COMPOSITION OF URINE: Urine is mainly composed of water, urea and sodium

chloride. I an adult taking about 100 g protein in 24 hours, the composition of

urine is likely to be as follows:
1. Water: Near about 96%
2. Solids: About 4% (urea 2% and other metabolic products 2%. Other
metabolic products include: uric acid, creatinine, electrolytes or salts
such as sodium chloride, potassium chloride and bicarbonate).

Urea is one of the end products of protein metabolism. It is prepared

from the deaminated amino-acid in the liver and reach the kidneys
through blood circulation (The normal blood urea level is 20-40 mg/dl).
About 30 gram urea is excreted by the kidneys daily.

Uric Acid: The normal level of uric acid in blood is 2 to 6 mg/dl and
about 1.5 to 2 gram is excreted daily in urine.

Creatinine: Creatinine is the metabolic waste of creatin in muscle.

Purine bodies, oxalates, phosphates, sulphates and urates are the other
metabolic products.

Electrolytes or salts such as sodium chloride and potassium chloride

are also excreted in the urine to maintain the normal level in blood.
These are the salts which are the part of our daily diet and are always
taken in excess and need to be

Electrolyte is a "medical/scientific" term for salts, specifically ions. The term

electrolyte means that this ion is electrically-charged and moves to either
a negative (cathode) orpositive (anode) electrode:

ions that move to the cathode (cations) are positively charged

ions that move to the anode (anions) are negatively charged

For example, your body fluids -- blood, plasma, interstitial fluid (fluid between
cells) -- are like seawater and have a high concentration ofsodium
chloride (table salt, or NaCl). The electrolytes in sodium chloride are:

sodium ion (Na+) - cation

chloride ion (Cl-) - anion

As for your body, the major electrolytes are as follows:

sodium (Na+)

potassium (K+)

chloride (Cl-)

calcium (Ca2+)

magnesium (Mg2+)

bicarbonate (HCO3-)

phosphate (PO42-)

sulfate (SO42-)

Electrochemical Process
An electrochemical process is a chemical reaction that either causes or is caused
by the movement of electrical current. These processes are a type of oxidationreduction reaction in which one atom or molecule loses an electron to another
atom or molecule. In electrochemical reactions, the atoms or molecules in the
reaction are relatively far apart from each other compared to other reactions,
forcing the electrons being transferred to travel a greater distance and thereby
produce an electrical current. Many natural phenomena are based on
electrochemical processes, such as the corrosion of metals, the ability of some
sea creatures to generate electrical fields, and the workings of the nervous
systems of humans and other animals. They also play an important role in
modern technology, most prominently in the storage of electrical power in
batteries, and the electrochemical process called electrolysis is important in
modern industry.
Electrolysis is an electrochemical process in which electrical current is used to
trigger chemical reactions in a substance containing free ions, called an
electrolyte. The electrolyte is either melted or dissolved in a solvent, and two
electrodes, called the anode and cathode, are immersed in it. When an electrical
potential is applied between the electrodes, electricity begins to flow between
them, and each electrode begins attracting ions with the opposite of its own

charge. The ions gain or lose electrons to the electrodes, causing oxidation of
molecules near the anode and reduction of those near the cathode.

The term "redox" stands for reduction-oxidation. It refers to electrochemical

processes involving electron transfer to or from a molecule or ion changing
its oxidation state. This reaction can occur through the application of an
external voltage or through the release of chemical energy. Oxidation and
reduction describe the change of oxidation state that takes place in the atoms,
ions or molecules involved in an electrochemical reaction. Formally, oxidation
state is the hypothetical charge that an atom would have if all bonds to atoms of
different elements were 100% ionic. An atom or ion that gives up an electron to
another atom or ion has its oxidation state increase, and the recipient of the
negatively charged electron has its oxidation state decrease.
For example, when atomic sodium reacts with atomic chlorine, sodium donates
one electron and attains an oxidation state of +1. Chlorine accepts the electron
and its oxidation state is reduced to 1. The sign of the oxidation state
(positive/negative) actually corresponds to the value of each ion's electronic
charge. The attraction of the differently charged sodium and chlorine ions is the
reason they then form an ionic bond.
The loss of electrons from an atom or molecule is called oxidation, and the gain
of electrons is reduction. This can be easily remembered through the use
of mnemonic devices. Two of the most popular are "OIL RIG" (Oxidation Is Loss,
Reduction Is Gain) and "LEO" the lion says "GER" (Lose Electrons: Oxidation, Gain
Electrons: Reduction). Oxidation and reduction always occur in a paired fashion
such that one species is oxidized when another is reduced. For cases where
electrons are shared (covalent bonds) between atoms with large differences
in electronegativity, the electron is assigned to the atom with the largest
electronegativity in determining the oxidation state.

