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Chapter # 01

INTRODUCTION TO FUNDAMENTAL
CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

Q.1 Define Chemistry. Write down the names of its branches.

Definition of chemistry:
Chemistry is the branch of science, which deals with the properties, compositions and the structure of matter. It
also deals with the chemical changes in matter and the principles, which govern these changes.
Branches of Chemistry
There are many branches of chemistry, some are following:
Organic Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry
Physical Chemistry
Biochemistry
Analytical Chemistry
Industrial Chemistry
Nuclear Chemistry

EXPONENTS NOTATION
Q.2 Define and explain Exponents Notation with examples. Write down its rules.
Definition:
It is a method by which very large or very small figures can be expressed in a short manner.
Explanation:
By exponent notation largest or smallest values can be expressed in a short manner or scientific notation.
For example the number of atoms present in one mole of element is found to be 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
by this method; it can be expressed as 6.02 x 1023.
Examples:
0.002 = 2 x 10-3 ,
5555 = 5 x 103
Parts of Scientific Notation:
There are following three parts of exponent notation.
(i) Co-efficient:
It is the number that is multiplied by 10 raised to a power.
(ii) Base:
10 is used as the base of the power.
(iii) Exponent:
It is the power to which 10 is raised. It may be positive or negative.

Co-efficient

Exponent

6.02 x 1023
Base

Rules for Determining Methods for Exponents On 10:

There are following two rules:
(1) When decimal is shifted towards left, the exponent is positive. For example 7782 = 7.78 x 103
(2) When decimal is shifted towards right, the exponent is negative. For example 0.00045 = 4.5 10-4
Muhammad Zia-ul-Haque Rathore, Lecturer Chemistry , S.A.L Govt. College Mirpurkhas (0333-2965976)

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Q.3

Write down the applications of Exponent Notation.

Applications Of Exponents Notation / Uses Of Exponent Notation:

(1) Multiplication With Exponents Notation:

Rule: The co-efficient numbers are multiplied and the exponents are added.
Example:
(4.0 x 103) (3.0 x 102)
(4.0 x 3.0) x 103+2
12.0 x 105
(2) Division with Exponents Notation:

Rule: The co-efficient numbers are divided and the exponents are subtracted.
Example:
4.0 x 105 / 2.0 x 102
2.0 x 105-2
2.0 x 103
(3) Addition & Subtraction With Exponents Notation:

Rule: Convert all the exponent numbers in the same power and signed before addition or subtraction then added or
subtract the digit but the exponent numbers remain same.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Q.4

What are Significant Figures ? Write down the rules for the determination of Significant
Figures.

Definition:
Significant Figures are reliable digits in a number that are known with certainty.
OR
The number of digits from the first non-zero digit to last digit is called Significant Figures.
Explanation:
The number of accurately known digits and the last doubtful digit in the measurement of an object are called
Significant Figures.
In the significant digit convention, the uncertainty is presumed to be +1 in the last reported. For example if a
volume is reported 14.3 ml three is an implied uncertainty of +0.1 ml, the volume could be as small as 14.2 ml or
large 14.4 ml.
Rules for Determining the Significant Figures:
(1) Non-zero digits are all Significant Figures.
Examples:
(i) 75 has 2 S.F (ii) 45.67 has 4 S.F (iii) 888 has 3 S.F
(2) Zero placed between non-zero digits are Significant Figures.
Example:
(i) 2003 has 4 S.F (ii) 12.03 has 4 S.F
(3) Zeros locating the decimal point in number less than one are not significant Figures.
Examples:
(i) 0.02 has 1 S.F (ii) 0.00006 has 1 S.F
(4) Final zero(s) to right of the decimal point are Significant Figures. OR In the presence of decimal in a figure
more than one, all the digits are Significant Figures.
Examples:
(i) 4.300 has 4 S.F (ii) 1.00 has 3 S.F
(5) Zero relating to the value greater than one are not necessarily Significant Figures. OR Final zero(s) to the
right of exact figure are not Significant Figures.
Examples:
(i) 45000 has 2 S.F (ii) 20900000 has 3 S.F

Muhammad Zia-ul-Haque Rathore, Lecturer Chemistry , S.A.L Govt. College Mirpurkhas (0333-2965976)

The Guardian Coaching Centre Mirpurkhas

Q.5

What are the applications of Significant Figures ? Explain with examples.

