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Ashurbanipal

byJoshuaJ.Mark
publishedon02September2009

Ashurbanipal(668-627BCE,alsoknownasAssurbanipal)wasthelastofthegreatkingsofAssyria.
Hisnamemeans"thegodAshuriscreatorofanheir"andhewasthesonofKingEsarhaddonof
theNeo-AssyrianEmpire.IntheHebrewTanakh(theChristianOldTestament)heiscalled
As(e)napparorOsnapper(Ezra4:10),whiletheGreeksknewhimasSardanapolosandtheRomans
asSardanapulus.HeachievedthegreatestterritorialexpansionoftheAssyrianEmpirewhich
includedBabylonia,Persia,Syria,andEgypt(althoughEgyptwaslostasaresultofarevoltunder
thereignoftheEgyptianPharaohPsammetichusI).Ashurbanipalwasapopularkingwhoruledhis
citizensfairlybutwasmarkedforhiscrueltytowardthosewhomhedefeated(thebestknown
examplebeingareliefdepictingthedefeatedkingwithadogchainthroughhisjaw,beingforcedto
liveinakennelaftercapture).HeisbestknownforhisvastlibraryatNineveh,whichhehimself
consideredhisgreatestachievement.UnderAshurbanipalsreign,thecountryofElam(whichhad
longbeenanunconquerableenemyofAssyria)wasdestroyedandUrartu,anotherlong-time
adversary,wasdominated.Towardtheendofhisreign,however,theempirehadgrowntoolarge
andtoodifficulttoproperlydefend.TheAssyrianEmpirewasalreadycrumblingtowardtheendof
hisreignand,withhisdeath,fellapartcompletely.

EARLYREIGN&EGYPTIANCAMPAIGNS
EsarhaddonhadconqueredEgyptin671BCEbuttheEgyptianshadrevoltedsoonafteranddriven
manyoftheAssyriangovernorsfromtheirposts.In669BCEEsarhaddonmobilizedhistroopsand
marchedbacktoputdowntherevoltbutdiedbeforehereachedtheEgyptianborder.Priorto
leavingoncampaign,however,hehadfortunatelydecidedtosethisaffairsinorder.Whenhis
father,Sennacherib,hadbeenassassinated,Esarhaddonhadbeenforcedtofightasix-weekwar
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withhisbrothersfactionstosecurethecrown.Hedidnotwanttoseethissamethinghappenwith
hisownheir.

INBETWEENCOLLECTINGHISLIBRARY,RENOVATING
NINEVEH,ANDRUNNINGTHEEMPIRE,ASHURBANIPAL
CONTINUEDTOLEADHISOWNMILITARYCAMPAIGNS.
Esarhaddonseldestsonandheir,Sin-iddina-apla,haddiedin672BCEandEsarhaddonnowchose
hissecondson,Ashurbanipal,ashissuccessor.Heforcedhisvassalstatestoswearloyaltyinadvance
toAshurbanipalinordertoavoidanyrevoltsoverthefuturesuccession.Ataboutthissametime,
EsarhaddonsmotherZakutuissuedtheLoyaltyTreatyofNaqia-Zakutuwhichcompelledthe
AssyriancourtandthoseterritoriesunderAssyrianrule,toacceptandsupportthereignof
Ashurbanipal.Inordertoavoidthekindofconflicthehadgonethroughwithhisbrothers,
Esarhaddonalsoprovidedforhisyoungestson,Shamash-shum-ukin,bydecreeingheshouldbe
kingofBabylon.
AshurbanipalsucceededEsarhaddonin668BCEandorderedagreatcoronationfestivalforhis
brothersascensiontothethroneofBabylon.InhisinscriptionshewriteshowShamash-shum-ukin
waswelcomedtoBabylonamidstrejoicingasthestatueofthegreatgodMarduk(takenfrom
Babylonin689BCEbySennacherib,whosackedthecity)wasreturnedtothepeople.Heelevated
BabylontoitsformerstatusasagreatcityandreferstoShamash-shum-ukinasmyfavoritebrother.
OncehesawthatBabylonandthesouthernterritoriesofhisempireweresecure,heledhisarmies
southtowardEgypttofinishwhathisfatherhadbegun.
EsarhaddonhadconqueredthePharaohTirhakahbuthadnotkilledhim.Tirhakahsfamilyhad
beenbroughtbackascaptivestoNinevehandremainedtherebutheandhisextendedfamilyhad
fledsouthtoNubia.WhenAshurbanipalinvadedEgyptinc.667BCEhedrovehisarmysouthasfar
asThebes,sackingeveryrebelcityinhispath.Theonlyrulersparedwasthekingwhohad
remainedloyaltoAssyria,KingNechoofthecityofSais.Nechosson,Psammetichus,hadbeen
broughtbacktoNinevehbyEsarhaddonforre-educationinAssyrianwaysandbeliefsandnowwas
returnedtohisfathertorulewithhim.AshurbanipaldividedtheterritoriesofEgyptbetweenthese
twokingsandthen,inthebeliefthatEgyptwassecure,returnedtoAssyriatodealwithproblems
withElam.TirhakahsnephewinNubia,however,ayoungmannamedTatanami,recognizedEgypts
vulnerabilityunderthenewruleofthejointkingsanddecidedtoseizetheopportunity.

