Engg ZC242-L6

ENGG ZC242:
Maintenance & Safety

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Girish Kant
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Learning Objectives
Condition Monitoring Techniques
Cracks monitoring
Thickness monitoring
Corrosion monitoring
Noise / Sound monitoring
Smell / Odour monitoring
Vibration monitoring
Non Destructive Testing
ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

26/08/14, Lecture-6
2
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
THICKNESS MOMTORING
Thickness monitoring is very effective and useful technique
for assessing the thickness (and thus condition) of the
pipelines, pressure vessels, tanks, bottles, cylinders, radar
domes, aircraft wings and body panels etc.
Most thickness monitoring equipments work on
ultrasonic system.
A sound pulse, generated by a probe, travels through the
material, bounces-off the back surface of the material and
returns to the probe. The instrument accurately measures
the length of time taken between transmitting and receiving
back the pulse, automatically multiplies that by the sound
velocity of the material under test and converts the result
into an illuminated digital readout of the thickness of the
3
material.
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THICKNESS MOMTORING

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CRACK MONITORING
Crack monitoring is more used for quality assurance and
metallographic analysis to assess the quality of metals
and quality of procedures during making, shaping and
treating of metals in industries.
Crack monitoring programmes measures not total crack
depth and width but change in crack width. This change
in crack width is called crack displacement. The crack
displacement measured by the sensors may be driven
by any combination of the factors listed below
Differential thermal expansion,
Structural and machine overloading,
Chemical changes in various components of machine,
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CRACK MONITORING
Shrinkage arid twisting of different components
temperature and humidity changes etc.
Fatigue and aging of components, etc
Various techniques used for crack monitoring areDye-penetrant Test,

Magnetic flux (Magna-flux),
Electric resistance,
Eddy current,
Ultrasonic and Radiographic tests etc
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CORROSION MONITORING
The principles of corrosion monitoring equipment is
based on corrosion or chemical wear of the material. The
use of such techniques for condition monitoring of
machines/ components is very limited and selective.
Few common corrosion monitoring techniques are
enumerated below
Weight Loss Method,
Electrical Resistance Method,
Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR) Method,
Galvanic or Zero Resistance Method,
Hydrogen Monitoring Method: etc.
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NOISE / SOUND (ACOUSTIC)

MONITORING
Acoustic is a general word for noise and sound. Noise and
sound are basically the same except that noise is
considered as harsh, unpleasant and undesirable sound.
The human ear can detect frequencies between 20 Hz and
20 kHz. This range is referred to as the audible, or sonic,
range. Frequencies above this range are referred to as
ultrasonic or ultrasound.
Noise monitoring is very important for controlling noise
pollution and environmental protection as noise affect
human-being both ways, physically and psychologically and
prolonged exposure to high noise level can lead to
permanent hearing loss.
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NOISE / SOUND (ACOUSTIC)

MONITORING
Noise monitoring can also be used, to some extent, to
monitor the health and condition of machines. For,
identifying the noise sources, following techniques may
be used
Subjective assessment,
Acoustic ducts (such as horn etc),
Surface intensity approach (using accelerometer on
vibrating surface and a microphone),
Acoustic intensity approach and sound-pressure
monitoring (using microphone devices),
Impulsive noise monitoring,
Infrasonic noise monitoring and microbarograph; etc.
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Vibration Monitoring Methods

Spectral analysis (arranging the vibration spectrum in
ascending order)
Statistical analysis (looking for an impulsive vibration)
Envelop analysis (filtering out the high frequency
vibration from cyclic)
Spike energy method (looking for high frequency spike
energy)

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Vibration studies of Defective Gears

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11
Typical Spectral Plot showing

the spikes

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12
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

This is widely used technique in condition
monitoring,
especially
in
age
related
components and systems.
It is a wide group of analysis techniques used
in science and industry to evaluate the
properties of a material, component or system
without causing damage

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Other names for NDT

Nondestructive examination (NDE)
Nondestructive inspection (NDI)
Nondestructive evaluation (NDE)

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Examples
Acoustic emission testing

Dye penetrant inspection
Liquid penetrant testing
Electromagnetic testing
Hardness testing
Magnetic resonance imaging

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Acoustic Emission (AE) refers to the generation of
transient elastic waves produced by a sudden
redistribution of stress in a material. When a structure is
subjected to an external stimulus (change in pressure,
load, or temperature), localized sources trigger the
release of energy, in the form of stress waves, which
propagate to the surface and are recorded by sensors.
With the right equipment and setup, motions on the order
of picometers (10 -12 m) can be identified. Sources of
AE vary from natural events like earthquakes and
rockbursts to the initiation and growth of cracks, slip and
dislocation movements, melting, twinning, and phase
transformations in metals.
ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety, 26/08/14, Lecture-6
16