Applications of Significant Figures:

(1) In Addition & Subtraction:
Rule: When measurements are added or subtracted the answer should not contain more Significant Figures than the
least measurement.
Examples:
(i) 2.34 + 2.5 = 4.84
But 2.5 has least measurement (2 Significant Figures) So = 4.8
(ii) 4.9 2.4 = 2.57 (Not standard form)
= 2.6 (Round off)
(2) In Multiplication & Division:
Rule: When measurements are multiplied or divided the answer can contain no more than S.F than the least
accurate measurement.
Examples:
(i) 2.34 x 3.3 = 7.722 = 7.7
(ii) 1.473 / 26 = 0.5665 (Not according to rule)
1.473 / 26 = 0.57 (According to rule) It has 2 Significant Figures.

ROUNDING OFF DATA

Q.6

Define and explain Rounding Off Data. Write down the rules for the determination of
Rounding Off Data.

Definition: The reduction of Significant Figures to a desired number is called Rounding Off Data.
Explanation: Rounding off means to reduce a number to the desired S.F. It is the procedure in which dropping
non-significant Figure in a calculation adjusting the last digit reported in order to get desired S.F one or more digits
from extreme right can be dropped.

Rules for the Determination of Rounding Off Data:

There are following rules:
Rule#1: If the number to be dropped is greater than 5, the last number to be retained is increased by 1. Thus 1.346
becomes 1.35.
Rule#2: If the number to be dropped is less than 5, then the last number to be retained is left unchanged. Thus 8.73
becomes 8.7.
Rules#3: If the number to be dropped is exact 5, the last number to be retained is increased by 1, if it is an odd
number. Thus 5.35 is round off to 5.4
But if the last number is even number, then it will remain unchanged. Thus 8.65 is round off to 8.6.

ERROR DEVIATION
Q.7

Define Error ? What are Systematic and Random Errors and how they can be rectified ?

Definition:
Error is the difference between the true value and the estimated value or measurement of the value.

Explanation:
"The difference between the measured value and the actual value". If two persons use the same instrument for
measurement for finding the same measurement, it is not essential that they may get the same results. There may
arise a difference between their measurements. This difference is referred to as an "ERROR".
Muhammad Zia-ul-Haque Rathore, Lecturer Chemistry , S.A.L Govt. College Mirpurkhas (0333-2965976)

The Guardian Coaching Centre Mirpurkhas

Types of Error:
Error can be classified into following two types.
(1) Systematic Error
(2) Random Error

(1) Systematic Error:

The error caused by the defect in the analytic method or by the improper functioning of the instrument is called
Systematic Error.
Any defect in instrument or use of any improper reagent so the systematic error, which is always different for
different experiment. In titration if the indicator is not properly prepared then colour change will occur before the
equivalent point, this error is called Systematic error.

(2) Random Error:

The error caused by the experimenter who is performing the experiment is called Random Error. This error is also
called personal error and this error may be positive or negative.

LOGARITHMS (Log)
Q.8

Define and explain Logarithm. How many parts of Logarithm ? Write down its rules and
applications.

Definition:
It is a method by which large numerical can easily be solved.
OR
It is the exponent or power of a given base that is required to produce the same number.

Explanation:
In this method firstly big figures are converted into small figure by taking Log and signed are converted following
the rules of logarithms, then the resultant is converted into original answer by taking its antilog.

Parts of Logarithms:
There are following two parts.
(1) Characteristic: The integer part is called Characteristic. It may either be positive or negative and may be
determined by just looking at figure.
(2) Mantissa: It is the decimal fraction part. It is always positive and can only be found with the help of Log
Table.

Rules for Log:

1. If a figure is greater than 1, the characteristic is positive. Example: 496.5 = 2
2. If a figure is less than 1, the characteristic is negative. Example: 0.00372 = 3
3. Negative numbers do not have Log.

The Uses of Log in Computation:

There are following fundamental rules in logarithms which help us in many calculations in multiplication, division
and obtaining roots and squares.
iLog ab = Log a + Log b
iiLog a / b = Log a Log b
iiiLog (a)n = n Log a

Muhammad Zia-ul-Haque Rathore, Lecturer Chemistry , S.A.L Govt. College Mirpurkhas (0333-2965976)

The Guardian Coaching Centre Mirpurkhas

EMPIRICAL FORMULA
Q.9

Define and explain Empirical Formula with examples. Write down the steps for
determination of Empirical Formula.

