Psychology - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

12/5/13
Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Psychology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Further information: Outline of psychology and Index of psychology articles

Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves the scientific study of mental functions and
behaviors.[1][2] Psychology has the immediate goal of understanding individuals and groups by both establishing
general principles and researching specific cases,[3][4] and by many accounts it ultimately aims to benefit
society.[5][6] In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a
social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in
individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and neurobiological processes that underlie
certain cognitive functions and behaviors.
Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, phenomenology, motivation, brain
functioning, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Psychologists of diverse orientations also
consider the unconscious mind.[7] Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational
relationships between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive
methods, someespecially clinical and counseling psychologistsat times rely upon symbolic interpretation and
other inductive techniques. Psychology has been described as a "hub science",[8] with psychological findings linking
to research and perspectives from the social sciences, natural sciences, medicine, and the humanities, such as
philosophy.
While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is
also directed towards understanding and solving problems in many different spheres of human activity. The majority
of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings.
Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior, and typically work
in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings (e.g., medical schools, hospitals). Some
are employed in industrial and organizational settings, or in other areas[9] such as human development and aging,
sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic investigation and other aspects of law.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Structuralism
2.2 Functionalism
2.3 Psychoanalysis
2.4 Behaviorism
2.5 Humanistic
2.6 Gestalt
2.7 Existentialism
2.8 Cognitivism
3 Subfields
3.1 Biological
3.2 Clinical
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology
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3.3 Cognitive
3.4 Comparative
3.5 Developmental
3.6 Educational and school
3.7 Evolutionary
3.8 Industrialorganizational
3.9 Personality
3.10 Social
3.11 Positive
4 Research methods
4.1 Qualitative and quantitative research
4.2 Controlled experiments
4.3 Survey questionnaires
4.4 Longitudinal studies
4.5 Observation in natural settings
4.6 Qualitative and descriptive research
4.7 Neuropsychological methods
4.8 Computational modeling
4.9 Animal studies
5 Criticism
5.1 Theory
5.2 Practice
5.3 Ethical standards
5.4 Systemic bias
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Etymology
The word psychology literally means, "study of the soul" (, psukh, meaning "breath", "spirit", or "soul"; and -logos, translated as "study of" or "research"[10]).[11] The Latin word psychologia was first used by the
Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Maruli in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late
15th century or early 16th century.[12] The earliest known reference to the word psychology in English was by
Steven Blankaart in 1694 in The Physical Dictionary which refers to "Anatomy, which treats of the Body, and
Psychology, which treats of the Soul."[13]
History
Main article: History of psychology
The study of psychology in a philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China,
India, and Persia. Historians point to the writings of ancient Greek philosophers, such as Thales, Plato, and
Aristotle (especially in his De Anima treatise),[14] as the first significant body of work in the West to be rich in
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psychological thought.[15] As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental
disorders were of a physical, rather than divine, nature.[16]
Structuralism
Main article: Structuralism (psychology)
German physician Wilhelm Wundt is credited with introducing
psychological discovery into a laboratory setting. Known as the "father of
experimental psychology",[17] he founded the first psychological
laboratory, at Leipzig University, in 1879.[17] Wundt focused on
breaking down mental processes into the most basic components,
motivated in part by an analogy to recent advances in chemistry, and its
successful investigation of the elements and structure of material.
Although Wundt, himself, was not a structuralist, his student Edward
Titchener, a major figure in early American psychology, was a
structuralist thinker opposed to functionalist approaches.
Functionalism
Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with

colleagues in his psychological
laboratory, the first of its kind. Wundt
is credited with setting up psychology
as a field of scientific inquiry
independent of the disciplines
philosophy and biology.
Main article: Functional psychology

Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was heavily influenced
by the work of the American philosopher, scientist, and psychologist William James. James felt that psychology
should have practical value, and that psychologists should find out how the mind can function to a person's benefit.
In his book, Principles of Psychology,[18] published in 1890, he laid the foundations for many of the questions that
psychologists would explore for years to come. Other major functionalist thinkers included John Dewey and
Harvey Carr.
Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the
experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the University of
Berlin,[19] and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was
later termed "classical conditioning" and applied to human beings.[20]
Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques developed by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others reemerged as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitivistconcerned with information and its
processingand, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive science.[21] In its early years, this
development was seen as a "revolution,"[21] as cognitive science both responded to and reacted against thenpopular theories, including psychoanalytic and behaviorist theories.
Psychoanalysis
Main article: Psychoanalysis
From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, which
comprised a method of investigating the mind and interpreting experience; a systematized set of theories about
human behavior; and a form of psychotherapy to treat psychological or emotional distress, especially unconscious
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conflict.[22] Freud's psychoanalytic theory was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical
observations. It became very well known, largely because it tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the
unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects
at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Clinically, Freud helped
to pioneer the method of free association and a therapeutic interest in dream interpretation.[23][24]
Freud had a significant influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, whose
analytical psychology became an alternative form of depth psychology.
Other well-known psychoanalytic scholars of the mid-20th century
included psychoanalysts, psychologists, psychiatrists, and philosophers.
Among these thinkers were Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, D.W.
Winnicott, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, John Bowlby, and Sigmund
Freud's daughter, Anna Freud. Throughout the 20th century,
psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought, most of which
may be classed as Neo-Freudian.[25]
Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists such
as Hans Eysenck, and by philosophers including Karl Popper. Popper, a
Group photo 1909 in front of Clark
philosopher of science, argued that psychoanalysis had been
University. Front row: Sigmund
misrepresented as a scientific discipline,[26] whereas Eysenck said that
Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung;
psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted by experimental data. By
back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest
the end of 20th century, psychology departments in American universities
Jones, Sndor Ferenczi.
had become scientifically oriented, marginalizing Freudian theory and
dismissing it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact.[27] Meanwhile,
however, researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific
grounds,[28] while scholars of the humanities maintained that Freud was not a "scientist at all, but ... an
interpreter."[27]
Behaviorism
Main article: Behaviorism
In the United States, behaviorism became the dominant school of thought
during the 1950s. Behaviorism is a discipline that was established in the
early 20th century by John B. Watson, and embraced and extended by
Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F.
Skinner. Theories of learning emphasized the ways in which people might
be predisposed, or conditioned, by their environments to behave in
certain ways.
Classical conditioning was an early behaviorist model. It posited that
Skinner's teaching machine, a
behavioral tendencies are determined by immediate associations between
mechanical invention to automate the
various environmental stimuli and the degree of pleasure or pain that
task of programmed instruction.
follows. Behavioral patterns, then, were understood to consist of
organisms' conditioned responses to the stimuli in their environment. The
stimuli were held to exert influence in proportion to their prior repetition or to the previous intensity of their
associated pain or pleasure. Much research consisted of laboratory-based animal experimentation, which was
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increasing in popularity as physiology grew more sophisticated.

Skinner's behaviorism shared with its predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism and
determinism.[29] He believed that the contents of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that scientific
psychology should emphasize the study of observable behavior. He focused on behaviorenvironment relations and
analyzed overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as a function of the organism interacting with its environment.[30]
Behaviorists usually rejected or deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu
of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in
which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.[29]
Notable incidents in the history of behaviorism are John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment which applied
classical conditioning to the developing human child, and the clarification of the difference between classical
conditioning and operant (or instrumental) conditioning, first by Miller and Kanorski and then by Skinner.[31][32]
Skinner's version of behaviorism emphasized operant conditioning, through which behaviors are strengthened or
weakened by their consequences.
Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is widely regarded as a key
factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence.[33] Martin Seligman and colleagues discovered that the
conditioning of dogs led to outcomes ("learned helplessness") that opposed the predictions of behaviorism.[34][35]
But Skinner's behaviorism did not die, perhaps in part because it generated successful practical applications.[33]
The fall of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm:
cognitive approaches.[36]
Humanistic
Main article: Humanistic psychology
Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to
both behaviorism and psychoanalysis.[38] By using phenomenology,
intersubjectivity, and first-person categories, the humanistic
approach sought to glimpse the whole personnot just the
fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.[39]
Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquely human issues,
such as individual free will, personal growth, self-actualization, selfidentity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic
approach was distinguished by its emphasis on subjective meaning,
rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather
than pathology.[citation needed] Some of the founders of the
humanistic school of thought were American psychologists Abraham
Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, and Carl
Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy. Later,
positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific
modes of exploration.
Psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943

