I B Biology 2016 HL Student Guides

InternationalSchoolofGeneva
HIGHERLEVEL
IBBiology
StudentGuide
FirstExamination2016
YoushouldalsoensurethatyoulookattheoriginalIBBiologyGuidewhichgivesthecomplete
curriculumanddetailsofthecourse
Topic
Approximate
ContactHours
1.CellBiology
15
2.MolecularBiology
21
3.Genetics
15
4.Ecology
12
5.EvolutionandBiodiversity
12
6.HumanPhysiology
20
7.NucleicAcids
8.Metabolism,RespirationandPhotosynthesis
14
9.PlantBiology
13
10.GeneticsandEvolution
11.AnimalPhysiology
16
The7MandatoryPracticalexperimentsareprintedinbold.
PleaseseeadditionalStudentGuidefortheOption
IB2016studentguides.doc
HIGHERLEVEL
Topic1:CellBiology
1.1IntroductiontoCells
EssentialIdea:
Theevolutionofmulticellularorganisms
allowedcellspecializationandcell
replacement.
SyllabusConnections:
Theuseofstemcellsinthetreatmentofdiseaseis
mostlyattheexperimental
stage,withtheexceptionofbonemarrowstem
cells.Scientists,however,
anticipatetheuseofstemcelltherapiesasa
standardmethodoftreating
awholerangeofdiseasesinthenearfuture,
includingheartdiseaseand
diabetes
NatureofScience:
IBConnections:
Thereisadifferencebetweenthelivingandthe
Lookingfortrendsand
nonlivingenvironment.
discrepanciesalthoughmostorganisms
Howareweabletoknowthedifference?
conformtocelltheory,thereareexceptions.
Theuseofstemcellsinthetreatmentofdiseaseis
Ethicalimplicationsofresearchresearch
mostlyattheexperimentalstage,withthe
involvingstemcellsisgrowinginimportance
exceptionofbonemarrowstemcells.
Understandings
Accordingtothecelltheory,living
organismsarecomposedofcells.
ApplicationsandSkills
Atypicalexamples,includingstriated
muscle,giantalgaeandaseptatefungal
hyphae.
Organismsconsistingofonlyonecellcarry Ethicsofthetherapeuticuseofstemcells
outallfunctionsoflifeinthatcell.
fromspeciallycreatedembryos,fromthe
umbilicalcordbloodofanewbornbabyand
fromanadultsowntissues.
Surfaceareatovolumeratioisimportantin Useofalightmicroscopetoinvestigate
thelimitationofcellsize.
anddrawcellandtissuestructure.
MagnificationCalculations
Multicellularorganismshavepropertiesthat Investigationoffunctionsoflifein
emergefromtheinteractionof
Parameciumandonenamed
theircellularcomponents.
photosyntheticunicellularorganism.
Specializedtissuescandevelopbycell
UseofstemcellstotreatStargardtsdisease
differentiationinmulticellular
andoneothernamedcondition.
organisms.
Differentiationinvolvestheexpressionof

somegenesandnotothersinacells
genome.
Thecapacityofstemcellstodivideand

differentiatealongdifferentpathwaysis
necessaryinembryonicdevelopmentand
alsomakesstemcellssuitablefor
therapeuticuses
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1.2UltrastructureofCells
EssentialIdea:
Eukaryoteshaveamuchmorecomplexcell
structurethanprokaryotes.
NatureofScience:
Developmentsinscientificresearchfollow
improvementsinapparatustheinvention
ofelectronmicroscopesledtogreater
understandingofcellstructure.
IBConnections:
Developmentsinscience,suchaselectron
microscopy,canhave
economicbenefitsastheygivecommercial
companiesopportunitiesto
makeprofits,butthiscanaffectcooperation
betweenscientists.
Microscopeswereinventedsimultaneouslyin
differentpartsoftheworldat
atimewheninformationtravelledslowly.
Moderndaycommunicationshave
allowedforimprovementsintheabilityto
collaborate,enrichingscientific
endeavour.
Understandings
Prokaryoteshaveasimplecellstructure
withoutcompartmentalization.
Eukaryoteshaveacompartmentalizedcell
structure.
Electronmicroscopeshaveamuchhigher
resolutionthanlightmicroscopes.
Notes
Structureandfunctionoforganelleswithin
exocrineglandcellsofthepancreasand
withinpalisademesophyllcellsoftheleaf.
Prokaryotesdividebybinaryfission.
Drawingoftheultrastructureofprokaryotic
andeukaryoticcellsbasedonelectron
micrographs
Interpretationofelectronmicrographsto
identifyorganellesanddeducethefunction
ofspecializedcells.
HIGHERLEVEL
1.3MembraneStructure
EssentialIdea:
Thestructureofbiologicalmembranesmakes
Topic2.3Carbohydratesandlipids
themfluidanddynamic.
Topic2.6StructureofDNAandRNA
NatureofScience:
IBConnections:
Usingmodelsasrepresentationsofthereal
Theexplanationofthestructureofthe
worldtherearealternativemodelsof
plasmamembranehaschangedover
membranestructure.(1.11)
theyearsasnewevidenceandwaysof
Falsificationoftheorieswithonetheorybeing
analysishavecometolight.
supersededbyanotherevidencefalsifiedthe
DavsonDaniellimodel.
Understandings
Phospholipidsformbilayersinwater
duetotheamphipathicpropertiesof
phospholipidmolecules.
Membraneproteinsarediverseinterms
ofstructure,positioninthemembrane
andfunction.
Cholesterolisacomponentofanimal
cellmembranes.
Cholesterolinmammalianmembranes
reducesmembranefluidityand
permeabilitytosomesolutes.
Drawingofthefluidmosaicmodel.
Notes
Analysisofevidencefromelectron
microscopythatledtotheproposal
oftheDavsonDaniellimodel.
Analysisofthefalsificationofthe
DavsonDaniellimodelthatledtothe
SingerNicolsonmodel.
HIGHERLEVEL
1.4MembraneTransport
EssentialIdea:
Membranescontrolthecompositionofcells
byactiveandpassivetransport.
NatureofScience:
Experimentaldesignaccuratequantitative
measurementinosmosisexperimentsare
essential.
Topic6.5Neuronsandsynapses
IBConnections:
Dialysistubingexperimentscanactasamodelof
membraneaction.
Experimentswithpotato,beetrootorsinglecelled
algaecanbeusedto
investigaterealmembranes.
Understandings
Particlesmoveacrossmembranesby
simplediffusion,facilitateddiffusion,
osmosisandactivetransport.
Thefluidityofmembranesallows
materialstobetakenintocellsby
endocytosisorreleasedbyexocytosis.
Vesiclesmovematerialswithincells.
Structureandfunctionofsodiumpotassium
pumpsforactivetransportandpotassium
channelsforfacilitateddiffusioninaxons.
Tissuesororganstobeusedinmedical
proceduresmustbebathedinasolution
withthesameosmolarityasthecytoplasm
topreventosmosis.
Estimationofosmolarityintissuesby
bathingsamplesinhypotonicand
hypertonicsolutions.
Notes
HIGHERLEVEL
1.5TheOriginofCells
EssentialIdea:
Thereisanunbrokenchainoflifefromthe
firstcellsonEarthtoallcellsinorganisms
alivetoday
NatureofScience:
Testingthegeneralprinciplesthatunderlie
thenaturalworldtheprinciplethatcells
onlycomefrompreexistingcellsneedsto
beverified.
Topic5.1Evidenceforevolution
IBConnections:
Biologyisthestudyoflife,yetlifeisan
emergentproperty.Underwhat
circumstancesisasystemsapproachproductive
inbiologyandunder
whatcircumstancesisareductionistapproach
moreappropriate?
Understandings
Cellscanonlybeformedbydivisionof
preexistingcells.
Thefirstcellsmusthavearisenfrom
nonlivingmaterial.
Theoriginofeukaryoticcellscanbe
explainedbytheendosymbiotictheory
Notes
EvidencefromPasteurs
experimentsthatspontaneous
generationofcellsandorganisms
doesnotnowoccuronEarth.

HIGHERLEVEL
1.6CellDivision
EssentialIdea:
Celldivisionisessentialbutmustbe
controlled.
NatureofScience:
Serendipityandscientificdiscoveriesthe
discoveryofcyclinswasaccidental.
Biologistsinlaboratoriesthroughoutthe
worldareresearchingintothecausesand
treatmentofcancer.
IBConnections:
Themitoticindexisanimportantprognostictool
forpredictingtheresponse
ofcancercellstochemotherapy.
Suppressionoftheresultsofresearchbytobacco
companiesintothehealtheffectsofsmoking
tobaccowasunethical.
Understandings
Mitosisisdivisionofthenucleusintotwo
geneticallyidenticaldaughternuclei.
Thecorrelationbetween
smokingandincidenceof
cancers.
Chromosomescondensebysupercoilingduring Identificationofphasesof
mitosis.
mitosisincellsviewedwitha
microscopeorinamicrograph.
Cytokinesisoccursaftermitosisandisdifferent Determinationofamitotic
inplantandanimalcells.
indexfromamicrograph.
Interphaseisaveryactivephaseofthecellcycle
withmanyprocessesoccurringinthenucleus
andcytoplasm.
Cyclinsareinvolvedinthecontrolofthecell

cycle.
Mutagens,oncogenesandmetastasisare

involvedinthedevelopmentofprimaryand
secondarytumours.
Notes
HIGHERLEVEL
Topic2:MolecularBiology
2.1MoleculestoMetabolism
EssentialIdea:
Livingorganismscontroltheircomposition
byacomplexwebofchemicalreactions.
NatureofScience:
Falsificationoftheoriestheartificial
synthesisofureahelpedtofalsifyvitalism
Chemistry
Topic4Chemicalbondingandstructure
OptionBBiochemistry
IBConnections:
Understandings
Molecularbiologyexplainslivingprocessesin
termsofthechemicalsubstancesinvolved.
Carbonatomscanformfourcovalentbonds
allowingadiversityofstablecompoundsto
exist.
Lifeisbasedoncarboncompoundsincluding
carbohydrates,lipids,proteinsandnucleicacids.
Ureaasanexampleofacompound
thatisproducedbylivingorganisms
butcanalsobeartificially
synthesized.
Drawingmoleculardiagramsof
glucose,ribose,asaturatedfattyacid
andageneralizedaminoacid.
Identificationofbiochemicalssuchas
sugars,lipidsoraminoacidsfrom
moleculardiagrams.