Definition:

Explanation:

"Empirical Formula is that formula which expresses the relative number

of each kind of atoms present in the molecule of a compound"
OR
"The formula of a compound which expresses the ratio in which atoms of
different elements are combined in a molecule"

Empirical formula only indicates atomic ratio but it does not indicate actual number of atoms of different kinds
present in the molecule of a compound. Two or more compounds may have same empirical formula.
Empirical formula is determined by experiment. Empirical formula shows only the simple ratio of the elements and
not actual numbers of atoms so it is the formula of compound which found by experiment.

Examples:
The empirical formula of benzene is CH which gives only simple ratio in a molecule i,e 1:1 for C and H
respectively where its molecular formula is C6H6 which gives actual ratio or total number of C and H atoms in a
compound. CH2O may be the empirical formula of C2H4O2

Determination of Empirical formula:

Empirical formula can be determined by following steps:
Step#1: Determine the elements present in the compound.
Step#2: Determine the masses of each element present in the compound
Weight of element in compound x mass of compound
Mass of Element =
Molecular weight of the compound
Step#3: Calculate the percentage of the elements present from the masses.
Mass of element in compound x 100
% of element
=
Mass of the sample
Stpe#4: Calculate the mole ratio of the element.
Percentage of element in compound
Mole ratio of element =
Atomic weight of the element
Step#5: Calculate the simple ratio of element.
Mole ratio of element
Simple ratio of element =
Least mole ratio
Step#6: Write Empirical formula

Muhammad Zia-ul-Haque Rathore, Lecturer Chemistry , S.A.L Govt. College Mirpurkhas (0333-2965976)

The Guardian Coaching Centre Mirpurkhas

MOLECULAR FORMULA
Q.10

Define and explain Molecular Formula with examples. Write down the steps for
determination of Molecular Formula.

Definition:
The formula which shows the actual number of atoms of each element present in a molecule
is called Molecular formula.
OR
"The formula of a compound which not only expresses the relative number of atoms of each
kind but also expresses the actual number of atoms of each element present in one molecule
is called Molecular formula ".

Explanation:
Molecular Formula is a formula that gives the exact number of different atoms of element in a molecule compare to
empirical formula. The molecular formula gives the total number of atoms in a compound. It represents the name of
substance and one molecule of substance. It also gives the number of atoms of all the elements present in one
molecule of substance.

Examples:
(1)
(2)

The hydrogen peroxide molecule contains two H atoms and two oxygen atoms (H2O2).
The benzene molecule contains six C and six H atoms and molecular formula is C6H6.

Determination of Molecular formula:

Molecular formula can be determined by following steps:

Step#1: First determine the empirical formula.
Step#2: Then determine the weight by adding the atomic weight of its atoms.
Step#3: Determine the integer n. n can be calculated by dividing molecular weight by empirical formula weight.
Molecular formula weight
n=
Empirical formula weight
Step#4: Determine the Molecular Formula by following formula.
Molecular Formula = n x Empirical Formula

MOLE
Q.11

Write down the short note on Mole.

Definition:
"The atomic mass, molecular mass or formula mass of a substance expressed in grams is called Mole".
OR
" The gram atomic mass or gram molecular mass or gram formula mass
of a substance that contains 6.02 x 1023 particles is called Mole".

Explanation:
When atomic mass, molecular mass or formula masses are expressed in grams. They are called as gram atomic,
gram molecular or gram formula mass and each of these called Mole. Because atom is an extremely small particle
in size and mass. So it is impossible to express atomic mass in atomic mass unit. For convenience, atomic mass
may be given in any unit like grams, kilograms etc.

Muhammad Zia-ul-Haque Rathore, Lecturer Chemistry , S.A.L Govt. College Mirpurkhas (0333-2965976)

The Guardian Coaching Centre Mirpurkhas

Calculation of Mole:

If the weight of a substance is given, its number of moles can be calculated by following formula.
Weight in gram of the substance
Moles =
Atomic weight or Molecular weight of the substance
Number of particles (atoms, Molecules, Ions)
Moles =
6.02 x 1023

Methods of describing 1 mole of substance in different ways (1 mole of oxygen):

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

6.02 x 1023 molecules of oxygen

1 gram molecules of oxygen.
2 x 6.02 x 1023 atoms of oxygen.
32 grams of oxygen.
2 moles of oxygen.
22.4 dm3 of oxygen at S.T.P

AVOGADROS NUMBER
Q.12

What is Avogadros Number ? Explain with examples.