26/08/14, Lecture-6
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It also called liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) or
penetrant testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost
inspection method used to locate surface-breaking
defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or
ceramics). The penetrant may be applied to all nonferrous materials and ferrous materials, but for
inspection of ferrous components magnetic-particle
inspection is also preferred for its subsurface detection
capability. LPI is used to detect casting, forging and
welding surface defects such as cracks, suface
porosities, and leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks
on in-service components.
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26/08/14, Lecture-6
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BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Reliability-Centered Maintenance
Chapter- 4, Lecture - 6
Learning objectives
Introduction to RCM
Steps to achieve RCM
Reliability block diagrams
Guidelines of RCM
Failure Modes Effects and Criticality Analysis (FMECA)
Root Cause Failure Analysis (RCFA)
Logic tree
Criticality Analysis/Criticality Matrix
Benefits
Difference between RCM and RCA

Prediction model for Reliability
Software in RCM
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Reliability Centered
Maintenance
Reliability
-
It is the probability of a product performing its intended function for a
stated period of time under certain specified conditions
Reliability Centered Maintenance
It provides the means to estimate the likelihood that a system will

achieve its mission in a given duration and operating conditions.
What a system is supposed to do? (Function)
How can it fail to do that? (Functional Failure)
What can cause it to fail? (Failure Modes)
What happens when it does fail? (Effects)
What can be down to predict or prevent the failure from happening?

(Maintenance Plan)
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1. Educate from top to bottom
Break the myths.
Presentation to the staff the better way.

Use multiple formats.
Make them understand the importance and benefits.
2. Benchmarking
Availability:
Percent Failure Analysis
Percent Rework:
Technician Productivity
Relative Maintenance Cost:

Percent Overtime
Percent Planned Work

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3. Establishing a long term vision
The metrics from the benchmark are used to set specific, measurable targets
for the performance outcomes within 3-5 years in the future.
Stakeholders are to be involved in the goal-setting process. Maintenance
supervisors, engineers, reliability specialists, and production managers will all
have to be involved to achieve the goals
4. Building up of a business case

A 5 percent increase in Availability = a 5 percent increase in revenue for a
continuous process plant that can sell all that it makes. For example a plant
that produces Rs.1000 crores per year generates another Rs.50 Crores in
revenue.
Reducing Overtime from 20 percent to 10 percent moves 10 percent of labor
from overtime rates to straight time rates. If the overtime multiplier is 1.5 and a
plant has a Rs.10 Crores labor budget Rs.1 Crore is saved.
5. Conducting a pilot programme

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Reliability block diagrams

Calculating reliability of subsystem.
Assemble the subsystems to form overall model.
Identify the weak links.

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Probability Distributions
Used to model the failure rate
Exponential distribution
During the chance failure phase, the failure rate is constant
Hence exponential distribution can be used to describe the time to failure of the
product for this phase
Probability density function is given by
f (t ) e t t 0
is failure rate
Mean time to failure (MTTF) for exponential distribution is given by =

If the failure rate is constant, MTTF is the reciprocal of the failure rate
MTTF 1
For repairable equipment MTTF = mean time between failure

MTBF
There will be a difference between MTBF and MTTF only if there is a significant
repair or replacement time upon failure of the product

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Exponential distribution contd...
Reliability at time t is R(t): is the probability of the product lasting up to at
least time t and it is given by R(t) = 1 F(t)
t
1 e t dt e t
0
F(t) represents the cumulative distribution function at time t

Reliability function R(t) for the exponential distribution is shown in the figure
At time 0, reliability is 1 and it decreases exponentially with time
Failure-rate function r(t) is the ratio of the time to failure probability density
function to reliability function
For exponential distribution, implying a constant failure rate, then
r (t )
e t
e
r (t )

26/08/14, Lecture-6
f (t )
R(t )
27
Problem : A transistor has an exponential time-to-failure
distribution with a constant failure rate of 0.00006 /h. find the
reliability of the transistor after 4000h of operation. What is
mean time-to-failure?
Solution:
Failure rate = = 0.00006/h

Reliability of the component after 4000h operation is
R(t) = Exp ((4000)) = 0.786
mean time-to-failure = MTTF 1
= 1 / 0.00006
= 16666.66h
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Problem : A electronic component in a video recorder has an
exponential time-to-failure distribution. What is the minimum
mean time-to-failure of the component if it is to have a
probability of 0.92 of successful operation after 4000h of
operation?
Solution:
Reliability of the component after 6000h operation is
R(t) = Exp (-
(6000)) = 0.92
Failure rate = = 0.20845 x 10-4 per hr

mean time-to-failure = MTTF 1
= 1 / 0.20845 x 10-4
= 47972.2 hr.
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System Reliability
System Reliability
Reliability of the product (made up of a number of components) is determined
by the reliability of each component and also by the configuration of the system
consisting of these components
Product design, manufacture, maintenance influence reliability, but design has a
major role
One common approach for increasing the reliability of the system is through
redundancy in design, which is usually achieved by placing components in
parallel.
As long as one component operates, the system operates
Systems with components in series