posited that humans have a hierarchy of
needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the
basic needs first (food, water etc.) before
higher-order needs can be met. [37]
Gestalt
Main article: Gestalt psychology
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Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt psychology. This approach
is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in
Germany and Austria during the late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Rather
than breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest element, the Gestalt position maintains that the whole of
experience is important, and the whole is different than the sum of its parts.
Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked
to Gestalt psychology.
Existentialism
Main articles: Existentialism and Existential therapy
In the 1950s and 1960s, largely influenced by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish
philosopher Sren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an
existential branch of psychology, which included existential psychotherapy, a method of therapy that operates on
the belief that inner conflict within a person is due to that individual's confrontation with the givens of existence.
Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of
human nature and in their relatively positive assessment of anxiety.[40] Existential psychologists emphasized the
humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative
patterns,[41] and that it can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often
anxious, regard for death and other future prospects.
Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic
power from reflections garnered from his own internment,[42] and he created a variation of existential
psychotherapy called logotherapy, a type of existentialist analysis that focuses on a will to meaning (in one's life),
as opposed to Adler's Nietzschean doctrine of will to power or Freud's will to pleasure.[43]
In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly
may be said to belong to the existential school.[44]
Cognitivism
Main articles: Cognitivism (psychology) and Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies
mental processes including problem solving, perception, memory,
and learning. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this
branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including
neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.
Noam Chomsky helped to launch a "cognitive revolution" in
psychology when he criticized the behaviorists' notions of "stimulus",
"response", and "reinforcement". Chomsky argued that such ideas
which Skinner had borrowed from animal experiments in the
laboratorycould be applied to complex human behavior, most
notably language acquisition, in only a superficial and vague manner.
Baddeley's model of working memory
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The postulation that humans are born with the instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring language posed a challenge to
the behaviorist position that all behavior, including language, is contingent upon learning and reinforcement.[45]
Social learning theorists, such as Albert Bandura, argued that the child's environment could make contributions of its
own to the behaviors of an observant subject.[46]
Meanwhile, accumulating technology helped to renew interest and belief in
the mental states and representationsi.e., the cognitionthat had fallen out
of favor with behaviorists. English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and
Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link
psychological phenomena with the structure and function of the brain. With
the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies were drawn
between the processing of information by humans and information
processing by machines. Research in cognition had proven practical since
World War II, when it aided in the understanding of weapons operation.[47]
By the late 20th century, though, cognitivism had become the dominant
paradigm of psychology, and cognitive psychology emerged as a popular
branch.
The MllerLyer illusion.
Psychologists make inferences
about mental processes from
shared phenomena such as optical
illusions.
Assuming both that the covert mind should be studied, and that the scientific
method should be used to study it, cognitive psychologists set such concepts
as subliminal processing and implicit memory in place of the
psychoanalytic unconscious mind or the behavioristic contingency-shaped
behaviors. Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were
synthesized to form the basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of
psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American
psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other disciplines, such as philosophy of
mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the cover discipline of cognitive science.
Subfields
Further information: Outline of psychology and List of psychology disciplines
Main article: Subfields of psychology
.
Psychology encompasses a vast domain and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes
and behavior
Biological
Main articles: Biological psychology, Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology, and Cognitive
neuroscience
Biological psychology or behavioral neuroscience is the study of the biological substrates of behavior and mental
processes. There are different specialties within behavioral neuroscience. For example, physiological psychologists
use animal models, typically rats, to study the neural, genetic, and cellular mechanisms that underlie specific
behaviors such as learning and memory and fear responses.[48] Cognitive neuroscientists investigate the neural
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correlates of psychological processes in humans using neural imaging tools, and neuropsychologists conduct
psychological assessments to determine, for instance, specific aspects and extent of cognitive deficit caused by
brain damage or disease.
Clinical
Main articles: Clinical psychology and Counseling psychology
Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the
purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress
or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.
Central to its practice are psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although
clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic
testimony, and program development and administration.[49] Some clinical
psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury
this area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical
psychology is a regulated mental health profession.
MRI depicting the human