What is an inductive-boost dc-dc converter?

Closing the switch causes current to build up through the inductor, as shown in
the simplified inductive-boost dc-dc converter circuit (Fig. 1). Opening the switch
forces current through the diode to the output capacitor. Multiple switching
cycles build the output capacitor voltage due to charge it stores from the
inductor current. This results in an output voltage thats higher than the input.
What determines the output voltage of the inductive-boost dc-dc converter?
In the real circuit of Figure 2, an IC with an integrated power MOSFET replaces
the mechanical switch, and pulse-width modulation (PWM) control turns the
MOSFET on and off. PWM duty cycle always determines the output voltage, which
is twice the input for a 50% duty cycle. Stepping up the voltage by a factor of
two causes the input current to be twice the output current. In a real circuit with
losses, the input current is slightly higher.

This is a pulse generator circuits or standard astable oscillator circuit for IC

555 timer,NE555N IC.
Use for digital Logic circuit. IC 555 use voltage supply 5V to 15V.
We have many circuits for you can builds easy below.

Simple Pulse Generator circuit by IC-555

The output frequency will be approximately 1kHz and the duty cycle 50-50, The
outputs frequency is control by R1.
f=1/(1.4*R*C).
The values in the formula are expressed in ohms, farads, seconds and hertz. This
formula is much simpler than that of the previous circuit.

Basic Principle:
A boost
converter
works in two stages, ON and OFF. In the ON stage the Semi-conductive Switch is
conducting and current builds up in the inductor producing an
electromagnetic field, this field stores energy. In the OFF stage the Semiconductive Switch does not conduct and the electromagnetic field collapses.
When the field collapses the energy stored
in it can not escape through the Semi-conductive Switch so it goes through the
diode and into the load/Capacitor at a much higher voltage. This happens several
thousand times a second via the pulses from the NE555 Timer Chip and the
result is being able to charge a high voltage capacitor from a low voltage source.
Below is some aid for those of you who do not know electronics well.
R-Resistor
VR-Variable Resistor (also called a Potentiometer)
B-Battery
V-Voltage Source
C-Capacitor
D-Diode
L-Inductor
U / IC-Integrated Circuit
Q-Transistor / IGBT
M-MOSFET
GND- Ground (Negative terminal of Battery for Portable Applications)

Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry. This is where the chemical world meets the electrical
world. Electrochemistry is when chemical energy is transformed into electrical
energy, which is then often transformed into another kind of energy, such as
light or heat. It is extremely important to us because of how much electricity we
use in our daily lives. Electricity, remember, is the flow of electrons through a
path, usually a wire. The whole path is called a circuit.

The parts of an electrochemical cell

A flashlight is an example of electrochemistry. Its batteries are undergoing a
chemical reaction that transfers chemical energy to electrical energy to light
energy.
Parts of an Electrochemical Cell
The flashlight battery is an electrochemical cell. An electrochemical cell is
something that changes chemical energy to electrical energy. It contains two
compartments, each with an electrode submerged in an electrolyte. The
electrode is just a conductor, usually a metal that connects to a nonmetallic part
of a circuit. The electrolyte is a fluid that conducts electricity. One of the plates is
positive and one of them is negative. Those two plates are called the cathode
and anode, and they're connected by a wire that completes the circuit.
Often one metal strip in the battery is copper and it acts as a cathode, which is
the electrode where reduction takes place and electrons are gained. The other
electrode is the anode, often zinc, where oxidation takes place and electrons are
lost.
Electrons
leave
the system from
the
anode and go
into the
wire.

Electrons move from the anode to the

cathode through the wire.
So what happens is the electrons on the anode are lost and travel through the
wire to the cathode, where electrons are gained. The solutions the two electrodes

are in helps conduct the electrons from the surface of the electrode to the wire.
The two electrodes are in separate compartments, separated by a porous barrier
or salt bridge. The barrier or bridge allows the ions in both solutions to move
from one side to the other to prevent charge from building up on the electrodes.
The chemical reaction that occurs in the electrochemical cell is a redox, or
reduction-oxidation, reaction. As its name implies, that reaction's made up of two
parts: a reduction reaction where electrons are gained and an oxidation reaction
where electrons are lost.

If one metal strip has more extra electrons than another one does, those
electrons will flow from the first strip to the second, until they both have the
same charge. But to flow, the electrons need a conductive path. We give them
that path when we connect two strips of different metals with a wire. The
electrons then flow through that wire, creating an electric current.
Electrolysis

A process that forces a current through a cell to produce a

chemical change for which the cell potential is negative.