For the system to operate, each component must operate
It is assumed that the components operate independently of each other (Failure
of one component has no influence on the failure of any other component)

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System Reliability
Systems with components in series contd..
If there are n components in series, then system reliability is given by Rs = R1 x
R2 x - - - - - - Rn
System reliability decreases as the number of components in series increases
Manufacturing capability and resource limitations restrict the maximum reliability
of any given component
Product redesign that reduces the no. of components in series is the viable
alternative
Use of the Exponential Model
If the system is in chance failure phase, a constant failure rate could be
justified based on which we can calculate failure rate, mean time to failure
and system reliability

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System Reliability
Systems with components in series contd..
Use of the Exponential Model
Suppose the system has n components in series
Each component has exponentially distributed time-to-failure
with failure rates given by 1 , 2 n
The system reliability is given by
n
Rs e
1t
Xe
2t
X e
3t
X e
nt
i t
i 1
Thus if each component that fails is replaced immediately

with another that has the same failure rate, the mean time to
1
failure for the system is given by
MTTF n
i
i 1
When all components have same failure rate, If MTTF 1

then
n
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System Reliability
System with components in parallel
System reliability can be improved by placing components in parallel as
system will operate as long as at least one of the components operates.
The only time the system fails is when all the parallel components fail
All components are assumed to operate simultaneously.
A system having n components in parallel, with the reliability of the ith
component denoted by Ri, i=1, 2, ----- n.
Also assume that the components operate randomly and independently of
each other.
The probability of failure of each component is given by
Fi = 1-Ri.
System fails only if all the components fail and hence the probability of
n
system failure is
Fs 1 R1 1 R2 1 Rn (1 Ri )
i 1
33
System Reliability
Systems with components in parallel contd..
Reliability of the system is the complement of Fs and
is given by Rs = 1-Fs
Rs = 1 Use of Exponential model
If the time to failure of each component can be modelled by the
exponential distribution, each with a constant failure rate i, then the

system reliability, assuming independence of component operation is
Time to failure of the system is not exponentially distributed
In the special case, where all the components have the same failure rate
the system reliability is Rs = 1- (1-e- t)n

Mean time to failure for a system of n components in parallel is given by
1
1 1
MTTF
1
/

n
2 3
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System Reliability
Complex system
A complex system is one which has components that are both in series and in
parallel
Assumption
Components operate independently
Time to failure of each component is assumed to be exponentially
distributed
The above described methods are used for calculating the reliability and failure
rate
System with standby components

In a stand by configuration one or more parallel components wait to take over
operation upon failure of the currently operating component
It is assumed that only one component in parallel configuration is operating at
any given time

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System Reliability
System with standby components contd..
Hence the system reliability is higher than for comparable systems with
components in parallel
In parallel systems, all components are assumed to be operating simultaneously
A standby system with a basic component and two standby components in
parallel (Figure) is shown
Typically a failure sensing mechanism triggers the operations of a stand by
component when the currently operating component fails
Use of Exponential Model
If the time to failure of the components is assumed to be exponential with
failure rate , the number of failure in a certain time t adheres to a Poisson
distribution with parameter t
36
System Reliability
System with standby components contd..
Use of Exponential Model contd..
Hence probability of x failures in time t is given by
t x
P( x)
x!
e t
For a system that has a basic component in parallel with one standby
component, the system will be operational at time t as long as there is no more
than one failure. Therefore, the system reliability would be :
Rs e t e t t
For a system (stand by) with a basic component and two standby components,
the system will be operational if the number of failures is less than or equal to 2,
then
2
Rs et e t t e t
t
2!
For n components on stand by, the reliability and mean time to failure is given
by
t 2 t 3
t n
n 1
Rs e t 1 t
.......
2
!
3
!
n
!

26/08/14, Lecture-6
MTTF
37
System Reliability
Problem : consider the seven component system as shown
in figure. Assume that the time of failure for each component
has an exponential distribution. The failure rate are as
follows 0.0005/h, 0.0005/h, 0.0003/h, 0.0008/h, 0.0004/h,
0.006/h, 0.0064/h for A,B,C,D,E,F,G respectively. Find the
reliability of the system after 1000h. What is the MTTF of the
system?