brain. The arrow indicates
the position of the
hypothalamus.
The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various

therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship
between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or
small group). The various therapeutic approaches and practices are
associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different
procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of
psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or
behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic,
cognitive behavioral, existentialhumanistic, and systems or family
therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate the various
therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of
Clinical psychologists work with
issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With
individuals, children, families,
the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy,
couples, or small groups.
there is evidence that most of the major therapies are about of equal
effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic
alliance.[50][51] Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic
orientation.[52][53][54][55][56]
Cognitive
Main article: Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying mental
activity. Perception, attention, reasoning, thinking, problem solving, memory, learning,
language, and emotion are areas of research. Classical cognitive psychology is
associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for
an information processing model of mental function, informed by functionalism and
experimental psychology.
Green Red Blue

Purple Blue Purple
Blue Purple Red
Green Purple Green
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On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise of cognitive

psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, researchers in artificial intelligence, linguists,
humancomputer interaction, computational neuroscience, logicians and social
scientists. Computational models are sometimes used to simulate phenomena of
interest. Computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization
of the mind whereas neuroscience provides measures of brain activity.
The Stroop effect refers to

the fact that naming the
color of the first set of
words is easier and quicker
than the second.
Comparative
Main articles: Comparative psychology and Animal cognition
Comparative psychology refers to the scientific study of the behavior and
mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the
phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior.
Research in this area addresses many different issues, uses many different
methods, and explores the behavior of many different species, from
insects to primates. It is closely related to other disciplines that study
animal behavior such as ethology.[57] Research in comparative
psychology sometimes appears to shed light on human behavior, but
some attempts to connect the two have been quite controversial, for
example the Sociobiology of E. O. Wilson.[58] Animal models are often
used to study neural processes related to human behavior, e.g. in
cognitive neuroscience.
The common chimpanzee can use

tools. This chimpanzee is using a
stick in order to get food.
Developmental
Main article: Developmental psychology
Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span,
developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive,
understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they
age. This may focus on cognitive, affective, moral, social, or neural development.
Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to
make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks.
Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both
enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised
clever methods to study the mental processes of infants. In addition to studying
children, developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout
the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and
old age). Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of psychological
theories to inform their research.
Developmental psychologists
would engage a child with a
book and then make
observations based on how
the child interacts with the
object.
Educational and school

Main articles: Educational psychology and School psychology
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Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in

educational settings, the effectiveness of educational
interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social
psychology of schools as organizations. The work of child
psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Bernard
Luskin, and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating
teaching methods and educational practices. Educational
psychology is often included in teacher education programs
in places such as North America, Australia, and New
Zealand.
An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test

used in educational psychology.
School psychology combines principles from educational

psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat
students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of gifted students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors
in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. School
psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and
many have extensive training in research.[59]
Evolutionary
Main article: Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology examines psychological traitssuch as memory, perception, or languagefrom a modern
evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the
functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. Evolutionary psychologists suggest that psychological
adaptations evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. By focusing on the evolution of
psychological traits and their adaptive functions, it offers complementary explanations for the mostly proximate or
developmental explanations developed by other areas of psychology (that is, it focuses mostly on ultimate or "why?"
questions, rather than proximate or "how?" questions).
Industrialorganizational
Main article: Industrial and organizational psychology
Industrial and organizational psychology (IO) applies psychological concepts and methods to optimize human
potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology, a subfield of IO psychology, applies the methods and principles
of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. IO psychology's other subfield, organizational psychology,
examines the effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and
productivity.[60]
Personality
Main article: Personality psychology
Personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotioncommonly referred
to as personalityin individuals. Theories of personality vary across different psychological schools and
orientations. They carry different assumptions about such issues as the role of the unconscious and the importance
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of childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the id, ego, and
super-ego.[61] Trait theorists, in contrast, attempt to analyze personality in terms of a discrete number of key traits
by the statistical method of factor analysis. The number of proposed traits has varied widely. An early model,
proposed by Hans Eysenck, suggested that there are three traits which comprise human personality: extraversion
introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of 16 personality factors.
Dimensional models of personality are receiving increasing support, and some version of dimensional assessment
will be included in the forthcoming DSM-V.
Social
Main article: Social psychology
See also: Social psychology (sociology)
Social psychology is the study of how humans think about each other and
how they relate to each other. Social psychologists study such topics as
the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g. conformity,
persuasion), and the formation of beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes about
other people. Social cognition fuses elements of social and cognitive
psychology in order to understand how people process, remember, or
distort social information. The study of group dynamics reveals
information about the nature and potential optimization of leadership,
communication, and other phenomena that emerge at least at the
microsocial level. In recent years, many social psychologists have
Social psychology studies the nature
become increasingly interested in implicit measures, mediational models,
and causes of social behavior.
and the interaction of both person and social variables in accounting for
behavior. The study of human society is therefore a potentially valuable
source of information about the causes of psychiatric disorder. Some of the sociological concepts applied to
psychiatric disorders are the social role, sick role, social class, life event, culture, migration, social, and total
institution.[62]
Positive
Main article: Positive psychology
Positive psychology derives from Maslow's humanistic psychology. Positive psychology is a discipline that utilizes
evidence-based scientific methods to study factors that contribute to human happiness and strength. Different from
clinical psychology, positive psychology is concerned with improving the mental well-being of healthy clients.
Positive psychological interventions now have received tentative support for their beneficial effects on clients. In
2010 Clinical Psychological Review published a special issue devoted to positive psychological interventions,
such as gratitude journaling and the physical expression of gratitude. There is, however, a need for further research
on the effects of interventions. Positive psychological interventions have been limited in scope, but their effects are
thought to be superior to that of placebos, especially with regard to helping people with body image problems.
Research methods
Main article: Psychological research
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Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand
psychological phenomena. Additionally, psychologists make extensive use of the three modes of inference that were
identified by C. S. Peirce: deduction, induction, and abduction (hypothesis generation). While often employing
deductivenomological reasoning, they also rely on inductive reasoning to generate explanations. For example,
evolutionary psychologists attempt to explain psychological traitssuch as memory, perception, or languageas
adaptations, that is, as the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection.
Psychologists may conduct basic research aiming for further understanding in a particular area of interest in
psychology, or conduct applied research to solve problems in the clinic, workplace or other areas. Masters level
clinical programs aim to train students in both research methods and evidence-based practice. Professional
associations have established guidelines for ethics, training, research methodology and professional practice. In
addition, depending on the country, state or region, psychological services and the title "psychologist" may be
governed by statute and psychologists who offer services to the public are usually required to be licensed.
Qualitative and quantitative research

Research in most areas of psychology is conducted in accord with the standards of the scientific method.
Psychological researchers seek the emergence of theoretically interesting categories and hypotheses from data,
using qualitative or quantitative methods (or both).
Qualitative psychological research methods include interviews, first-hand observation, and participant observation.
Creswell (2003) identifies five main possibilities for qualitative research, including narrative, phenomenology,
ethnography, case study, and grounded theory. Qualitative researchers[63] sometimes aim to enrich interpretations
or critiques of symbols, subjective experiences, or social structures. Similar hermeneutic and critical aims have also
been served by "quantitative methods", as in Erich Fromm's study of Nazi voting[citation needed] or Stanley
Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.
Quantitative psychological research lends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses. Quantitatively oriented
research designs include the experiment, quasi-experiment, cross-sectional study, case-control study, and
longitudinal study. The measurement and operationalization of important constructs is an essential part of these
research designs. Statistical methods include the Pearson productmoment correlation coefficient, the analysis of
variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear
modeling.
Controlled experiments
Main article: Experiment
Experimental psychological research is conducted in a laboratory under controlled conditions. This method of
research relies on the application of the scientific method to understand behavior. Experimenters use several types
of measurements, including rate of response, reaction time, and various psychometric measurements. Experiments
are designed to test specific hypotheses (deductive approach) or evaluate functional relationships (inductive
approach). A true experiment with random allocation of subjects to conditions allows researchers to infer causal
relationships between different aspects of behavior and the environment. In an experiment, one or more variables of
interest are controlled by the experimenter (independent variable) and another variable is measured in response to
different conditions (dependent variable). Experiments are one of the primary research methods in many areas of
psychology, particularly cognitive/psychonomics, mathematical psychology, psychophysiology and biological
psychology/cognitive neuroscience.
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Experiments on humans have been put under some controls, namely informed and voluntary consent. After World
War II, the Nuremberg Code was established because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most
countries (and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. In the U.S., the National Institutes of Health
established the Institutional Review Board in 1966, and in 1974 adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724).
All of these measures encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants in experimental
studies. A number of influential studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the MIT and
Fernald School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide tragedy, the Willowbrook hepatitis study, and Stanley
Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.
Survey questionnaires
Main article: Statistical survey
Statistical surveys are used in psychology for measuring attitudes
and traits, monitoring changes in mood, checking the validity of
experimental manipulations, and for a wide variety of other
psychological topics. Most commonly, psychologists use paperand-pencil surveys. However, surveys are also conducted over the
phone or through e-mail. Increasingly, web-based surveys are being
used in research for its convenience and also to get a wide range of
participants. Similar methodology is also used in applied setting,
such as clinical assessment and personnel assessment.
Longitudinal studies
Flowchart of four phases (enrollment,
intervention allocation, follow-up, and data
analysis) of a parallel randomized trial of
two groups, modified from the CONSORT
2010 Statement[64]
Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study