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Lion-huntingScene,KingAshurbanipal

TatanamimarchedonEgyptandtookeachcityonhisroutewithminimaleffort.Atthecapitalof
MemphisheengagedwiththeEgyptian-AssyrianforcesunderthecommandofKingNecho.
AlthoughPsammetichuswasabletosuccessfullyrepeltheNubianarmy,Nechowaskilledinthe
battle.TheEgyptianspreferredtheruleoftheNubiansoverthatoftheAssyrians,however,and
Psammetichuswasdrivenintohiding.In666BCE,wordoftherebellionhadreachedNinevehand
Ashurbanipalreturnedattheheadofhistroopsandagaincrushedtherebels.Theirstrongholdat
ThebeswassackedandTatanamiabandonedhiscampaignandfledbacktoNubia.Ashurbanipal
thenmadePsammetichusfullPharaohofEgypt,equippedhimwithAssyriangarrisonsstationedat
strategicpoints,andthenagainreturnedtoAssyriain665BCE.Between665and657BCEheput
downarebellioninTyre,foughttheElamites,ledhisarmythroughAnatoliatore-conquerthe
peopleofTabal,andsubduedthekingdomofUrartuwhichhadagainrisentothreatenAssyrian
interests.Whilehewasengagedinthesecampaigns,Egyptwasslowlyslippingfromhisgrasp.