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System Reliability
Solution: For a subsystem with component A & B
MTTF = (1/ 0.0005) (1 + ) = 3000
For a subsystem with component E, F & G
MTTF = (1/ 0.0064) (1 + ) = 234.375
Note that the component E and F in series
So, failure rate = 0.0004 + 0.006 = 0.0064
Now the system failure rate;
= 1/ 3000 + 0.0003 + 0.0008 + 1/234.375
= 0.0075/h
Hence the MTTF for the system
MTTF = 1/0.0075 = 175.4386 hrs.
The reliability of the system after 1000hr operation
R(t) = Exp ((1000))
= 0.003346 ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,
26/08/14, Lecture-6
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RCM Process
Process of RCM explained in flow diagram

26/08/14, Lecture-6
Guidelines of RCM
Function oriented
System focused
Reliability centred
Accepts design limitations
Towards safety and economics
Address failure
Uses logic tree
Needs effective tasks
It should be applicable

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Guidelines of RCM
Four types of activities for RCM:
1.
Run to failure
2.
Time directed maintenance
3.
Condition based maintenance
4.
Failure finding/proactive maintenance

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Failure Modes Effects and

Criticality Analysis (FMECA)
Valuable tool to identify primary functional failure
Used in advanced maintenance techniques, redesign or

redundancy
Example:
Safety engineering
Maintainability engineering
Design engineering

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Root Cause Failure Analysis

(RCFA)
To find the root cause for event.
Used to find the recurrence, cost to control and control
methods.

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Criticality Analysis/Criticality
Matrix.
To rank failure modes found from FMEA.
Next is to form Criticality matrix.
Cm = *(p) t
Where
Cm = failure mode criticality number
= conditional probability of failure effect
= failure mode ratio
p = part failure rate per million hours
t = duration of relevant mission phase (operation in hours)

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Matrix
Level A: Frequent. over all probability of failure =>0.2
Level B: Reasonable. 0.1< over all probability of failure<0.2
Level C: Occasional. 0.01< over all probability of failure<0.1
Level D: Remote. 0.001< over all probability of failure<0.0.
Level E: Unlikely. 0.001> over all probability of failure

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Matrix.
Category I:Catastrophic- death, weapon system loss
Category II: Critical severe injury, property damage,

mission loss
Category III: Marginal Minor injury, minor property

damage, delay of mission
Category IV: Minor repairs

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Matrix
Benefits:
Quickly identifies risk and high exposure.
Ranks functional areas and equipment based levels on exposure.
Sums exposure levels for user defined areas and entire facility.
Reduces red zone exposure with engineering follow up and action plans.
Prioritize programs, initiatives and maintenance on critical ranking.
Establish guidelines for determining maintenance work order priorities.

48
RCM vs RCA
RCM:
To find the root cause of event.

Use criticality matrix.
Driven by preventive maintenance strategy.

Can find symptoms of the event.

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RCM vs RCA
RCA:
To find the underlying reason and to find necessary step to eliminate that event
Use logic tree method
Driven by maintenance prevention strategy
To find and correct the cause

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Reliability prediction model
Reliability prediction model.

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Software in RCM
Software model for RCM implementation

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Thanks
53

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ENGG ZC242:

Maintenance & Safety

Non Destructive Testing

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

Various techniques used for crack monitoring areDye-penetrant Test,

NOISE / SOUND (ACOUSTIC)

NOISE / SOUND (ACOUSTIC)

Vibration Monitoring Methods

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

Vibration studies of Defective Gears

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

Typical Spectral Plot showing

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

Other names for NDT

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

Acoustic emission testing

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

Acoustic emission testing

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Acoustic emission testing

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

Dye penetrant inspection

Dye penetrant inspection

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

Criticality Analysis/Criticality Matrix

Difference between RCM and RCA

It is the probability of a product performing its intended function for a

stated period of time under certain specified conditions

Reliability Centered Maintenance

It provides the means to estimate the likelihood that a system will

What a system is supposed to do? (Function)

How can it fail to do that? (Functional Failure)

What can cause it to fail? (Failure Modes)

What happens when it does fail? (Effects)

What can be down to predict or prevent the failure from happening?

Steps to achieve RCM

Presentation to the staff the better way.

Relative Maintenance Cost:

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

Steps to achieve RCM

4. Building up of a business case

5. Conducting a pilot programme

Reliability block diagrams

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

Mean time to failure (MTTF) for exponential distribution is given by =

For repairable equipment MTTF = mean time between failure

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

F(t) represents the cumulative distribution function at time t

For exponential distribution, implying a constant failure rate, then

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

Failure rate = = 0.00006/h

Failure rate = = 0.20845 x 10-4 per hr

Systems with components in series

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

ENGG ZC242, Maintenance & Safety,

Thus if each component that fails is replaced immediately

When all components have same failure rate, If MTTF 1

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

exponential distribution, each with a constant failure rate i, then the