developmental trends across the life span, and in sociology to study
life events throughout lifetimes or generations. The reason for this is
that unlike cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies track the
same people, and therefore the differences observed in those people
are less likely to be the result of cultural differences across
generations. Because of this benefit, longitudinal studies make observing changes more accurate and they are
applied in various other fields.
Because most longitudinal studies are observational, in the sense that they observe the state of the world without
manipulating it, it has been argued that they may have less power to detect causal relationships than do experiments.
They also suffer methodological limitations such as from selective attrition because people with similar
characteristics may be more likely to drop out of the study making it difficult to analyze.
Some longitudinal studies are experiments, called repeated-measures experiments. Psychologists often use the
crossover design to reduce the influence of confounding covariates and to reduce the number of subjects.
Observation in natural settings

Main article: Naturalistic observation
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Just as Jane Goodall studied chimpanzee social and family life by careful observation of chimpanzee behavior in the
field, psychologists conduct observational studies of ongoing human social, professional, and family life. Sometimes
the participants are aware they are being observed, and other times the participants do not know they are being
observed. Strict ethical guidelines must be followed when covert observation is
being carried out.
Qualitative and descriptive research

Main article: Qualitative research
Research designed to answer questions about the current state of affairs such as
the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals is known as descriptive
research. Descriptive research can be qualitative or quantitative in orientation.
Qualitative research is descriptive research that is focused on observing and
describing events as they occur, with the goal of capturing all of the richness of
everyday behavior and with the hope of discovering and understanding
phenomena that might have been missed if only more cursory examinations have
been made.
Neuropsychological methods
Main article: Neuropsychology
Neuropsychological research methods are employed in studies that examine the
relation of mental activity and behavior to the structure and function of the brain.
These methods include testing (e.g., the various Wechsler scales, Wisconsin Card
Sorting Test), functional neuroimaging, and transcranial magnetic stimulation.
Phineas P. Gage survived an

accident in which a large
iron rod was driven
completely through his
head, destroying much of
his brain's left frontal lobe,
and is remembered for that
injury's reported effects on
his personality and
behavior. [65]
Computational modeling
Computational modeling[67] is a tool often used in mathematical
psychology and cognitive psychology to simulate a particular behavior
using a computer. This method has several advantages. Since modern
computers process information extremely quickly, many simulations can
be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power.
Modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the
functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed
in a human.
Artificial neural network with two

layers, an interconnected group of
nodes, akin to the vast network of
neurons in the human brain.
Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior.

