, which range from less
than 0.05 inch of PAW per inch of soil for coarse sandy soils to nearly 0.2 inch of PAW per inch of
soil for silty loams.
The amount of PAW remaining in the soil decreases as plants extract water from the soil.
The amount of PAW removed since the last irrigation or rainfall is the depletion volume. Crop
yield or quality will not be reduced as long as the amount of water used by the crop does not
exceed the allowable depletion volume.
The allowable depletion of PAW depends on the soil and the crop. For example,
consider corn growing in a sandy loam soil three days after a soaking rain. Even though enough
PAW may be avai1able for good plant growth, the plant may wilt during the day when
evapotranspiration (ET) is high.
ET is a function of atmospheric conditions and is higher during the day. Plants must
extract water from the soil that is next to the roots. As the zone around the root begins to dry,
water must move through the soil toward the root. Daytime wilting occurs when ET is high and
the plant takes up water slower than the water can be replaced.
V.

Plant Factors

There are several factors that determine when, where, and how much water a plant will
use. These factors include daily plant water need as influenced by ET which, in turn, is a function
of climatic conditions and growth stage, plant root depth, crop sensitivity to drought stress, and
soil and water quality.
Growth Stage. A plant has different water needs at different growth stages. While a plant
is young it requires less water than when it is in the reproductive stage. When the plant
approaches maturity its water need drops.
At night when ET decreases to near zero, water steadily moves from the wetter soil to the
drier zone around the roots. The plant recovers turgor and wilting ceases. This process of wilting
during the day and recovering at night is referred to as temporary wilting. When temporary
wilting is manifested, irrigation water must be applied within 3 to 5 days.

Dr. Gregorio S. Roa, Jr., PhD, RPAE

Associate Professor V
ISPSC, Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur

AE 152 IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE

1st Semester, SY 2016-2017
Most field crops will recover overnight from temporary wilting if less than 50 percent of
the PAW has been depleted. However, the recommended volume may range from 40 percent
or less in sandy soils to greater than 60 percent in clayey soils. The allowable depletion is also
dependent on the type of crop, its stage of development, and its sensitivity to drought stress. For
example, the allowable depletion recommended for some drought-sensitive crops particularly
vegetable crops is only 20 percent during critical stages of development. The allowable
depletion may approach 70 percent during non-critical periods for drought-tolerant crops such
as soybeans or cotton.
Effective Root Depth. Rooting depth is the depth of the soil reservoir that the plant can
reach to get PAW. Plant roots do not extract water uniformly from the entire root zone. Thus, the
effective root depth is that portion of the root zone where the plant extracts the majority of its
water. Effective root depth is determined by both crop and soil properties.
Different species of plants have different potential rooting depths. The potential rooting
depth is the maximum rooting depth of a crop when grown in a moist soil with no barriers or
restrictions that inhibit root elongation. Potential rooting depths of most agricultural crops range
from about 2 to 5 feet. For example, the potential rooting depth of corn is about 4 feet.
Water uptake by a specific crop is closely related to its root distribution in the soil. As
shown in Figure 6, about 70 percent of a plant's roots are found in the upper half of the crop's
maximum rooting depth. Deeper roots can extract moisture to keep the plant alive, but they do
not extract sufficient water to maintain optimum growth. When adequate moisture is present,
water uptake by the crop is about the same as its root distribution. Thus, about 70 percent of the
water used by the crop comes from the upper half of the root zone. This zone is the effective
root depth.

Figure 6. Proportion of moisture absorption at various root depths

Dr. Gregorio S. Roa, Jr., PhD, RPAE

Associate Professor V
ISPSC, Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur

AE 152 IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE

1st Semester, SY 2016-2017
The maximum rooting depth of crops is usually less than their potential rooting depth and
is restricted by soil chemical or physical barriers (see Figure 7). A pH of about 4.5 to 5.0 has a
limiting effect to root growth. Liming practices rarely improve soil pH below the 2-foot depth.
Shallow soils or soils with compacted tillage pans are examples of soils with physical barriers that
restrict root penetration below the plow depth, usually less than 12 inches unless subsoiling is
practiced. Thus, for example, while corn has a potential rooting depth of 4 feet, when grown
under these conditions, its maximum rooting depth is about 2 feet.