THE1STELAMCAMPAIGN&BABYLONSREVOLT
PsammetichuswasnotcontenttoruleasanAssyrianpuppetandsobegantoasserthis
independencebymakingdealswithvariousEgyptiangovernorsandcourtingthefavorofGyges,
thekingofLydiainAnatolia.In653BCE,withthehelpoftheLydians,Psammetichusdrovethe
AssyriantroopsoutofEgyptandestablishedhisnewcapitalatthecityofSais.Althoughnewsofthis
revoltwasbroughttoAshurbanipalsattention,thereisnorecordthathereturnedtoEgypttodo
anythingaboutit.Elam,Assyriasoldenemy,wascausingproblemsclosertohomeandAshurbanipal
consideredthatapriority.
Bytheyear653BCE,Shamash-shum-ukinhadalsogrowntiredofbeingAshurbanipalspuppetking.
InscriptionsfromBabylonindicatethatAshurbanipalhadbeendictatinghisbrothersdecreesand
managinghisaffairs.OtherinscriptionsindicatethatShamash-shum-ukinsentsecretenjoystothe
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kingofElamaskingforsupportinthrowingofftheAssyrianyoke.Ashurbanipal,itseems,knew
nothingofhisbrothersschemesandwasonlyawarethatthearmiesofElamweremobilizingforan
assaultonBabylonand,takingtheoffensive,hemarchedhisarmytoElamandattacked.
HedefeatedtheElamitesandsackedtheircities.Accordingtohisinscription,hekilledtheElamite
kingTeumannandhissonwithhisownsword:WiththeencouragementofAssur,Ikilledthem;Icut
offtheirheadsinfrontofeachother.HethenbroughttheheadsbacktoNinevehwherehehung
theminhisgardenasdecoration.SinceAshurbanipaldidnotknowhisbrotherhadinvitedthe
ElamitestoBabylon,Shamash-shum-ukincontinuedwithhisruleandAshurbanipalcontinuedto
dictateit.EvenifhehadknownhisbrotherwascomplicitintheElamiteinvasion,hewouldhavehad
notimetodealwiththeproblem.AcoalitionofMedes,Persians,andCimmeriansmarchedon
Ninevehinthesameyearandbroughttheirforceswithinreachofthewalls.Ashurbanipalcalled
uponhisScythianallies,knownfortheirskillascavalry,anddefeatedthecoalition,killingthekingof
theMedes,Phraortes.
Shamash-shum-ukinwasnomorepleasedthanhehadbeenbeforeatbeinghisbrotherspuppet,
however,andin652BCEopenlyrebelled.HetookAssyrianvillagesandoutpostsandclaimedthem
inthenameofBabylon.WhenAshurbanipalrespondedbymarchinghisarmytotheregion,
Shamash-shum-ukinretreatedbehindthewallsofBabylonwherehewasbesiegedbytheAssyrian
forcesforthenextfouryears.InscriptionsfromthetimerelatewhatthedefendersofBabylon
enduredbehindthewalls:Theyatethefleshoftheirsonsanddaughtersbecauseofstarvation.
Whenthecityfell,thosewhohadsurvivedsolongwerecutdownbytheAssyriansoldiersand,
Ashurbanipalwrites,TherestofthoselivingIdestroyedandtheircarved-upbodiesIfedto
dogs,topigs,towolves,toeagles,tobirdsoftheheavens,tofishesofthedeep.Shamash-shum-ukin
sethimselfonfireinhispalaceinordertoescapecapture.AshurbanipalthensetanAssyrian
governmentofficialnamedKandaluonthethroneofBabylon.

THE2NDELAMCAMPAIGN
AtthesametimeBabylonfellin648/647BCE,Elameruptedincivilwar.ThekingofElamhaddied
andnowdifferentfactionsfoughtforthethrone.Ashurbanipalsawanopportunitytofinallydefeat
hisoldenemyanddrovehisarmyagainintoElam.ThehistorianSusanWiseBauerwrites,Elamite
citiesburned.ThetemplesandpalacesofSusawererobbed.Fornobetterreasonthanvengeance,
Ashurbanipalorderedtheroyaltombsopenedandthebonesofthekingsbundledoffinto
captivity(414).WhenhesackedanddestroyedthecityofSusain647BCE,heleftbehindatablet
whichrecordedhistriumphovertheElamites:
Susa,thegreatholycity,abodeoftheirgods,seatoftheirmysteries,I
conquered.Ientereditspalaces,Iopenedtheirtreasurieswheresilverand
gold,goodsandwealthwereamassed...IdestroyedthezigguratofSusa.I
smasheditsshiningcopperhorns.IreducedthetemplesofElamtonaught
theirgodsandgoddessesIscatteredtothewinds.Thetombsoftheirancient
andrecentkingsIdevastated,Iexposedtothesun,andIcarriedawaytheir
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bonestowardthelandofAshur.IdevastatedtheprovincesofElamandon
theirlandsIsowedsalt.

AnyonewitheventheslightestclaimtothethronewascapturedandbroughtbacktoNinevehasa
slave.InkeepingwithAssyrianpolicy,Ashurbanipalthenre-locatedenormousnumbersofthe
populationthroughouttheregionandleftthecitiesemptyandthefieldsbarren.Bauerwrites,
Ashurbanipaldidnotrebuildafterthewreckingofthecountry.Heinstallednogovernors,he
resettlednoneofthedevastatedcities,hemadenoattempttomakethisnewprovinceofAssyria
anythingmorethanawasteland.Elamlayopenandundefended(414).Thiswouldlaterproveto
havebeenamistakeasthePersiansslowlytookovertheterritorywhichhadoncebeenElamand
proceededtore-buildandfortifythecities.Intime,theywouldhelptoppletheAssyrianEmpire.