Connectionism uses neural networks to simulate the brain. Another
method is symbolic modeling, which represents many different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types
of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling.
Animal studies
Main articles: Comparative psychology and Animal cognition
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Animal experiments aid in investigating many aspects of human psychology, including perception, emotion, learning,
memory, and thought, to name a few. In the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to
demonstrate classical conditioning. Non-human primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, rats, and other rodents are often
used in psychological experiments. Ideally, controlled experiments introduce only one independent variable at a
time, in order to ascertain its unique effects upon dependent variables. These conditions are approximated best in
laboratory settings. In contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so
many factors, that it is difficult to control important variables for human subjects. Of course, there are pitfalls in
generalizing findings from animal studies to humans through animal
models.[68]
Criticism
Theory
Criticisms of psychological research often come from perceptions that it
is a "soft" science. Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962
critique[69] implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state,
lacking the agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences
such as chemistry and physics.
A rat undergoing a Morris water

navigation test used in behavioral
neuroscience to study the role of the
hippocampus in spatial learning and
memory.
Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as

surveys and questionnaires, critics have asserted that psychology is not
an objective science. Other concepts that psychologists are interested in,
such as personality, thinking, and emotion, cannot be directly measured[70] and are often inferred from subjective
self-reports, which may be problematic.[71][72]
Some critics view statistical hypothesis testing as misplaced. Research has documented that many psychologists
confuse statistical significance with practical importance. Statistically significant but practically unimportant results
are common with large samples.[73] Some psychologists have responded with an increased use of effect size
statistics, rather than sole reliance on the Fisherian p < .05 significance criterion (whereby an observed difference is
deemed "statistically significant" if an effect of that size or larger would occur with 5% -or less- probability in
independent replications, assuming the truth of the null-hypothesis of no difference between the
treatments).[citation needed] False positive conclusions, often resulting from the pressure to publish or the author's
own confirmation bias, are an inherent hazard in the field, requiring a certain degree of skepticism on the part of
readers.[74]
Sometimes the debate comes from within psychology, for example between laboratory-oriented researchers and
practitioners such as clinicians. In recent years, and particularly in the U.S., there has been increasing debate about
the nature of therapeutic effectiveness and about the relevance of empirically examining psychotherapeutic
strategies.[75]
Practice
Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its applicationin particular, the application of
unsupported or unsound clinical practices.[76] Critics say there has been an increase in the number of mental health
training programs that do not instill scientific competence.[77] One skeptic asserts that practices, such as "facilitated
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communication for infantile autism"; memory-recovery techniques

including body work; and other therapies, such as rebirthing and
reparenting, may be dubious or even dangerous, despite their
popularity.[78] In 1984, Allen Neuringer made a similar point regarding
the experimental analysis of behavior.[79]
Ethical standards
Current ethical standards of psychology would not permit some studies
to be conducted today. These human studies would violate the Ethics
Code of the American Psychological Association, the Canadian Code of
Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report.
Current ethical guidelines state that using non-human animals for scientific
purposes is only acceptable when the harm (physical or psychological)
done to animals is outweighed by the benefits of the research.[80]
Keeping this in mind, psychologists can use on animals research
techniques that could not be used on humans.
The experimenter (E) orders the

teacher (T), the subject of the
experiment, to give what the latter
believes are painful electric shocks to
a learner (L), who is actually an actor
and confederate. The subject believes
that for each wrong answer, the
learner was receiving actual electric
shocks, though in reality there were
no such punishments. Being separated
from the subject, the confederate set
up a tape recorder integrated with the
electro-shock generator, which
played pre-recorded sounds for each
shock level etc. [66]
An experiment by Stanley Milgram raised questions about the

ethics of scientific experimentation because of the extreme
emotional stress suffered by the participants. It measured the
willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who
instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal
conscience.[81]
Harry Harlow drew condemnation for his "pit of despair"
experiments on rhesus macaque monkeys at the University of
WisconsinMadison in the 1970s.[82] The aim of the research was
to produce an animal model of clinical depression. Harlow also
devised what he called a "rape rack", to which the female isolates
were tied in normal monkey mating posture.[83] In 1974,
American literary critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that, "Harry
Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariably proving
what we all knew in advancethat social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties." He
writes that Harlow made no mention of the criticism of the morality of his work.[84]
University psychology departments have ethics committees dedicated to the rights and well-being of research
subjects. Researchers in psychology must gain approval of their research projects before conducting any
experiment to protect the interests of human participants and laboratory animals.[85]
Systemic bias
In 1959 statistician Theodore Sterling examined the results of psychological studies and discovered that 97% of
them supported their initial hypotheses, implying a possible publication bias.[86][87][88] Similarly, Fanelli (2010)[89]
found that 91.5% of psychiatry/psychology studies confirmed the effects they were looking for, and concluded that
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the odds of this happening (a positive result) was around five times higher than in fields such as space- or
geosciences. Fanelli argues that this is because researchers in "softer" sciences have fewer constraints to their
conscious and unconscious biases.
In 2010, a group of researchers reported a systemic bias in psychology studies towards WEIRD ("western,
educated, industrialized, rich and democratic") subjects.[90] Although only 1/8 people worldwide fall into the
WEIRD classification, the researchers claimed that 6090% of psychology studies are performed on WEIRD
subjects. The article gave examples of results that differ significantly between WEIRD subjects and tribal cultures,
including the Mller-Lyer illusion.
See also
Group psychotherapy
List of important publications in psychology
List of psychologists
List of psychology organizations
Media psychology
Philosophy of psychology
Psychology at Wikipedia books
Social work
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84. ^ Booth, Wayne C. Modern Dogma and the Rhetoric of Assent, Volume 5, of University of Notre Dame, WardPhillips lectures in English language and literature, University of Chicago Press, 1974, p. 114. Booth is explicitly
discussing this experiment. His next sentence is, "His most recent outrage consists of placing monkeys in 'solitary'
for twenty dayswhat he calls a 'vertical chamber apparatus .... designed on an intuitive basis' to produce 'a state
of helplessness and hopelessness, sunken in a well of despair.' "
85. ^ The American Psychological Society: Responsible Conduct of Research
(http://www.apa.org/research/responsible/index.aspx)
86. ^ Arjo Klamer, Robert M. Solow, Donald N. McCloskey (1989). The Consequences of economic rhetoric
(http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk/aus/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521026444). Cambridge University Press.
pp. 17374. ISBN 978-0-521-34286-5.
87. ^ Lehrer, Jonah (December 13, 2010). "The Truth Wears Off"
(http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/12/13/101213fa_fact_lehrer?currentPage=all). The New Yorker.
Retrieved 10 April 2011.
88. ^ Sterling, Theodore D. (March 1959). "Publication decisions and their possible effects on inferences drawn from
tests of significanceor vice versa" (http://psycnet.apa.org/?fa=main.doiLanding&uid=1960-05032-001). Journal
of the American Statistical Association 54 (285): 3034. doi:10.2307/2282137
(http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2282137). Retrieved 10 April 2011.
89. ^ Fanelli, Daniele (2010). "'Positive' Results Increase Down the Hierarchy of the Sciences"
(http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0010068). In Enrico Scalas. PLoS ONE
5 (4): e10068. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010068 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0010068).
PMC 2850928 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2850928). PMID 20383332
(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20383332). Retrieved 10 April 2011.
90. ^ The WEIRDest people in the world? (http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2010-14802-001) Henrich, J., Heine, S., &
Norenzayan, A. (2011). Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61135.
External links
Psychology (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Psychology//) at the Open Directory Project
American Psychological Association (http://www.apa.org/)
Association for Psychological Science (http://www.psychologicalscience.org/)
Discovering Psychology. (2001). The History of Psychology:Contemporary Foundations
(http://psychology.okstate.edu/museum/history/)
The Florida State University PSYCHOLOGY.(2011).HISTORY
(http://www.psy.fsu.edu/history/history.html)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychology&oldid=583424768"
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Further information: Outline of psychology and Index of psychology articles

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with

Main article: Functional psychology

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Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

increasing in popularity as physiology grew more sophisticated.

Psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Baddeley's model of working memory

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Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

MRI depicting the human

The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various

Green Red Blue

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise of cognitive

The Stroop effect refers to

The common chimpanzee can use

Educational and school

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in

An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test

School psychology combines principles from educational

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Qualitative and quantitative research

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study

Observation in natural settings

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Qualitative and descriptive research

Phineas P. Gage survived an

Artificial neural network with two

Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior.

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A rat undergoing a Morris water

Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

communication for infantile autism"; memory-recovery techniques

The experimenter (E) orders the

An experiment by Stanley Milgram raised questions about the

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

11. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary. (2001). "Psychology" (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=psychology).

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Seances de la Societe de Biologie et de ses Filiales, 99, 11551157

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Psychology - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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