Metabolismisthewebofallthe
enzymecatalysedreactionsinacellororganism.
Anabolismisthesynthesisofcomplexmolecules
fromsimplermoleculesincludingtheformation
ofmacromoleculesfrommonomersby
condensation
reactions.
Catabolism is the breakdown of complex
molecules into simpler molecules including the
hydrolysisofmacromoleculesintomonomers.
Notes
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2.2Water
EssentialIdea:
Wateristhemediumoflife.
Topic4.3Carboncycling
Topic4.4Climatechange
Physics
Topic3.1Thermalconcepts
NatureofScience:
IBConnections:
Usetheoriestoexplainnatural
Claimsaboutthememoryofwater
phenomenathetheorythathydrogenbonds
havebeencategorizedas
formbetweenwatermoleculesexplainsthe
pseudoscientific.
propertiesofwater.
Understandings
Watermoleculesarepolarand
hydrogenbondsformbetweenthem.
Hydrogenbondinganddipolarity
explainthecohesive,adhesive,thermal
andsolventpropertiesofwater.
Substancescanbehydrophilicor
hydrophobic.
Comparisonofthethermalpropertiesof
waterwiththoseofmethane.
Useofwaterasacoolantinsweat.
Modesoftransportofglucose,amino
acids,cholesterol,fats,oxygenand
sodiumchlorideinbloodinrelationto
theirsolubilityinwater.
Notes
HIGHERLEVEL
2.3CarbohydratesandLipids
EssentialIdea:
Compoundsofcarbon,hydrogenandoxygen
areusedtosupplyandstoreenergy.
NatureofScience:
Evaluatingclaimshealthclaimsmade
aboutlipidsindietsneedtobeassessed
OptionB:Biotechnologyand
bioinformatics
IBConnections:
Variationintheprevalenceofdifferent
healthproblemsaroundtheworld
Therearesocialimplicationsofobesity.
Understandings
Monosaccharidemonomersare
linkedtogetherbycondensation
reactionstoformdisaccharides
andpolysaccharidepolymers.
Fattyacidscanbesaturated,
monounsaturatedor
polyunsaturated.
Unsaturatedfattyacidscanbecis
ortransisomers.
Triglyceridesareformedby
condensationfromthreefatty
acidsandoneglycerol.
Structureandfunctionofcelluloseandstarch
inplantsandglycogeninhumans.
Notes
Scientificevidenceforhealthrisksoftransfats
andsaturatedfattyacids.
Lipidsaremoresuitableforlongtermenergy
storageinhumansthancarbohydrates.
Useofmolecularvisualizationsoftwareto
comparecellulose,starchandglycogen.
Determinationofbodymassindexby
calculationoruseofanomogram.
Evaluationofevidenceandthemethodsused
toobtaintheevidenceforhealthclaimsmade
aboutlipids.
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2.4Proteins
EssentialIdea:
Proteinshaveaverywiderangeoffunctions
Topic8AHLMetabolism,cell
inlivingorganisms.
respirationandphotosynthesis
NatureofScience:
IBConnections:
Lookingforpatterns,trendsand
Proteomicsandtheproductionof
discrepanciesmostbutnotallorganisms
proteinsbycellsculturedinfermenters
assembleproteinsfromthesameamino
offermanyopportunitiesforthefood,
acids
pharmaceuticalandotherindustries
Understandings
Aminoacidsarelinkedtogetherbycondensationto
formpolypeptides.
Rubisco,insulin,
immunoglobulins,
rhodopsin,collagenand
spidersilkasexamplesof
therangeofprotein
functions.
Thereare20differentaminoacidsinpolypeptides
Denaturationofproteinsby
synthesizedonribosomes.
heatorbydeviationofpH
fromtheoptimum
Aminoacidscanbelinkedtogetherinanysequence
Drawingmolecular
givingahugerangeof
diagramstoshowthe
possiblepolypeptides.
formationofapeptide
bond.
Theaminoacidsequenceofpolypeptidesiscodedfor
bygenes.
Aproteinmayconsistofasinglepolypeptideormore
thanonepolypeptide
linkedtogether.
Theaminoacidsequencedeterminesthe

threedimensionalconformationof
aprotein.
Livingorganismssynthesizemanydifferentproteins
withawiderangeof
functions.
Everyindividualhasauniqueproteome.

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2.5Enzymes
EssentialIdea:
Enzymescontrolthemetabolismofthecell
Topic8AHLMetabolism,cellrespiration
andphotosynthesis
NatureofScience:
IBConnections:
Experimentaldesignaccurate,quantitative
Developmentofsometechniquesbenefits
measurementsinenzymeexperimentsrequire
particularhumanpopulations
replicatestoensurereliability.
morethanothers.
Understandings
Enzymeshaveanactivesitetowhichspecific
substratesbind.
Enzymecatalysisinvolvesmolecularmotionand
thecollisionofsubstrateswiththeactivesite.
Methodsofproductionof
lactosefreemilkanditsadvantages.
Designofexperimentstotestthe
effectoftemperature,pHand
substrateconcentrationonthe
activityofenzymes.
Temperature,pHandsubstrateconcentration
Experimentalinvestigationofa
affecttherateofactivityofenzymes.
factoraffectingenzymeactivity.
Enzymescanbedenatured.

Immobilizedenzymesarewidelyusedinindustry.
Notes
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2.6StructureofDNAandRNA
EssentialIdea:
ThestructureofDNAallowsefficient
storageofgeneticinformation
NatureofScience:
Usingmodelsasrepresentationofthereal
worldCrickandWatsonusedmodel
makingtodiscoverthestructureofDNA.
Topic2.2Water
Topic3.5Geneticmodificationand
biotechnology
Topic7Nucleicacids
IBConnections:
Thestoryoftheelucidationofthe
structureofDNAillustratesthat
cooperationandcollaborationamong
scientistsexistsalongsidecompetition
betweenresearchgroups
Understandings
ThenucleicacidsDNAandRNAare
polymersofnucleotides.
DNAdiffersfromRNAinthenumberof
strandspresent,thebasecompositionand
thetypeofpentose.
DNAisadoublehelixmadeoftwo
antiparallelstrandsofnucleotideslinked
byhydrogenbondingbetween
complementarybasepairs.
Notes
CrickandWatsonselucidationof
thestructureofDNAusing
modelmaking.
Drawingsimplediagramsofthe
structureofsinglenucleotidesof
DNAandRNA,usingcircles,
pentagonsandrectanglestorepresent
phosphates,pentosesandbases.

HIGHERLEVEL
13
2.7DNAReplicationandProteinSynthesis
EssentialIdea:
GeneticinformationinDNAcanbe
accuratelycopiedandcanbetranslatedto
maketheproteinsneededbythecell.
biotechnology
Topic7.2Transcriptionandgene
expression
Topic7.3Translation
NatureofScience:
IBConnections:
Obtainingevidenceforscientific
Ethicalimplicationsinalteringthe
theoriesMeselsonandStahlobtained
genomeofanorganism
evidenceforthesemiconservativereplication
inordertoproduceproteinsformedical
ofDNA
useinhumans.
Understandings
ThereplicationofDNAis
semiconservativeanddependson
complementarybasepairing.
Helicaseunwindsthedoublehelixand
separatesthetwostrandsbybreaking
hydrogenbonds.
UseofTaqDNApolymerasetoproduce
multiplecopiesofDNArapidlybythe
polymerasechainreaction(PCR).
Productionofhumaninsulininbacteriaas
anexampleoftheuniversalityofthegenetic
codeallowinggenetransferbetween
species.
DNApolymeraselinksnucleotides
Useatableofthegeneticcodetodeduce
togethertoformanewstrand,usingthe
whichcodon(s)correspondstowhichamino
preexistingstrandasatemplate.
acid.
TranscriptionisthesynthesisofmRNA
AnalysisofMeselsonandStahlsresultsto
copiedfromtheDNAbasesequencesby
obtainsupportforthetheoryof
RNApolymerase.
semiconservativereplicationofDNA.
Translationisthesynthesisofpolypeptides UseatableofmRNAcodonsandtheir
onribosomes.
correspondingaminoacidstodeducethe
sequenceofaminoacidscodedbyashort
mRNAstrandofknownbasesequence.
Theaminoacidsequenceofpolypeptidesis DeducingtheDNAbasesequenceforthe
determinedbymRNAaccordingtothe
mRNAstrand.
geneticcode.
CodonsofthreebasesonmRNA

correspondtooneaminoacidina
polypeptide.
Translationdependsoncomplementary

basepairingbetweencodonsonmRNA
andanticodonsontRNA.
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2.8CellRespiration
EssentialIdea:
Cellrespirationsuppliesenergyforthe
functionsoflife.
NatureofScience:
Assessingtheethicsofscientific
researchtheuseofinvertebratesin
respirometerexperimentshasethical
implications.
Topic2.5Enzymes
IBConnections:
Ethicsoftheuseofanimalsin
experimentsandLargescaleuseoffood
plantsfor
biofuelsandtheresultingimpactonfood
prices
Understandings
Cellrespirationisthecontrolledreleaseof
energyfromorganiccompoundstoproduce
ATP.
ATPfromcellrespirationisimmediately
availableasasourceofenergyinthecell.
Useofanaerobiccellrespirationinyeasts
toproduceethanolandcarbondioxidein
baking
Lactateproductioninhumanswhen
anaerobicrespirationisusedtomaximize
thepowerofmusclecontractions.
Anaerobiccellrespirationgivesasmall
Analysisofresultsfromexperiments
yieldofATPfromglucose
involvingmeasurementofrespirationrates
ingerminatingseedsorinvertebratesusing
arespirometer.
Aerobiccellrespirationrequiresoxygenand
givesalargeyieldofATPfromglucose.
Notes
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2.9Photosynthesis
EssentialIdea:
Photosynthesisusestheenergyinsunlightto
producethechemicalenergyneededforlife.
NatureofScience:
Experimentaldesigncontrollingrelevant
variablesinphotosynthesisexperimentsis
essential.
Topic2.5Enzymes
IBConnections:
Understandings
Photosynthesisistheproductionofcarbon
compoundsincellsusinglightenergy.
Visiblelighthasarangeofwavelengthswith
violettheshortestwavelengthandredthe
longest.
Chlorophyllabsorbsredandbluelightmost
effectivelyandreflectsgreenlightmorethan
othercolours.
Oxygenisproducedinphotosynthesisfromthe
photolysisofwater.
Energyisneededtoproducecarbohydratesand
othercarboncompoundsfromcarbondioxide.
Temperature,lightintensityandcarbondioxide
concentrationarepossiblelimitingfactorsonthe
rateofphotosynthesis.
Notes
HIGHERLEVEL
ChangestotheEarths
atmosphere,oceansandrock
depositiondueto
photosynthesis.
Drawinganabsorption
spectrumforchlorophyllandan
action
spectrumforphotosynthesis
Designofexperimentsto
investigatetheeffectoflimiting
factorsonphotosynthesis.
Separationofphotosynthetic
pigmentsbychromatograph.

16
Topic3:Genetics
3.1Genes
EssentialIdea:
Everylivingorganisminheritsablueprint
forlifefromitsparents.
NatureofScience:
improvementsintechnologygene
sequencersareusedforthesequencingof
genes.
Sequencingofthehumangenomeshowsthatall
humanssharethevast
majorityoftheirbasesequencesbutalsothat
therearemanysingle
nucleotidepolymorphismsthatcontributeto
humandiversity.
IBConnections:
Thereisalinkbetweensicklecell
anemiaandprevalenceofmalaria.How
canweknowwhetherthereisacausal
linkinsuchcasesorsimplya
correlation?
Understandings
Ageneisaheritablefactorthatconsists Thecausesofsicklecellanemia,
ofalengthofDNAandinfluencesa
includingabasesubstitutionmutation,a
specificcharacteristic.
changetothebasesequenceofmRNA
transcribedfromitandachangetothe
sequenceofapolypeptidein
hemoglobin.
Ageneoccupiesaspecificpositionona Comparisonofthenumberofgenesin
chromosome.
humanswithotherspecies.
Thevariousspecificformsofageneare Useofadatabasetodetermine
alleles.
differencesinthebasesequenceofa
geneintwospecies.
Allelesdifferfromeachotherbyoneor
onlyafewbases.
Newallelesareformedbymutation.

Thegenomeisthewholeofthegenetic
informationofanorganism.
Theentirebasesequenceofhuman

geneswassequencedintheHuman
GenomeProject.
Notes
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3.2Chromosomes
EssentialIdea:
Chromosomescarrygenesinalinear
sequencethatissharedbymembersofa
species.
NatureofScience:
Developmentsinresearchfollow
improvementsin
techniquesautoradiographywasusedto
establishthelengthofDNAmoleculesin
chromosomes
Topic1.6Celldivision
IBConnections:
Sequencingofthericegenomeinvolved
cooperationbetweenbiologistsin
10countries.
Understandings
Prokaryoteshaveonechromosome
consistingofacircularDNAmolecule.
Cairnstechniqueformeasuringthe
lengthofDNAmoleculesby
autoradiography.
Someprokaryotesalsohaveplasmidsbut ComparisonofgenomesizeinT2
eukaryotesdonot.
phage,Escherichiacoli,
Drosophilamelanogaster,Homo
sapiensandParisjaponica
EukaryotechromosomesarelinearDNA Comparisonofdiploidchromosome
moleculesassociatedwithhistone
numbersofHomosapiens,
proteins.
Pantroglodytes,Canisfamiliaris,
Oryzasativa,Parascarisequorum.
Inaeukaryotespeciestherearedifferent Useofkaryogramstodeducesexand
chromosomesthatcarrydifferentgenes.
diagnoseDownsyndrome
inhumans.
Homologouschromosomescarrythe
Useofdatabasestoidentifythelocusof
samesequenceofgenesbutnot
ahumangeneandits
necessarilythesameallelesofthose
polypeptideproduct.
genes.
Diploidnucleihavepairsofhomologous
chromosomes.
Haploidnucleihaveonechromosomeof
eachpair.
Thenumberofchromosomesisa

characteristicfeatureofmembersofa
species.
Akaryogramshowsthechromosomesof
anorganisminhomologouspairsof
decreasinglength.
Sexisdeterminedbysexchromosomes

andautosomesarechromosomes
thatdonotdeterminesex
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3.3Meiosis
EssentialIdea:
Allelessegregateduringmeiosisallowing
newcombinationstobeformedbythe
fusionofgametes
NatureofScience:
Makingcarefulobservationsmeiosiswas
discoveredbymicroscopeexaminationof
dividinggermlinecells.
Topic10.1Meiosis
Topic11.4Sexualreproduction
IBConnections:
Prenatalscreeningforchromosome
abnormalitiesgivesanindication
ofthesexofthefetusandraisesethical
issuesoverselectiveabortion
Understandings
Onediploidnucleusdividesbymeiosisto
producefourhaploidnuclei.
Thehalvingofthechromosomenumber
allowsasexuallifecyclewithfusionof
gametes.
DNAisreplicatedbeforemeiosissothatall
chromosomesconsistoftwosister
chromatids.
Theearlystagesofmeiosisinvolvepairing
ofhomologouschromosomesandcrossing
overfollowedbycondensation.
Orientationofpairsofhomologous
chromosomespriortoseparationisrandom.
Separationofpairsofhomologous
chromosomesinthefirstdivisionofmeiosis
halvesthechromosomenumber.
Crossingoverandrandomorientation
promotesgeneticvariation.
Fusionofgametesfromdifferentparents
promotesgeneticvariation.
Notes
NondisjunctioncancauseDown
syndromeandother
chromosomeabnormalities.
Studiesshowingageofparents
influenceschancesof
nondisjunction.
Descriptionofmethodsusedto
obtaincellsforkaryotypeanalysis
e.g.chorionicvillussamplingand
amniocentesisandtheassociated
risks.
Drawingdiagramstoshowthe
stagesofmeiosisresultinginthe
formationoffourhaploidcells.

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3.4Inheritance
EssentialIdea:
Theinheritanceofgenesfollowspatterns.
NatureofScience:
Makingquantitativemeasurementswith
replicatestoensurereliability.Mendels
geneticcrosseswithpeaplantsgenerated
numericaldata
IBConnections:
Socialimplicationsofdiagnosisof
mutations,includingtheeffectson
thefamilyandstigmatization.
Understandings
Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance Inheritance of ABO blood
with experiments in which large numbers of pea
groups.
plantswerecrossed.
Gametes are haploid socontainonlyonealleleof Redgreen colour blindness and
eachgene.
hemophilia as examples of sex
linkedinheritance.
The two alleles of each gene separate into Inheritance of cystic fibrosis
differenthaploiddaughternucleiduringmeiosis.
andHuntingtonsdisease.
Fusion of gametes resultsindiploidzygoteswith Consequences of radiation after
two alleles of each gene that may be the same
nuclear bombing of Hiroshima
alleleordifferentalleles.
andaccidentatChernobyl
Dominant alleles mask the effects of recessive Construction of Punnett grids
allelesbutcodominantalleleshavejointeffects.
for predicting the outcomes of
monohybridgeneticcrosses.
Many genetic diseases in humans are due to Comparison of predicted and
recessive alleles of autosomal genes, although
actual outcomes of genetic
some genetic diseases are due to dominant or
crossesusingrealdata
codominantalleles.
Some genetic diseases are sexlinked. The Analysis of pedigree charts to
pattern of inheritance is differentwithsexlinked
deduce
the pattern
of
genesduetotheirlocationonsexchromosomes
inheritanceofgeneticdiseases.
Many genetic diseases have been identified in
humansbutmostareveryrare.
Radiation and mutagenic chemicals increase the
mutation rate and can cause genetic diseasesand
cancer.
Notes
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3.5GeneticEngineeringandBiotechnology
EssentialIdea:
Biologistshavedevelopedtechniquesfor
artificialmanipulationofDNA,cellsand
organisms.
NatureofScience:
Assessingrisksassociatedwithscientific
researchscientistsattempttoassessthe
risksassociatedwithgeneticallymodified
cropsorlivestock.
Topic2.7DNAreplication,transcription
andtranslation
IBConnections:
Theethicsofgeneticmodificationcould
bediscussed.
Understandings
Gelelectrophoresisisusedtoseparate
proteinsorfragmentsofDNAaccording
tosize.
PCRcanbeusedtoamplifysmall
amountsofDNA.
UseofDNAprofilinginpaternityand
forensicinvestigations.
DNAprofilinginvolvescomparisonof
DNA.
Geneticmodificationiscarriedoutby
genetransferbetweenspecies.
Clonesaregroupsofgeneticallyidentical
organisms,derivedfromasingleoriginal
parentcell.
Manyplantspeciesandsomeanimal
specieshavenaturalmethodsofcloning.
Animalscanbeclonedattheembryo
stagebybreakinguptheembryointo
morethanonegroupofcells.
Methodshavebeendevelopedfor
cloningadultanimalsusingdifferentiated
cells.
Genetransfertobacteriausing
plasmidsmakesuseofrestriction
endonucleasesandDNAligase.
Assessmentofthepotentialrisksand
benefitsassociatedwith
geneticmodificationofcrops.
Productionofclonedembryos
producedbysomaticcellnuclear
transfer.
Designofanexperimenttoassessone
factoraffectingtherootingof
stemcuttings.
AnalysisofexamplesofDNAprofiles.
Analysisofdataonriskstomonarch
butterfliesofBtcrops.
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Topic4:Ecology
4.1Species,CommunitiesandEcosystems
EssentialIdea:
Thecontinuedsurvivaloflivingorganisms
includinghumansdependsonsustainable
communities.
NatureofScience:
discrepanciesplantsandalgaearemostly
autotrophicbutsomearenot.
Geography
Part2A:Freshwaterissuesandconflicts
Environmentalsystemsandsocieties
Topic2.1Speciesandpopulations
IBConnections:
Promotingtheneedforsustainabilityin
humanactivities.
Understandings
Speciesaregroupsoforganismsthatcanpotentially
interbreedtoproducefertileoffspring.
Classifyingspeciesasautotrophs,
consumers,detritivoresor
saprotrophsfromaknowledgeof
theirmodeofnutrition.
Membersofaspeciesmaybereproductivelyisolated Settingupsealedmesocosmsto
inseparatepopulations.
trytoestablishsustainability.
Specieshaveeitheranautotrophicorheterotrophic
Testingforassociationbetween
methodofnutrition(afewspecieshaveboth
twospeciesusingthechisquared
methods)
testwithdataobtainedbyquadrat
sampling.
Consumersareheterotrophsthatfeedonliving
Recognizingandinterpreting
organismsbyingestion.
statisticalsignificance.
Detritivoresareheterotrophsthatobtainorganic

nutrientsfromdetritusbyinternaldigestion.
Saprotrophsareheterotrophsthatobtainorganic

nutrientsfromdeadorganismsbyexternaldigestion
Acommunityisformedbypopulationsofdifferent

specieslivingtogetherandinteractingwitheach
other.
Acommunityformsanecosystembyitsinteractions
withtheabioticenvironment.
Autotrophsobtaininorganicnutrientsfromthe

abioticenvironment.
Thesupplyofinorganicnutrientsismaintainedby

nutrientcycling.
Ecosystemshavethepotentialtobesustainableover
longperiodsoftime.
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4.2EnergyFlow
EssentialIdea:
Ecosystemsrequireacontinuoussupplyof
energytofuellifeprocessesandtoreplace
energylostasheat.
NatureofScience:
phenomenatheconceptofenergyflow
explainsthelimitedlengthoffoodchains
Topic2.8Cellrespiration
Topic2.9Photosynthesis
Physics
Topic2.3Work,energyandpower
TopicB.2Thermodynamics
Topic2.3Flowsofenergyandmatter
IBConnections:
Theenergeticsoffoodchainsisafactor
intheefficiencyoffoodproduction
forthealleviationofworldhunger.
Understandings
Most ecosystemsrelyonasupplyofenergyfrom Quantitative representations of
sunlight.
energy flow using pyramids of
energy.
Light energy is converted to chemical energy in
carboncompoundsbyphotosynthesis.
Chemical energy in carbon compounds flows
throughfoodchainsbymeansoffeeding.
Energy released from carbon compounds by
respiration is used in living organisms and
convertedtoheat.
Living organisms cannot convert heat to other
formsofenergy.
Heatislostfromecosystems.

Energy losses between trophic levels restrict the
length of food chains and the biomass of higher
trophiclevels.
Notes
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4.3CarbonCycling
EssentialIdea:
Continuedavailabilityofcarbonin
ecosystemsdependsoncarboncycling.
NatureofScience:
Makingaccurate,quantitative
measurementsitisimportanttoobtain
reliabledataontheconcentrationofcarbon
dioxideandmethaneintheatmosphere.
Physics
Topic8.1Energysources
Chemistry
TopicC.2Fossilfuels
TopicC.5Environmentalimpact
IBConnections:
Theethicalimplicationsofdiverting
cropssuchasmaizefromafood
toafuelcropcouldbeconsidered.
Understandings
Autotrophs convert carbon dioxide into Estimation ofcarbonfluxesdue
carbohydratesandothercarboncompounds.
to processes in the carbon
cycle.
In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as Analysis of data from air
dissolvedcarbondioxideandhydrogen carbonate
monitoring stations to explain
ions.
annualfluctuations.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or Construct a diagram of the
waterintoautotrophs.
carboncycle.
Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and
diffuses out of organisms into water or the
atmosphere.
Methane is produced from organic matter in
anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans
and some diffuses into the atmosphere or
accumulatesintheground.
Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxideandwater
intheatmosphere.
Peat forms when organic matter is not fully
decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic
conditionsinwaterloggedsoils.
Partially decomposed organic matter from past
geological eras was converted either into coal or
intooilandgasthataccumulateinporousrocks.
Carbon dioxideisproducedbythecombustion of
biomassandfossilized
organicmatter.
Animals such as reefbuilding corals and
mollusca have hard parts that are composed of
calcium carbonate and can become fossilized in
limestone.
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4.4ClimateChange
EssentialIdea:
Concentrationsofgasesintheatmosphere
affectclimatesexperiencedattheEarths
surface.
NatureofScience:
Assessingclaimsassessmentoftheclaims
thathumanactivitiesareproducingclimate
change.
Physics
Topic8.2Thermalenergytransfer
Geography
Part1.3Patternsinenvironmentalqualityand
sustainability/Atmosphereand
change
Topic7.2Climatechangecausesandimpacts
IBConnections:
Thereareinterestingparallelsbetweenhumans
thatareunwillingto
reducetheircarbonfootprintandcheatingin
socialanimals.Whenthelevel
ofcheatingrisesaboveacertainlevel,social
behaviourbreaksdown
Understandings
Carbondioxideandwatervapourarethemost
significantgreenhousegases.
Othergasesincludingmethaneandnitrogen
oxideshavelessimpact.
Theimpactofagasdependsonitsabilityto
absorblongwaveradiationaswellasonits
concentrationintheatmosphere.
ThewarmedEarthemitslongerwavelength
radiation(heat).
Longerwaveradiationisabsorbedby
greenhousegasesthatretaintheheatinthe
atmosphere.
Globaltemperaturesandclimatepatternsare
influencedbyconcentrationsofgreenhouse
gases.
Thereisacorrelationbetweenrisingatmospheric
concentrationsofcarbondioxidesincethestart
oftheindustrialrevolution200yearsagoand
averageglobaltemperatures.
Recentincreasesinatmosphericcarbondioxide
arelargelyduetoincreasesinthecombustionof
fossilizedorganicmatter.
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increasingconcentrationsof
dissolvedcarbondioxide.
Correlationsbetweenglobal
temperaturesandcarbon
dioxide
concentrationsonEarth.
Evaluatingclaimsthathuman
activitiesarenotcausing
climate
change.

25
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Topic5:EvolutionandClassification
5.1EvidenceforEvolution
EssentialIdea:
Thereisoverwhelmingevidenceforthe
evolutionoflifeonEarth.
Physics
Topic7.1Discreteenergyandradioactivity
Geography
Part1.3Patternsinenvironmentalqualityand
sustainability/Biodiversityand
change
Topic4Biodiversityinecosystems
NatureofScience:
discrepanciestherearecommonfeaturesin
thebonestructureofvertebratelimbsdespite
theirvarieduse.
IBConnections:
Evolutionaryhistoryisanespecially
challengingareaofsciencebecause
experimentscannotbeperformedto
establishpasteventsortheircauses.
Understandings
Evolutionoccurswhenheritablecharacteristicsofa
specieschange.
Thefossilrecordprovidesevidenceforevolution.
Developmentofmelanisticinsects
inpollutedareas.
Comparisonofthepentadactyl
limbofmammals,birds,
amphibiansandreptileswith
differentmethodsoflocomotion.

Selectivebreedingofdomesticatedanimalsshows
thatartificialselectioncancauseevolution.
Evolutionofhomologousstructuresbyadaptive
radiationexplainssimilaritiesinstructurewhenthere
aredifferencesinfunction.
Populationsofaspeciescangraduallydivergeinto
separatespeciesbyevolution.
Continuousvariationacrossthegeographicalrange
ofrelatedpopulationsmatchestheconceptof
gradualdivergence.
Notes
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5.2NaturalSelection
EssentialIdea:
Thediversityoflifehasevolvedand
continuestoevolvebynaturalselection.
Thereareinternationalcodesof
nomenclatureandagreementsastothe
principlestobefollowedinthe
classificationoflivingorganisms.
IBConnections:
NaturalSelectionisatheory.Howmuch
evidenceisrequiredtosupporta
theoryandwhatsortofcounterevidence
isrequiredtorefuteit?
NatureofScience:
phenomenathetheoryofevolutionby
naturalselectioncanexplainthe
developmentofantibioticresistancein
bacteria.
Understandings
Natural selection can only occur if there is
variation among members of the same
species.
Mutation, meiosis and sexual reproduction
cause variation between individuals in a
species.
Adaptations are characteristics thatmakean
individualsuitedtoitsenvironmentandway
oflife.
Species tend toproducemoreoffspringthan
theenvironmentcansupport.
ndividuals that are better adapted tend to
survive and produce more offspring while
the less well adapted tend to die or produce
feweroffspring.
Individuals that reproduce pass on
characteristicstotheiroffspring.
Natural selection increases the frequency of
characteristics that make individuals better
adapted and decreases the frequency of
other characteristics leading to changes
withinthespecies.
Notes
Changes in beaks of finches on

DaphneMajor.
Evolution of antibiotic resistance in

bacteria.
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5.3ClassificationandBiodiversity
EssentialIdea:
Speciesarenamedandclassifiedusingan
internationallyagreedsystem.
NatureofScience:
Cooperationandcollaborationbetween
groupsofscientistsscientistsusethe
binomialsystemtoidentifyaspeciesrather
thanthemanydifferentlocalnames.
Thereareinternationalcodesof
nomenclatureandagreementsastothe
principlestobefollowedinthe
classificationoflivingorganisms.
IBConnections:
Theadoptionofasystemofbinomial
nomenclatureislargelyduetoSwedish
botanistandphysicianCarolusLinnaeus
Understandings
The binomial system of names for species is Classification of one plant and one
universal among biologists and has been
animalspeciesfromdomain
agreedanddevelopedataseriesofcongresses.
tospecieslevel.
Whenspeciesarediscoveredtheyaregiven
Recognitionfeaturesofbryophyta,
scientificnamesusingthebinomialsystem.
filicinophyta,coniferophytaand
angiospermophyta.
Taxonomistsclassifyspeciesusingahierarchy Recognitionfeaturesofporifera,
oftaxa.
cnidaria,platylhelmintha,
annelida,mollusca,arthropodaand
chordata.
Allorganismsareclassifiedintothree
Recognitionoffeaturesofbirds,
domains.
mammals,amphibians,reptiles
andfish.
Theprincipaltaxaforclassifyingeukaryotes
Constructionofdichotomouskeys
arekingdom,phylum,class,order,family,
foruseinidentifyingspecimens
genusandspecies.
Inanaturalclassification,thegenusand

accompanyinghighertaxaconsistofallthe
speciesthathaveevolvedfromonecommon
ancestralspecies.
Taxonomistssometimesreclassifygroupsof

specieswhennewevidenceshowsthata
previoustaxoncontainsspeciesthathave
evolvedfrom
differentancestralspecies.
Naturalclassificationshelpinidentificationof
speciesandallowthepredictionof
characteristicssharedbyspecieswithina
group.
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5.4Cladistics
EssentialIdea:
Theancestryofgroupsofspeciescanbe
deducedbycomparingtheirbaseoramino
acidsequences
NatureofScience:
Falsificationoftheorieswithonetheory
beingsupersededbyanotherplantfamilies
havebeenreclassifiedasaresultofevidence
fromcladistics.
IBConnections:
Amajorstepforwardinthestudyofbacteriawas
therecognitionin1977thatArchaeahavea
separatelineofevolutionarydescentfrom
bacteria.Famousscientists,objectedtothis
divisionoftheprokaryotes.
Understandings
Acladeisagroupoforganismsthathave
evolvedfromacommonancestor.
Evidenceforwhichspeciesarepartofaclade
canbeobtainedfromthebasesequencesofa
geneorthecorrespondingaminoacid
sequenceofaprotein.
Sequencedifferencesaccumulategraduallyso
thereisapositivecorrelationbetweenthe
numberofdifferencesbetweentwospecies
andthetimesincetheydivergedfroma
commonancestor.
Traitscanbeanalogousorhomologous.
Cladogramsaretreediagramsthatshowthe
mostprobablesequenceofdivergencein
clades.
Evidencefromcladisticshasshownthat
classificationsofsomegroupsbasedon
structuredidnotcorrespondwiththe
evolutionaryoriginsofagrouporspecies.
Notes
Cladogramsincludinghumansand
otherprimates.
Reclassificationofthefigwort
familyusingevidencefrom
cladistics.
Analysisofcladogramstodeduce
evolutionaryrelationships.
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Topic6:HumanPhysiology
6.1DigestionandAbsorption
EssentialIdea:
Thestructureofthewallofthesmallintestine
allowsittomove,digestandabsorbfood.
NatureofScience:
Usemodelsasrepresentationsofthereal
worlddialysistubingcanbeusedtomodel
absorptionintheintestine
Topic2.1Moleculestometabolism
Topic2.5Enzymes
IBConnections:
Somehydrolyticenzymeshaveeconomic
importance.
Understandings
Thecontractionofcircularandlongitudinal
muscleofthesmallintestinemixesthefood
withenzymesandmovesitalongthegut.
Thepancreassecretesenzymesintothelumen
ofthesmallintestine.
Enzymesdigestmostmacromoleculesinfood
intomonomersinthesmallintestine.
Villiincreasethesurfaceareaofepithelium
overwhichabsorptioniscarriedout.
Villiabsorbmonomersformedbydigestionas
wellasmineralionsandvitamins.
Differentmethodsofmembranetransportare
requiredtoabsorbdifferentnutrients.
Notes
Processesoccurringinthesmall
intestinethatresultinthedigestionof
starchandtransportoftheproductsof
digestiontotheliver.
Useofdialysistubingtomodel
absorptionofdigestedfoodinthe
intestine.
Productionofanannotateddiagramof
thedigestivesystem.
Identificationoftissuelayersin
transversesectionsofthesmall
intestine
viewedwithamicroscopeorina
micrograph.

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6.2TheBloodSystem
EssentialIdea:
Thebloodsystemcontinuouslytransports
substancestocellsandsimultaneously
collectswasteproducts.
Topic2.2Water
Topic2.3Carbohydratesandlipids
Topic6.4Gasexchange
Topic6.6Hormones,homeostasisand
reproduction
NatureofScience:
IBConnections:
TheoriesareregardedasuncertainWilliam
Thesocialimplicationsofcoronaryheart
Harveyoverturnedtheoriesdevelopedbythe
diseasecouldbediscussed.
ancientGreekphilosopherGalenon
movementofbloodinthebody.
Understandings
Arteries convey blood at high pressure from William Harveys discovery of the
theventriclestothetissuesofthebody.
circulationofthebloodwith
theheartactingasthepump.
Arteries have muscle cellsandelasticfibresin Pressure changes in the left atrium,
theirwalls.
left ventricle and aorta during the
cardiaccycle.
The muscle and elastic fibres help maintain Causes and consequences of
bloodpressurebetweenpumpcycles.
occlusionofthecoronaryarteries.
Blood flows through tissues in capillaries. Identification of blood vessels as
These have permeable walls that allow
arteries,capillariesorveinsfromthe
exchange of materials between cells in the
structureoftheirwalls.
tissueandthebloodinthecapillary.
Veinscollectbloodatlowpressurefromthe
Recognitionofthechambersand
tissuesofthebodyandreturnittotheatriaof
valvesoftheheartandtheblood
theheart.
vesselsconnectedtoit.
Valvesinveinsandtheheartprevent

backflow.
Thereisaseparatecirculationforthelungs.

Theheartbeatisinitiatedbyagroupof

specializedmusclecellsintheright
atriumcalledthesinoatrialnode.
Thesinoatrialnodeactsasapacemaker.

Thesinoatrialnodesendsoutanelectrical

signalthatstimulatescontractionasitis
propagatedthroughthewallsoftheatriaand
thenthewallsoftheventricles.
Theheartratecanbeincreasedordecreased

byimpulsesbroughttotheheartthroughtwo
nervesfromthemedullaofthebrain.
Epinephrineincreasestheheartratetoprepare
forvigorousphysicalactivity.
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6.3DefenceagainstInfectiousDisease
EssentialIdea:
Thehumanbodyhasstructuresandprocesses
thatresistthecontinuousthreatofinvasionby
pathogens.
NatureofScience:
Risksassociatedwithscientific
researchFloreyandChainstestsonthe
safetyofpenicillinwouldnotbecompliant
withcurrentprotocolontesting
Topic5.2Naturalselection
Chemistry
TopicD2Aspirinandpenicillin
IBConnections:
Thesocialaswellastheeconomic
benefitsofthecontrolofbacterial
diseasesaroundtheworldshouldbe
stressed.
Understandings
The skin and mucous membranes form a Causes and consequences of blood clot
primary defence against pathogensthatcause
formationincoronaryarteries.
infectiousdisease.
Cutsintheskinaresealedbybloodclotting. Florey and Chains experiments to test
penicillinonbacterialinfectionsinmice.
Clottingfactorsarereleasedfromplatelets.
EffectsofHIVontheimmunesystem and
methodsoftransmission.
The cascaderesultsintherapidconversionof
fibrinogentofibrinbythrombin.
Ingestion of pathogens by phagocytic white
blood cells gives nonspecific immunity to
diseases.
Production of antibodies by lymphocytes in
response to particular pathogens gives
specificimmunity.
Antibiotics block processes that occur in
prokaryoticcellsbutnotineukaryoticcells.
Viruses lack a metabolism and cannot
therefore be treated with antibiotics. Some
strains of bacteria have evolved with genes
that confer resistance to antibiotics and some
strainsofbacteriahavemultipleresistance.
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6.4GasExchange
EssentialIdea:
Thelungsareactivelyventilatedtoensure
thatgasexchangecanoccurpassively
NatureofScience:
Obtainevidencefortheories,
epidemiologicalstudieshavecontributedto
ourunderstandingofthecausesoflung
cancer
Topic1.4Membranetransport
Topic6.2Thebloodsystem
IBConnections:
Thesocialconsequencesoflungcancer
andemphysemacouldbediscussed.
Understandings
Ventilationmaintainsconcentration
gradientsofoxygenandcarbondioxide
betweenairinalveoliandbloodflowingin
adjacentcapillaries.
TypeIpneumocytesareverythinalveolar
cellsthatareadaptedforgasexchange.
TypeIIpneumocytessecreteasolution
containingsurfactantthatcreatesamoist
surfaceinsidethealveolitopreventthe
sidesofthealveolusadheringtoeachother
byreducingsurfacetension.
Airiscarriedtothelungsinthetracheaand
bronchiandthentothealveoliin
bronchioles.
Musclecontractionscausethepressure
changesinsidethethoraxthatforceairin
andoutofthelungstoventilatethem.
Differentmusclesarerequiredfor
inspirationandexpirationbecausemuscles
onlydoworkwhentheycontract.
Causesandconsequencesoflung
cancer.
Causesandconsequencesof
emphysema.
Externalandinternalintercostal
muscles,anddiaphragmand
abdominalmusclesasexamplesof
antagonisticmuscleaction.
Monitoringofventilationin
humansatrestandaftermildand
vigorousexercise.
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6.5NeuronsandSynapses
EssentialIdea:
Neuronstransmitthemessage,synapses
modulatethemessage.
NatureofScience:
Cooperationandcollaborationbetween
groupsofscientistsbiologistsare
contributingtoresearchintomemoryand
learning
IBConnections:
Thesocialeffectsoftheabuseof
psychoactivedrugscouldbe
considered,ascouldtheuseofthe
neurotoxin
Botoxforcosmetictreatments.
Understandings
Neuronstransmitelectricalimpulses.
Secretion
and
reabsorption
of
acetylcholinebyneuronsatsynapses.
The myelination of nerve fibres allows for Blocking of synaptic transmission at
saltatoryconduction
cholinergic synapses in insects by binding
of
neonicotinoid
pesticides
to
acetylcholinereceptors.
Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions Analysis of oscilloscope traces showing
across their membranes to generate aresting
restingpotentialsandactionpotentials.
potential.
An action potential consists of
depolarization and repolarization of the
neuron.
Nerve impulses are action potentials
propagatedalongtheaxonsofneurons.
Propagation of nerve impulses is the result
of local currents that cause each successive
part of the axon to reach the threshold
potential.
Synapses are junctions between neurons and
between neurons and receptor or effector
cells.
When presynaptic neurons are depolarized
they release a neurotransmitter into the
synapse.
A nerve impulse is only initiated if the
thresholdpotentialisreached.
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6.6Hormones,HomeostasisandReproduction
EssentialIdea:
Hormonesareusedwhensignalsneedtobe
widelydistributed
Topic3.2Chromosomes
Topic3.3Meiosis
Topic10.1Meiosis
IBConnections:
NatureofScience:
improvementsinapparatusWilliamHarveywas
hamperedinhisobservationalresearchinto
reproductionbylackof
equipment.Themicroscopewasinvented17years
afterhisdeath
Scientistsareawarethatthedrugswomentakein
fertilitytreatment
posepotentialriskstohealth.Shouldscientific
knowledgeoverride
compassionateconsiderationsintreatinginfertile
couples?
Understandings
Insulinandglucagonaresecretedby
andcellsofthepancreasrespectivelyto
controlbloodglucoseconcentration.
Thyroxinissecretedbythethyroidgland
toregulatethemetabolicrateandhelp
controlbodytemperature.
Leptinissecretedbycellsinadipose
tissueandactsonthehypothalamusofthe
braintoinhibitappetite.
Melatoninissecretedbythepinealgland
tocontrolcircadianrhythms.
CausesandtreatmentofTypeIand
TypeIIdiabetes.
AgeneontheYchromosomecauses
embryonicgonadstodevelopastestes
andsecretetestosterone.
Testosteronecausesprenatal
developmentofmalegenitalia,sperm
productionanddevelopmentofmale
secondarysexualcharacteristicsduring
puberty.
Estrogenandprogesteronecauseprenatal
developmentoffemalereproductive
organsandfemalesecondarysexual
characteristicsduringpuberty.
Themenstrualcycleiscontrolledby
negativeandpositivefeedback
mechanismsinvolvingovarianand
pituitaryhormones.
Testingofleptinonpatientswith
clinicalobesityandreasonsforthe
failuretocontrolthedisease.
Causesofjetlaganduseofmelatonin
toalleviateit.
TheuseinIVFofdrugstosuspendthe
normalsecretionofhormones,
followedbytheuseofartificialdoses
ofhormonestoinducesuperovulation
andestablishapregnancy.
WilliamHarveysinvestigationof
sexualreproductionindeer.
Annotatediagramsofthemaleand
femalereproductivesystemtoshow
namesofstructuresandtheirfunctions.
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Topic7:NucleicAcids
7.1DNAStructureandReplication
EssentialIdea:
ThestructureofDNAisideallysuitedtoits
function.
NatureofScience:
MakingcarefulobservationsRosalind
FranklinsXraydiffractionprovidedcrucial
evidencethatDNAisadoublehelix
Topic2.6StructureofDNAandRNA
IBConnections:
Highlyrepetitivesequenceswereonce
classifiedasjunkDNAshowinga
degreeofconfidencethatithadnorole.
Understandings
NucleosomeshelptosupercoiltheDNA.
RosalindFranklinsandMaurice
WilkinsinvestigationofDNA
structurebyXraydiffraction.
DNAstructuresuggestedamechanismfor
Useofnucleotidescontaining
DNAreplication.
dideoxyribonucleicacidtostop
DNAreplicationinpreparationof
samplesforbasesequencing.
DNApolymerasescanonlyaddnucleotides TandemrepeatsareusedinDNA
tothe3endofaprimer.
profiling.
DNAreplicationiscontinuousonthe
AnalysisofresultsoftheHershey
leadingstrandanddiscontinuousonthe
andChaseexperimentproviding
laggingstrand.
evidencethatDNAisthegenetic
material.
DNAreplicationiscarriedoutbyacomplex Utilizationofmolecular
systemofenzymes.
visualizationsoftwaretoanalysethe
association
betweenproteinandDNAwithina
nucleosome.
SomeregionsofDNAdonotcodefor

proteinsbuthaveotherimportantfunctions.
Notes
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7.2TranscriptionandGeneExpression
EssentialIdea:
Utilizationofmolecularvisualization
softwaretoanalysetheassociationbetween
proteinandDNAwithinanucleosome.
NatureofScience:
discrepanciesthereismountingevidence
thattheenvironmentcantriggerheritable
changesinepigeneticfactors.
andtranslation
IBConnections:
Thenatureversusnurturedebate
concerningtherelativeimportanceofan
individualsinnatequalitiesversusthose
acquiredthroughexperiencesis
stillunderdiscussion.
Understandings
Transcriptionoccursina5to3direction.
Thepromoterasanexampleof
noncodingDNAwithafunction.
AnalysisofchangesintheDNA
methylationpatterns.

Nucleosomeshelptoregulatetranscription
ineukaryotes.
EukaryoticcellsmodifymRNAafter
transcription.
SplicingofmRNAincreasesthenumberof
differentproteinsanorganismcanproduce.
Geneexpressionisregulatedbyproteins
thatbindtospecificbasesequencesin
DNA.
Theenvironmentofacellandofan
organismhasanimpactongeneexpression.
Notes
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7.3Translation
EssentialIdea:
InformationtransferredfromDNAto
mRNAistranslatedintoanaminoacid
sequence.
NatureofScience:
improvementsincomputingtheuseof
computershasenabledscientiststomake
advancesinbioinformaticsapplications
suchaslocatinggeneswithingenomesand
identifyingconservedsequences.
andtranslation
OptionB:Biotechnology
IBConnections:
Understandings
Initiationoftranslationinvolvesassembly tRNAactivatingenzymesillustrate
ofthecomponentsthatcarryout
enzymesubstratespecificityandthe
theprocess.
roleofphosphorylation.
Synthesisofthepolypeptideinvolvesa
Identificationofpolysomesinelectron
repeatedcycleofevents.
micrographsofprokaryotesand
eukaryotes.
Disassemblyofthecomponentsfollows
Theuseofmolecularvisualization
terminationoftranslation.
softwaretoanalysethestructureof
eukaryoticribosomesandatRNA
molecule.
Freeribosomessynthesizeproteinsfor

useprimarilywithinthecell.
Boundribosomessynthesizeproteins

primarilyforsecretionorforusein
lysosomes.
Translationcanoccurimmediatelyafter

transcriptioninprokaryotesdueto
theabsenceofanuclearmembrane.
Thesequenceandnumberofaminoacids
inthepolypeptideistheprimary
structure.
Thesecondarystructureistheformation
ofalphahelicesandbetapleated
sheetsstabilizedbyhydrogenbonding.
Thetertiarystructureisthefurtherfolding
ofthepolypeptidestabilizedby
interactionsbetweenRgroups.
Thequaternarystructureexistsinproteins
withmorethanonepolypeptidechain.
Notes
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Topic8:Metabolism,CellRespirationandPhotosynthesis
8.1Metabolism
EssentialIdea:
Metabolicreactionsareregulatedin
responsetothecellsneeds.
NatureofScience:
improvementsincomputingdevelopments
inbioinformatics,suchastheinterrogation
ofdatabases,havefacilitated
researchintometabolicpathways.
andtranslation
IBConnections:
Manyenzymeinhibitorshavebeenused
inmedicine.
Manymetabolicpathwayshavebeen
describedfollowingaseriesofcarefully
controlledandrepeatedexperiments.
Understandings
Metabolicpathwaysconsistofchains
andcyclesofenzymecatalysed
reactions.
Enzymeslowertheactivationenergyof
thechemicalreactionsthattheycatalyse.
Enzymeinhibitorscanbecompetitiveor
noncompetitive.
Metabolicpathwayscanbecontrolledby
endproductinhibition
Endproductinhibitionofthepathway
thatconvertsthreoninetoisoleucine.
Notes
Useofdatabasestoidentifypotential
newantimalarialdrugs.
Calculatingandplottingratesof
reactionfromrawexperimentalresults
Distinguishingdifferenttypesof
inhibitionfromgraphsatspecified
substrateconcentration.
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8.2CellRespiration
EssentialIdea:
Energyisconvertedtoausableformincell
respiration.
NatureofScience:
Paradigmshiftthechemiosmotictheory
ledtoaparadigmshiftinthefieldof
bioenergetics
Topic2.8Cellrespiration
Chemistry
Topic9.1Oxidationandreduction
IBConnections:
PeterMitchellschemiosmotictheory
encounteredyearsofoppositionbefore
itwasfinallyaccepted.
Understandings
Cellrespirationinvolvesthe
Electrontomographyusedto
oxidationandreductionofelectroncarriers.
produceimagesofactive
mitochondria.
Phosphorylationofmoleculesmakesthem
Analysisofdiagramsofthe
lessstable.
pathwaysofaerobicrespirationto
deducewheredecarboxylationand
oxidationreactionsoccur.
Inglycolysis,glucoseisconvertedto
Annotationofadiagramofa
pyruvateinthecytoplasm.
mitochondriontoindicatethe
adaptationstoitsfunction.
GlycolysisgivesasmallnetgainofATP

withouttheuseofoxygen.
Inaerobiccellrespirationpyruvateis

decarboxylatedandoxidized,andconverted
intoacetylcompoundandattachedto
coenzymeAtoformacetylcoenzymeAin
thelinkreaction.
IntheKrebscycle,theoxidationofacetyl

groupsiscoupledtothereductionof
hydrogencarriers,liberatingcarbondioxide.
Energyreleasedbyoxidationreactionsis

carriedtothecristaeofthemitochondriaby
reducedNADandFAD.
Transferofelectronsbetweencarriersinthe
electrontransportchaininthemembraneof
thecristaeiscoupledtoprotonpumping.
Inchemiosmosisprotonsdiffusethrough

ATPsynthasetogenerateATP.
Oxygenisneededtobindwiththefree

protonstomaintainthehydrogengradient,
resultingintheformationofwater.
Thestructureofthemitochondrionis

adaptedtothefunctionitperforms.
Notes
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8.3Photosynthesis
EssentialIdea:
Lightenergyisconvertedintochemical
energy.
NatureofScience:
improvementsinapparatussourcesof
14CandautoradiographyenabledCalvinto
elucidatethepathwaysofcarbonfixation.
Topic2.9Photosynthesis
Topic4.2Energyflow
Topic4.3Carboncycling
IBConnections:
Thelollipopexperimentusedtowork
outthebiochemicaldetailsoftheCalvin
cycleshowsconsiderablecreativity.
Understandings
Lightdependentreactionstakeplaceinthe
intermembranespaceofthethylakoids.
Lightindependentreactionstakeplaceinthe
stroma
ReducedNADPandATPareproducedinthe
lightdependentreactions.
Absorptionoflightbyphotosystemsgenerates
excitedelectrons.
Photolysisofwatergenerateselectronsforuse
inthelightdependentreactions.
Transferofexcitedelectronsoccursbetween
carriersinthylakoidmembranes.
ExcitedelectronsfromPhotosystemIIareused
tocontributetogenerateaprotongradient.
ATPsynthaseinthylakoidsgeneratesATP
usingtheprotongradient.
ExcitedelectronsfromPhotosystemIareused
toreduceNADP.
Inthelightindependentreactionsacarboxylase
catalysesthecarboxylationofribulose
bisphosphate.
Glycerate3phosphateisreducedtotriose
phosphateusingreducedNADPandATP.
TriosephosphateisusedtoregenerateRuBP
andproducecarbohydrates.
RibulosebisphosphateisreformedusingATP.
Thestructureofthechloroplastisadaptedtoits
functioninphotosynthesis.
Notes
Calvinsexperimenttoelucidate
thecarboxylationofRuBP.
Annotationofadiagramto
indicatetheadaptationsofa
chloroplasttoitsfunction.

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Topic9:PlantBiology
9.1TransportinPlantxylem
EssentialIdea:
Structureandfunctionarecorrelatedinthe
xylemofplants.
NatureofScience:
Usemodelsasrepresentationsofthereal
worldmechanismsinvolvedinwater
transportinthexylemcanbeinvestigated
usingapparatusandmaterialsthatshow
similaritiesinstructuretoplanttissues.
Topic2.2Water
Topics2.9and8.3Photosynthesis
IBConnections:
Theintroductionofimageprocessing
softwareanddigital
microscopesincreasesfurthertheability
togathermoredatatoensure
reliability.
Understandings
Transpirationistheinevitable
consequenceofgasexchangeintheleaf.
Plantstransportwaterfromtherootsto
theleavestoreplacelossesfrom
transpiration.
Adaptationsofplantsindesertsandin
salinesoilsforwaterconservation.
Modelsofwatertransportinxylem
usingsimpleapparatusincluding
blottingorfilterpaper,porouspotsand
capillarytubing.
Drawingthestructureofprimary
xylemvesselsinsectionsofstems
basedonmicroscopeimages.
Measurementoftranspirationrates
usingpotometers.
Thecohesivepropertyofwaterandthe
structureofthexylemvesselsallow
transportundertension.
Theadhesivepropertyofwaterand
evaporationgeneratetensionforcesin
leafcellwalls.
Activeuptakeofmineralionsintheroots
causesabsorptionofwaterbyosmosis.
Notes
Designofanexperimenttotest
hypothesesabouttheeffectof
temperatureorhumidityon
transpirationrates.
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9.2TransportinPlantPhloem
EssentialIdea:
Structureandfunctionarecorrelatedinthe
phloemofplants.
NatureofScience:
improvementsinapparatusexperimental
methodsformeasuringphloemtransport
ratesusingaphidstyletsandradioactively
labelledcarbondioxidewereonlypossible
whenradioisotopesbecameavailable
Understandings
Plantstransportorganiccompoundsfrom
sourcestosinks.
Incompressibilityofwaterallowstransport
alonghydrostaticpressuregradients.
Structurefunctionrelationshipsof
phloemsievetubes
Identificationofxylemandphloem
inmicroscopeimagesofstemand
root.
Analysisofdatafromexperiments
measuringphloemtransportrates
usingaphidstyletsandradioactively
labelledcarbondioxide.

IBConnections:
Activetransportisusedtoloadorganic
compoundsintophloemsievetubesatthe
source.
Highconcentrationsofsolutesinthe
phloematthesourceleadtowateruptake
byosmosis.
Raisedhydrostaticpressurecausesthe
contentsofthephloemtoflowtowards
sinks.
Notes
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9.3GrowthinPlants
EssentialIdea:
Plantsadapttheirgrowthtoenvironmental
conditions.
NatureofScience:
improvementsinanalysisanddeduction,
improvementsinanalyticaltechniques
allowingthedetectionoftraceamountsof
substanceshasledtoadvancesinthe
understandingofplanthormonesandtheir
effectongeneexpression.
biotechnology
IBConnections:
Plantscommunicatechemicallyboth
internallyandexternally.
Micropropagationisusedforrapid
bulkingupofnewvarietiesofplant.
Understandings
Undifferentiatedcellsinthemeristemsof
plantsallowindeterminategrowth.
Micropropagationofplantsusing
tissuefromtheshootapex,nutrient
agargelsandgrowthhormones.
Mitosisandcelldivisionintheshootapex Useofmicropropagationforrapid
providecellsneededforextension
bulkingupofnewvarieties,
ofthestemanddevelopmentofleaves.
productionofvirusfreestrainsof
existingvarietiesandpropagationof
orchidsandotherrarespecies.
Planthormonescontrolgrowthintheshoot
apex.
Plantshootsrespondtotheenvironmentby
tropisms.
Auxineffluxpumpscansetup

concentrationgradientsofauxininplant
tissue.
Auxininfluencescellgrowthratesby

changingthepatternofgeneexpression.
Notes
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9.4ReproductioninPlants
EssentialIdea:
Reproductioninfloweringplantsis
influencedbythebioticandabiotic
environment.
NatureofScience:
Paradigmshiftmorethan85%ofthe
worlds250,000speciesoffloweringplant
dependonpollinatorsforreproduction.This
knowledgehasledtoprotectingentire
ecosystemsratherthanindividualspecies.
IBConnections:
Understandings
Floweringinvolvesachangeingene
expressionintheshootapex.
Theswitchtofloweringisaresponsetothe
lengthoflightanddarkperiodsinmany
plants.
Successinplantreproductiondependson
pollination,fertilizationandseeddispersal.
Mostfloweringplantsusemutualistic
relationshipswithpollinatorsinsexual
reproduction.
Methodsusedtoinduceshortday
plantstofloweroutofseason
Drawinginternalstructureofseeds.
TheUniversityofGttingenconductedan
extensivereviewofscientificstudiesfrom200
countriesfor115oftheleadingglobalcropsin
2005.Theyfoundthat87ofthecropplants
dependtosomedegree
uponanimalpollination,includingbees.This
accountsforonethirdofcrop
productionglobally.
Notes
Drawingofhalfviewsof
animalpollinatedflowers.
Designofexperimentstotest
hypothesesaboutfactorsaffecting
germination.
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Topic10:Genetics
10.1Meiosis
EssentialIdea:
Meiosisleadstoindependentassortmentof
chromosomesanduniquecompositionof
allelesindaughtercells.
NatureofScience:
Makingcarefulobservationscareful
observationandrecordkeepingturnedup
anomalousdatathatMendelslawof
independentassortmentcouldnotaccount
for.ThomasHuntMorgandevelopedthe
notionoflinkedgenestoaccountforthe
anomalies.
Topic3.3Meiosis
IBConnections:
Stainingoflilyanthersorothertissue
containinggermlinecellsand
microscopeexaminationtoobservecells
inmeiosisarepossibleactivities.
Understandings
Chromosomesreplicateininterphasebefore
meiosis.
CrossingoveristheexchangeofDNA
materialbetweennonsisterhomologous
chromatids.
Crossingoverproducesnewcombinations
ofallelesonthechromosomesofthe
haploidcells.
Chiasmataformationbetweennonsister
chromatidscanresultinanexchangeof
alleles.
Homologouschromosomesseparatein
meiosisI.
SisterchromatidsseparateinmeiosisII.
Independentassortmentofgenesisdueto
therandomorientationofpairsof
homologouschromosomesinmeiosisI.
Notes
Drawingdiagramstoshow
chiasmataformedbycrossingover.

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10.2Inheritance
EssentialIdea:
Genesmaybelinkedorunlinkedandare
inheritedaccordingly.
NatureofScience:
Lookingforpatterns,trendsanddiscrepancies,
Mendelusedobservationsofthenaturalworldtofind
andexplainpatternsandtrends.Sincethen,scientists
havelookedfordiscrepanciesandaskedquestions
basedonfurtherobservationstoshowexceptionsto
therules.Forexample,Morgandiscovered
nonMendelianratiosinhisexperimentswith
Drosophila.
Topic3.4Inheritance
IBConnections:
Thelawofindependentassortmentwas
soonfoundtohaveexceptions
whenlookingatlinkedgenes.
Anunderstandingofinheritanceallowed
farmerstoselectivelybreedtheir
livestockforspecificcharacteristics.
Understandings
Genelociaresaidtobelinkedifonthe
samechromosome.
Morgansdiscoveryof
nonMendelianratiosin
Drosophila.
Unlinkedgenessegregateindependentlyas CompletionandanalysisofPunnett
aresultofmeiosis.
squaresfordihybridtraits.
Variationcanbediscreteorcontinuous.
Polygenictraitssuchashuman
heightmayalsobeinfluencedby
environmentalfactors.
Thephenotypesofpolygeniccharacteristics Calculationofthepredicted
tendtoshowcontinuousvariation.
genotypicandphenotypicratioof
offspringofdihybridcrosses
involvingunlinkedautosomalgenes.
Chisquaredtestsareusedtodetermine
Identificationofrecombinantsin
whetherthedifferencebetweenan
crossesinvolvingtwolinkedgenes.
observedandexpectedfrequency
distributionisstatisticallysignificant.
Useofachisquaredtestondata
fromdihybridcrosses.
Notes
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10.3GenepoolsandSpeciation
EssentialIdea:
Genepoolschangeovertime.
NatureofScience:
discrepanciespatternsofchromosome
numberinsomegeneracanbeexplainedby
speciationduetopolyploidy.
Topic5.1Evidenceforevolution
IBConnections:
Punctuatedequilibriumwaslongconsideredan
alternativetheoryofevolutionandachallengeto
thelongestablishedparadigmofDarwinian
gradualism.
Manycropspecieshavebeencreatedtobe
polyploid.Polyploidyincreasesallelicdiversity
andpermitsnovelphenotypestobegenerated.It
alsoleadstohybridvigour.
Understandings
Agenepoolconsistsofallthegenesand
theirdifferentalleles,presentinan
interbreedingpopulation.
Evolutionrequiresthatallelefrequencies
changewithtimeinpopulations.
Reproductiveisolationofpopulationscan
betemporal,behaviouralorgeographic.
Speciationduetodivergenceofisolated
populationscanbegradual.
Speciationcanoccurabruptly.
Notes
Identifyingexamplesofdirectional,
stabilizinganddisruptiveselection.
SpeciationinthegenusAlliumby
polyploidy.
Comparisonofallelefrequenciesof
geographicallyisolatedpopulations.
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Topic11:AnimalPhysiology
11.1AntibodyProductionandVaccination
EssentialIdea:
Immunityisbasedonrecognitionofselfand
Topic6.3Defenceagainstinfectious
destructionofforeignmaterial.
disease
NatureofScience:
IBConnections:
Considerethicalimplicationsof
TheWorldHealthOrganizationinitiated
researchJennertestedhisvaccinefor
thecampaignfortheglobal
smallpoxonachild.
eradicationofsmallpoxin1967.The
campaignwasdeemedasuccessin1977,
only10yearslater.
Understandings
Everyorganismhasuniquemolecules
onthesurfaceofitscells.
Pathogenscanbespeciesspecific
althoughotherscancrossspecies
barriers.
BlymphocytesareactivatedbyT
lymphocytesinmammals.
Smallpoxwasthefirstinfectiousdisease
ofhumanstohavebeeneradicatedby
vaccination
MonoclonalantibodiestoHCGareused
inpregnancytestkits.
ActivatedBcellsmultiplytoform
clonesofplasmacellsandmemorycells.
Plasmacellssecreteantibodies.
Antibodiesaidthedestructionof
pathogens.
Whitecellsreleasehistaminein
responsetoallergens.
Histaminescauseallergicsymptoms.
Immunitydependsuponthepersistence
ofmemorycells.
Vaccinescontainantigensthattrigger
immunitybutdonotcausethedisease.
Fusionofatumourcellwithan
antibodyproducingplasmacellcreatesa
hybridomacell.
Monoclonalantibodiesareproducedby
hybridomacells.
Antigensonthesurfaceofredblood
cellsstimulateantibodyproductionina
personwithadifferentbloodgroup.
Analysisofepidemiologicaldatarelated
tovaccinationprogrammes.
Notes
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11.2Movement
EssentialIdea:
Therolesofthemusculoskeletalsystemare
movement,supportandprotection.
NatureofScience:
improvementsinapparatusfluorescent
calciumionshavebeenusedtostudythe
cyclicinteractionsinmusclecontraction.
IBConnections:
Understandings
Bonesandexoskeletonsprovideanchorage
formusclesandactaslevers.
Synovialjointsallowcertainmovementsbut
notothers.
Movementofthebodyrequiresmusclesto
workinantagonisticpairs.
Skeletalmusclefibresaremultinucleateand
containspecializedendoplasmicreticulum.
Antagonisticpairsofmusclesinan
insectleg
Annotationofadiagramofthe
humanelbow.
Drawinglabelleddiagramsofthe
structureofasarcomere.
Analysisofelectronmicrographsto
findthestateofcontractionof
musclefibres.

Musclefibrescontainmanymyofibrils.
Eachmyofibrilismadeupofcontractile
sarcomeres.
Thecontractionoftheskeletalmuscleis
achievedbytheslidingofactinandmyosin
filaments.
ATPhydrolysisandcrossbridgeformation
arenecessaryforthefilamentstoslide.
Calciumionsandtheproteinstropomyosin
andtroponincontrolmusclecontractions.
Notes
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11.3TheKidneyandOsmoregulation
EssentialIdea:
Allanimalsexcretenitrogenouswaste
productsandsomeanimalsalsobalance
waterandsoluteconcentrations.
NatureofScience:
Curiosityaboutparticular
phenomenainvestigationswerecarriedout
todeterminehowdesertanimalsprevent
waterlossintheirwastes.
Topic1.3Membranestructure
IBConnections:
Theremovalofkidneystonesbyultra
soundtreatment.
Understandings
Animalsareeitherosmoregulatorsor
osmoconformers.
TheMalpighiantubulesystemininsectsand
thekidneycarryoutosmoregulationand
removalofnitrogenouswastes.
Thecompositionofbloodintherenalarteryis
differentfromthatintherenalvein.
Theultrastructureoftheglomerulusand
Bowmanscapsulefacilitateultrafiltration.
Theproximalconvolutedtubuleselectively
reabsorbsusefulsubstancesbyactivetransport.
TheloopofHenlemaintainshypertonic
conditionsinthemedulla.
ADHcontrolsreabsorptionofwaterinthe
collectingduct.
ThelengthoftheloopofHenleispositively
correlatedwiththeneedforwaterconservation
inanimals.
Thetypeofnitrogenouswasteinanimalsis
correlatedwithevolutionary
historyandhabitat.
Consequencesofdehydration
andoverhydration.
Treatmentofkidneyfailureby
hemodialysisorkidney
transplant.
Bloodcells,glucose,proteinsand
drugsaredetectedinurinarytests
Drawingandlabellingadiagram
ofthehumankidney.
Annotationofdiagramsofthe
nephron.

Notes
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11.4SexualReproduction
EssentialIdea:
Sexualreproductioninvolvesthe
Topic3.3Meiosis
developmentandfusionofhaploidgametes.
Topic6.6Hormones,homeostasisand
reproduction
NatureofScience:
IBConnections:
Assessingrisksandbenefitsassociatedwith
Disputesovertheresponsibilityfor
scientificresearchtheriskstohumanmale
frozenhumanembryos.
fertilitywerenotadequatelyassessedbefore
steroidsrelatedtoprogesterone
andestrogenwerereleasedintothe
environmentasaresultoftheuseofthe
femalecontraceptivepill.
Understandings
Spermatogenesisandoogenesisboth
involvemitosis,cellgrowth,twodivisions
ofmeiosisanddifferentiation.
Theaverage38weekpregnancyin
humanscanbepositionedonagraph
showingthecorrelationbetween
animalsizeandthedevelopmentof
theyoungatbirthforother
mammals.
Processesinspermatogenesisandoogenesis Annotationofdiagramsof
resultindifferentnumbersofgameteswith
seminiferoustubuleandovaryto
differentamountsofcytoplasm.
showthestagesofgametogenesis.
Fertilizationinanimalscanbeinternalor
Annotationofdiagramsofmature
external.
spermandeggtoindicatefunctions.
Fertilizationinvolvesmechanismsthat

preventpolyspermy.
Implantationoftheblastocystinthe

endometriumisessentialforthe
continuationofpregnancy.
HCGstimulatestheovarytosecrete

progesteroneduringearlypregnancy.
Theplacentafacilitatestheexchangeof

materialsbetweenthemotherandfetus.
Estrogenandprogesteronearesecretedby

theplacentaonceithasformed.
Birthismediatedbypositivefeedback

involvingestrogenandoxytocin.
Notes
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