Definition:
The number of atoms, molecules or ions present in one mole of substance is called Avogadros Number.
OR
The number of atoms, molecules, formula unit or ions in one-gram atom, one-gram molecule, one gram
formula unit or one gram ion respectively is called Avogadros Number.

Explanation:
One mole of any substance contains equal number of particles (atoms, molecules or ions), the number of molecules
that exist in one mole, or gram molecular weight, of any substance. One gram molecular weight is the weight of a
substance, in grams, that is numerically equivalent to the dimensionless molecular weight of that substance. The
number of molecules in one gram molecular weight has been determined to be approximately 6.0221367 1023.
This constant value or number is referred to as Avogadros Number.
For example: One mole of hydrogen = 6.02 x 1023 molecules of hydrogen.
One mole of sodium = 6.02 x 1023 atoms of sodium.
One mole of Ca+2 = 6.02 x 1023 ions of Ca+2. It is denoted by "NA".

STOICHIOMETRY
Q.13

Define and explain Stoichiometry with examples. Write down its types.

Introduction:
Stoichiometry is Greek word. It is composed of Stoichion means element and metry means measure so
measurement of elements takes place.
Definition: The quantitative relationship among the reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation is
called Stoichiometry".
OR
The study of the relation between the amount of reactants and products in a chemical reaction is called
Stoichiometry.
Muhammad Zia-ul-Haque Rathore, Lecturer Chemistry , S.A.L Govt. College Mirpurkhas (0333-2965976)

The Guardian Coaching Centre Mirpurkhas

Importance of Mole in Stoichiometry:

It is very helpful in the calculation of masses and volumes of chemical substances taking part in.

Assumptions of Stoichiometric Calculations:

There are two important assumptions for stoichiometric calculations:
(1) Reactants are completely converted into products.
(2) No supplementary or side-reactions occur.
Suppose we want to calculate the mass of CO2 formed when a given mass of carbon burns in air.
The reaction is:
C + O2 ---------- > CO2
In actual practice, it is possible that we get less amount of CO2 than the calculated mass of CO2.This is because that
the given mass of carbon can also form CO in addition to CO2.
2C + O2 ----------- > 2CO
This means that we have to avoid the formation of carbon monoxide.

Relationship for Stoichiometric Calculations:

There are following three relationships.
(1) Mass-Mass Relationships. (2) Mass-Volume Relationships. (3) Volume-Volume Relationships.

(1) Mass-Mass Relationships:

In this type of relationship unknown mass of reactant or product me be calculated by known mass of given
substance.

(2) Mass-Volume Relationships:

These relationships allow us to interchange mass and volume units of gas through the relationship.

(3) Volume-Volume Relationships:

In this type of relationship the volume of a substance is calculated from the given volume of another substance.

LIMITING REACTANT
Q.14

What is Limiting Reactant ? Explain with examples.

Definition:
The reactant that gives least number of moles of the product in chemical reaction is called Limiting Reactant.
OR
The reactant that determines the amount of the products is called Limiting Reactant.

Explanation:
In stoichiometry when more than one reactant is involved in a chemical reaction, it is not so simple to get actual
result of the stoichiometric problem by making relationship between any one of the reactant and product, which are
involved in the chemical reaction. As we know that when any one of the reactant is completely used or consumed
the reaction is stopped no matter the other reactants are present in very large quantity. This reactant which is totally
consumed during the chemical reaction due to which the reaction is stopped is called limiting reactant.

Methods To Determining The Limiting Reactant:

It can be determined by following methods.
(1) Convert amount of all reactants into their moles.
(2) Calculate the molar amount of products from the molar quantity of reactant.
(3) The reactant which produces the least amount of product is related as Limiting Reactant.

Muhammad Zia-ul-Haque Rathore, Lecturer Chemistry , S.A.L Govt. College Mirpurkhas (0333-2965976)