AshurbanipalasHighPriest

ASHURBANIPALSLIBRARY
FollowingthedestructionofElam,however,theveryideathattheempirewouldnotlastforever
wouldhavebeenconsideredabsurd.Therewasnorivalornear-rivaltothemightoftheAssyrian
Empireatthattime.TheAssyriansancientenemiesofUrartuandElamwerebothdefeatedand,
eventhoughEgypthadbrokenfree,ithadstillbeenstampedwithAssyrianculture.Theother
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territoriesoftheempirewhichhadrebelledhadbeendealtwithseverelyandbroughtbackinline.
Ashurbanipalwasagreatpatronoftheartsandnowturnedhisattentiontothesepursuits.He
establishedhisfamouslibraryofover30,000claytabletsatNineveh.Amongtheworksfoundinthe
LibraryofAshurbanipalweretheEnumaElish(theBabylonianEpicofCreation)andthegreatepic
taleofGilgamesh,theoldestadventurestoryextant.ItwasamongthetabletsofNinevehthatthe
originalMesopotamianstoryoftheGreatFlood,whichpre-datesthestoryintheBible,wasfound
inthe19thcenturyCEandthelibrarysdiscoveryhassincebeenconsideredoneofthegreatest
andmostimportantarchaeologicalfindsinhistory.Ashurbanipalclaimedtobeabletoread
cuneiformscriptinbothAkkadianandSumerianandhiscollectionofwritingswasvast.According
tothehistorianPaulKriwaczek,"Ashurbanipalwentfurtherthanmereabilitytoreadandclaimed
completemasteryofallthescribalarts"(250).Inhisownwords,Ashurbanipalclaimed:
I,Ashurbanipal,withinthepalace,understoodthewisdomofNabu[thegod
oflearning].Alltheartofwritingofeverykind.Imademyselfthemasterof
themall.IreadthecunningtabletsofSumerandthedarkAkkadian
languagewhichisdifficulttorightlyuseItookmypleasureinreadingstones
inscribedbeforetheflood.Thebestofthescribalart,suchworksasnoneof
thekingswhowentbeforemehadeverlearnt,remediesfromthetopofthe
headtothetoenails,noncanonicalselections,cleverteachings,whatever
pertainstothemedicalmasteryof[thegods]NinurtaandGala,Iwroteon
tablets,checkedandcollated,anddepositedwithinmypalaceforperusing
andreading.

Kriwaczekfurthernotesthatthisisnoidleboastofthekingasthereisactualproofthat
Ashurbanipalcouldcomposeincuneiformandcitestabletswhicharesignedbytheauthoras
"Ashurbanipal,KingofAssyria".Incollectinghisfamouslibraryhewrotetocitiesandcentresof
learningallacrossMesopotamiainstructingthemtosendhimcopiesofeverywrittenworkeverset
downintheentireregion."Hewasconcernednotjusttoamassaslargeacollectionaspossible,but
toensurethathehadcopiesofeveryimportantworkintheMesopotamiancanon.Intheletter[to
thegovernorofBorsippa]hegoesontolistprayers,incantations,andothertexts,identified,aswas
usualinancienttimes,bytheirfirstwords"(Kriwaczek,251).Theimmensesizeandscopeofhis
libraryatNinevehistestimonytohowsuccessfulhewasincollectingtheworksherequestedfrom
hissubjects.Bauerwrites:
AsfarasAshurbanipalwasconcerned,hislibrarywastheabiding
accomplishmentofhisreign:I,Ashurbanipal,kingoftheuniverse,onwhom
thegodshavebestowedintelligence,whohasacquiredpenetratingacumen
forthemostreconditedetailsofscholarlyerudition(noneofmypredecessors
havinganycomprehensionofsuchmatters),Ihaveplacedthesetabletsfor
thefutureinthelibraryatNinevehformylifeandforthewellbeingofmy
soul,tosustainthefoundationsofmyroyalname.Esarhaddonmighthave
managedtokeepEgypt,butAshurbanipalsrealmofthemindwouldlast
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forever(410411).

DEATH&THEFALLOFTHEEMPIRE
Inbetweencollectinghislibrary,renovatingNineveh,andrunningtheempire,Ashurbanipal
continuedtoleadhisownmilitarycampaigns.HealsooversawrenovationsatBabylon.By629BCE,
hewasinillhealthandleftNinevehforthecityofHarrantothenorth.Helefttheempireinthe
handsofhissonAshur-etel-ilanibutthisdecisionwaschallengedbythenewkingstwinbrother,Sinshar-ishkunandacivilwarerupted.TheterritoriesoftheAssyrianEmpiretookadvantageofthis
divisionandbegantoexercisemoreautonomythantheyhadbeenallowedpreviously.When
Ashurbanipaldiedin627BCEtheempirebrokeapart.AsBauerwrites,Disorderswallowedalmost
everypartoftheempireasformervassalstatesdeclaredtheirindependence(416).Between627
and612BCEtheempiresteadilydissolvedasMedes,Persians,Babylonians,Cimmerians,Scythians
andChaldeansburnedandsackedtheAssyriancities.
In612BCE,Ashur,Kalhu,andNinevehweredestroyedinthegreatconflagrationswhichsweptthe
land.Ashurbanipalslibrarywasburiedbeneaththeburningwallsofhispalaceandwaslostto
historyforover2,000years.Theirdiscovery,however,changedthewaypeopleinthemodernday
understoodcultureandthepast.PriortothediscoveryofAshurbanipalslibrary,theBiblewas
consideredtheoldestbookintheworldandthestoriesitcontainedwerethoughttohaveno
precedent.Excavationsinthe19thcenturyCEbySirAustenHenryLayard,HormuzdRassam,and
translationsmadebyGeorgeSmithbroughttolightaworldwhichnooneupuntilthattimewas
awareof.Ashurbanipalsempirefellandtheterritoriesheconqueredwentontobeconqueredby
othersandthenbystillothers,buthislibraryenduredand,asheclaimedhimself,turnedouttobe
hisgreatestaccomplishment.

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR
JOSHUAJ.MARK
Afreelancewriterandpart-timeProfessorofPhilosophyatMaristCollege,New
York,JoshuaJ.MarkhaslivedinGreeceandGermanyandtraveledthrough
Egypt.Heteachesancienthistory,writing,literature,andphilosophy.

HELPUSWRITEMORE
We'reasmallnon-profitorganisationrunbyahandfulofvolunteers.Eacharticlecosts
usabout$50inhistorybooksassourcematerial,pluseditingandservercosts.Youcan
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helpuscreateevenmorefreearticlesforaslittleas$5permonth,andwe'llgiveyou
anad-freeexperiencetothankyou!
BECOMEAMEMBER

BIBLIOGRAPHY
TheChronologyoftheReignofAshurbanipalbyA.K.Grayson
TimelineofAshurbanipal'sReign
Bauer,S.W,TheHistoryoftheAncientWorld(W.W.Norton&Company,2007).
Durant,W,OurOrientalHeritage(Simon&Schuster,1954).
Kriwaczek,P.,Babylon(ThomasDunneBooks,2014).
Leick,G.,TheAtoZofMesopotamia(ScarecrowPress,2010).
Leick,G,Mesopotamia(Penguin,2002).
VonSoden,W,TheAncientOrient(Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCompany,1994).
CITETHISWORK

LEGALNOTICE
WrittenbyJoshuaJ.Mark,publishedon02September2009underthefollowinglicense:CreativeCommons:
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike .Thislicenseletsothersremix,tweak,andbuilduponthiscontentnoncommercially,aslongastheycredittheauthorandlicensetheirnewcreationsundertheidenticalterms.

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