Figure 7. Soil properties that influence root depth

The effective root depth is the depth that should be used to compute the volume of
PAW in the soil reservoir. The effective root depth for a mature crop is estimated to be one-half
the maximum rooting depth reported in literatures. For example, if a given crop has a maximum
rooting depth of 2 feet, then the maximum effective root depth is estimated to be 1 foot.
Effective root depth is further influenced by the stage of crop development. Effective root depth
for most crops increases as top growth increases until the reproductive stage is reached. After
this time, effective root depth remains fairly constant.

Dr. Gregorio S. Roa, Jr., PhD, RPAE

Associate Professor V
ISPSC, Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur

AE 152 IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE

1st Semester, SY 2016-2017
Crop Sensitivity to Drought Stress. The reduction in crop yield or quality resulting from
drought stress depends on the stage of crop development. For example, corn is most
susceptible to stresses caused by dry conditions at silking stage. For a given level of stress, the
yield reduction for corn would be four times greater at silking stage than at knee-high stage.
From the yield standpoint, applying irrigation water at silking stage would be worth four times
more than if the same amount of water was applied during the knee-high stage. Knowledge of
this relationship is most useful when the irrigation capacity or water supply is limited. When water
is in short supply, irrigation should be delayed or cancelled during the least susceptible crop
growth stages. This water can then be reserved for use during more sensitive growth stages.
For most field crops, the most critical irrigation period typically begins just before the
reproductive stage and lasts about 30 to 40 days to the end of the fruit enlargement or grain
development stage.
Soil and Water Quality. Another factor on the amount of soil water available to the plant
is the soil and water quality. For optimum plant growth and development, the soil must have
adequate room for water and air movement, and for root growth. The soil structure can be
altered by certain soil management practices. For example, excessive tillage can break apart
aggregated soil and excessive traffic can cause compaction. Both of these practices reduce
the amount of pore space in the soil, and thus reduce the availability of water and air, and
reduce the room for root development.
The quality of the water is also important to plant development. Irrigation water with a
high content of soluble salt is not as available to the plant, so a higher soil MC must be
maintained in order to have water available to the plant. Increasing salt content of the water
reduces the potential to move water from the soil to the roots. Some additional water would also
be needed to leach the salt below the crop root zone to prevent build-up in the soil. Poor quality
water can affect soil structure.
Student Activity:

1. What are the components of a soil system? Describe its compositions.

2. Why is water essential to plants? Explain in not more than 100 words.
3. Prepare a list of at least 10 crops commonly grown in Ilocos Sur and their
corresponding growth stage most susceptible to drought stress, and
rooting depth. Cite the source(s) of said information.
4. What are the different classifications of soil moisture or soil water?
Describe their relative quantities in clayey and sandy soils.
5. Express plant available water (PAW) mathematically.
6. Describe in your own word the different factors that determine when,
where, and how much water a plant needs.
7. How important this topic on soil-water-plant relationship is to you as an
agricultural engineer?

Dr. Gregorio S. Roa, Jr., PhD, RPAE

Associate Professor V
ISPSC, Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur

AE 152 IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE

1st Semester, SY 2016-2017
References:
Bouma J., R.B. Brown, and P.S.C. Rao. 1982. Basics of soil-water relationships - Part I. Soil as a porous
medium. Soil Science Fact Sheet SL-37. Florida Cooperative Extension Service. IFAS,
Gainesville, FL.
____________________. 1982. Basics of soil-water relationships - Part II. Retention of water. Soil
Science Fact Sheet SL-38. Florida Cooperative Extension Service. IFAS, Gainesville, FL.
____________________. 1982. Basics of soil-water relationships - Part III. Movement of water. Soil
Science Fact Sheet SL-39. Florida Cooperative Extension Service. IFAS, Gainesville, FL.
Evans, Robert, D.K. Cassel and R.E. Sneed. 1996. Soil, water and crop characteristics important to
irrigation scheduling. Publication No. AG 452-1. North Carolina Cooperative Extension
Service.
Haman, Dorota Z. and Forrest T. Izuno. 1993. Soil plant water relationships. CIR1085. Florida
Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of
Florida, Gainesville FL 32611.
Merva, G.E. 1975. Physioengineering principles. AVI Publishing Co., Inc. Westport, CT.
Rogers, Danny H. and William M. Sothers. 1996. Irrigation management. Cooperative Extension
Service. Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.

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Dr. Gregorio S. Roa, Jr., PhD, RPAE

Associate Professor V
ISPSC, Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur