Chapter One

Classical View of Electrical Conduction

In this chapter we will discuss the classical (or pre- quantum mechanical) view of DC
conductivity in metals. Electricity and electrical conduction was known for at least 2 centuries
before P. Drude in 1900 put forward a theory to explain DC conductivity in metals based on
recent discovery of electrons (J.J. Thompson 1897). We will also examine various other
properties of metals that can be explained with Drudes model. H.A. Lorentz (1905) developed
the model proposed by Drude to give more detailed account of conduction phenomena.
Consequently, this model is known as Drude Model or Drude-Lorentz Model.
1.1 The Drude Theory of Conduction
Drude combined knowledge of kinetic theory of gases (developed by L. Boltzmann in late 19th
century) with discovery of electrons to describe electrical conduction in metals. Drude assumed
conduction electrons to behave as a gas of electrons in metals. (When two metal atoms are
brought together to form a metallic bond; valence electrons of each atom are detached from the
respective ionic cores and are free to move about. According to Drude, these are the conduction
electrons in metals.) Drude applied kinetic theory of gases to these conduction electrons in order
to explain the dynamics of electrons in metals where electrical conduction is mainly due to
negatively charged electrons. Compensating positive charges (ion cores; including nucleus and
bound electrons) on the other hand are much heavier and immobile compared to electrons.
If (valence) electrons are contributed by each atom in metal of density # , then electron
density in the metal can be written as
#
[1.1]
= '

where, ' is Avogadros number (6.023 x 1023) and is the molecular weight of the metal
atom.
Thus electron density varies from 1022 to 1023 /cm3 for most metals. In terms of n, we can write
the radius of sphere whose volume is equal to one conduction electron as
3 ./0
[1.2]
* =
4
We can now compare this radius to another fundamental quantity, Bohrs radius (2 = 5.29 x10-9
cm) which represents radius of a hydrogen atom in ground state. For most metals the ratio * 2
falls between 2-3 and 3-6 for alkali metals. These electron densities (1022-1023 /cm3) are very
high to be thought of as ideal gas. A gas with similar densities of gas atom/molecules would have
a pressure of several thousand atmospheres. The kinetic theory of gases is not applicable at such
high pressures, however, Drude used kinetic theory of gases to explain conduction in metals.
Lecture Notes for MSE303: Electronic and Magnetic properties of Materials

Authors: Deepak Gupta, Monica Katiyar and Anshu Gaur

1.2 Assumptions of Drudes Model

1.

2.

3.

4.

The electrons are both independent and free. An independent electron assumption implies
that between two collisions, an electron does not interact with another electron. Therefore,
in absence of an applied field, an electron moves in a straight line, and in presence of a
field, the electron trajectory is decided by the field; but in both cases, the field due to other
electrons plays no role. Similarly, in free electron approximation, the electronion
interaction is ignored. Thus field produced by both electrons and ions is neglected.
Drudes electron collide (physical elastic collision) with ion cores and instantaneously
change speed and direction. But, electron-electron scattering is neglected, that is electron
electron collision is neglected.
Probability that an electron experiences a collision (with ion core) per unit time is 1/t. t is
known as relaxation time or mean free time. It means, on average, an electron picked
randomly will experience next collision after time t.
Electrons reach thermal equilibrium by collision. That is the velocity of an electron just
after a collision is determined by surrounding temperature, and is in a random direction. It
is in no way related to its velocity before collision.

1.3 DC Conductivity in Metals

Consider a metal bar (cross section area and length ) at a constant temperature . Following
kinetic theory of gases, all conduction electrons in metal would be moving in random direction
with a velocity that is described by Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution as
= 0/@
= @
[1.3]
():; =
exp
2;
2;
Where = is mass of electron and ; is Boltzmann constant. The function ():; gives the
fraction of electrons in velocity range and + .
One can calculate F#* (root-mean-square velocity), which can be taken as the average thermal
velocity GH of all electrons at temperature T.
3; ./@
[1.4]
=
At room temperature (300K), according to above expression the average thermal velocity of
electron is of the order of 107 cm/sec. Since, all the electrons are moving in random directions,
thermal velocities of all electrons cancel out giving effectively zero thermal velocity for all
electrons (in absence of any external force).
Now, if we apply a voltage at the two ends of this metal bar, a current obeying Ohms law ( =
GH = F#* =

) should flow through the metal bar. In the presence of the electric field , the electrons will
experience a force given by = = in the direction opposite of electric field ( is
elemental charge here) and will be accelerated. Current is defined as flow of charge per unit time
and can be written as
Lecture Notes for MSE303: Electronic and Magnetic properties of Materials

Authors: Deepak Gupta, Monica Katiyar and Anshu Gaur

[1.5]
=

where = is the volume of metal bar. Assuming it takes time for all the electrons in
volume to cross the entire length of metal bar, equation [1.5] describes the current. Above
expression can also be written as
[1.6]
= =
or in vector terms
[1.7]
=
where is current density (current per unit cross section area) and is the average velocity of
electrons. Note that this velocity is not the thermal velocity. The net thermal velocity is zero as
discussed earlier, however due to acceleration in the electric field, electrons acquire additional
velocity which we will call drift velocity. (Note: here a - sign is added to describe that the
direction of current is opposite of electron velocity. Be careful that here is elemental charge,
1.6 x 10-19 C and not electron charge.)
Now consider a scenario, where an electron which has just undergone a collision (with ion) is
accelerated under electric field (in opposite direction) for time t. As per Drudess assumption the
initial velocity of the electron would be GH (thermal velocity) and the final velocity can be
written as (according to Newtons law of motion)
=

[1.8]
=
Taking an average of velocities of all electrons, we note that all thermal velocities should cancel
out (due to random directions) and on average an electron will be accelerated in the direction of
= GH

applied electric field for a time (relaxation time) before undergoing another collision. Thus
the average velocity of all electrons under electric field can be written as

[1.9]
=
The - sign in above expression describes that the electron velocities are in the opposite
direction of electric field. Using above equation, the expression for current density (equation
[1.7]) can be re-written as
@
[1.10]
=
=
=
where
@
[1.11]
=
=
is the electrical conductivity of metal. The unit of conductivity are (ohm-cm)-1 or (ohm-m)-1.
Conductivity can also be defined as inverse of resistivity ( = 1/).
In the above expression of conductivity, the only unknown is relaxation time . Unfortunately, it
is not straight forward to measure , and hence it had been a practice to measure conductivity
STU =

Lecture Notes for MSE303: Electronic and Magnetic properties of Materials

Authors: Deepak Gupta, Monica Katiyar and Anshu Gaur

(which can be done easily enough) and estimate . The table below gives estimated values of
for three different metals.
Metals
Ag
Al
Cu

(77K) (x 10-15 sec)

200
65
210

(273K) (x 10-15 sec)

40
8
27

We can see from above table that the relaxation times for metals are in the range 10-14-10-15 sec.
For a metal at room temperature with relaxation time 10-14 sec and electric field ~10-2 V/cm,
the average velocity of electron will be of the order of 10-1 cm/sec. This average velocity of
electrons is much smaller compared to thermal velocity for a single electron (107 cm/sec). So, if
we calculate the distance travelled by one electron between two successive collisions (electron
traveling with thermal velocity 107 cm/sec for time 10-14 sec), this distance comes out to be of the
order of 10; which is of the order of interatomic distance in a metal. This provides a selfconsistent verification that Drudes model describes conduction in metals to a fair degree.
1.4 Thermal Conductivity in Metals
If we regard that heat in metals is transported by electrons (which is a reasonable argument given
that we have established that only mobile particle in metal are electrons) according to a
simplified picture discussed below.
Consider a metal bar with one end (left) at a higher temperature compared to other end (right). In
absence of any external force (other than temperature gradient), electrons will have thermal
velocities corresponding to the temperature of the immediate surrounding. Thus, we can say
thermal velocities of electrons would be higher at the left (hotter) end compared to right (colder)
end of the metal bar. Thus at any point between the two ends, more electrons will arrive from left
(hotter) end compared to right (colder) end thus carrying more thermal energy (heat) with them.
The thermal current due to temperature gradient can be expressed in terms of thermal
conductivity as
[1.12]
GH=F#SZ =
and from kinetic theory of gases, thermal conductivity can be calculated as (see Ashcroft and
Mermin page 22)
1
[1.13]
= @ T
3
Where T is the electronic contribution to specific heat and can be calculated as (change in
energy with temperature at constant volume)
1
1 1
3
[1.14]
T =
=
@ = ;

2
2
where is the average thermal velocity of electrons.

Lecture Notes for MSE303: Electronic and Magnetic properties of Materials

Authors: Deepak Gupta, Monica Katiyar and Anshu Gaur

Using equations [1.13] and [1.14] and re-arranging the terms, one can calculate ratio of thermal
and electrical conductivities and show that this ratio is proportional to temperature there by
satisfying Wiedmann-Franz law.
3 ; @
[1.15]
=

2
We can also calculate Lorenz Number from above equation as (according to Drudes model)
^
_`

0 ab @
@

= 1.11 x 10-8 watt-ohm/K2

[1.16]

Experimental values of Lorenz number at 273K for Ag = 2.31 x 10-8, Al = 2.14 x 10-8, and Cu =
2.20 x 10-8 watt-ohm/K2 which are about twice the values calculated according to Drudes
model.
(However, Drude by mistake calculated only half the conductivity thereby getting a value of 2.22
x 10-8 watt-ohm/K2, a remarkable agreement with the experimental values.)
1.5 Thermoelectric Power
As we discussed in previous section, there is net flow of electrons from hot-end of a metal bar
towards the cold-end of a metal bar kept under a temperature gradient. This electron flow carries
thermal energy (heat) as well as charge (electric current). However, this process cannot continue
forever and the current flow (or the motion of electrons) is opposed by the electric field, which
sets us due to gradient in electron concentration along the length of metal bar. (Due to motion of
electrons from hot end towards cold end, the hot end become net positively charged and the cold
end becomes negatively charged, thus setting an electric field which opposes the motion of
electron from hot to cold end). This electric field should be proportional to temperature gradient
and can be expressed as
[1.17]
=
where is thermoelectric power.
In steady state, there should be no current (or electron flow) and for steady state Q can be
calculated to be
T
[1.18]
=
3
(for derivation please see Solid State Physics by Ashcroft and Mermin, chapter 1, pages 22-24)
In above expression, if we use T = 3 2 ; from Drudes model, we get = -0.43 x10-4 V/K,
which is roughly 100 times larger compared to observed values for thermoelectric power for
most metals! Clearly something is missing in the simplistic view of Drudes Model.
In summary, while Drudes model explains DC conductivity and thermal conductivity
reasonably well (at least in terms of order of magnitude), it fails to account for observed values
of thermoelectric power.

Lecture Notes for MSE303: Electronic and Magnetic properties of Materials

Authors: Deepak Gupta, Monica Katiyar and Anshu Gaur