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ANGLE

defined as the difference in direction between two

convergent lines

ANGLES AND DIRECTION

Line 1
P

= angular value
P = point of intersection

Line 2

Kinds of angles

HORIZONTAL ANGLE - formed by the directions to

two objects in a horizontal plane

VERTICAL ANGLE - formed by two intersecting lines

in a vertical plane, one of these lines horizontal

Kinds of angles

ZENITH ANGLE - the complementary angle to the

vertical angle and is formed by two intersecting lines in a
vertical plane, one of these lines directed toward the
zenith

Line 1
P

Line 2

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
the

magnitude of an angle is basically derived

from the subdivisions of the circumference of a
circle. A purely arbitrary unit is used to define the
value of an angle

Principal systems of the units

Sexagesimal system

the circumference of a
circle is divided into 360 part or degrees. The basic unit
is degree.
1 degree ()
1 minute ()

= 60 minutes () = 360 seconds ()

= 60 seconds ()

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Principal systems of the units

Centesimal system

the circumference of a
circle is subdivided into 400 parts. The basic unit is the
grad.
1 grad (g) = 100 centesimal minutes (c)
= 10,000 cc
1 centesimal minute (c) = 100 centesimal seconds (cc)

Principal systems of the units

The Radian

sometimes referred to as the natural

unit of angle measurement because there is no arbitrary
number in its definition. One radian is defined as the
angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc length

Principal systems of the units

The Mil

the circumference of a circle is divided into

6400 parts called , mils. Use in military operations in
fire direction of artillery units. The mil will subtend very

nearly one linear unit in a distance of 1,000 such units.

6,400 mils
1,600 mils

= 360
= 90

Types of Measured Angles

angles - are measured clockwise or
counter-clockwise between two adjacent lines on the inside

Interior

of a closed polygon figure.

exactly equal to the radius of the circle.

1 radian = 180 / = 57.2958
1 degree = / 180 = 0.0174522 radians

Types of Measured Angles

angles - are measured clockwise or
counter-clockwise between two adjacent lines on the
outside of a closed polygon figure.

Exterior

Types of Measured Angles

angles ( right or left) - are measured
from an extension of the preceding course and the ahead
line. It must be noted when the deflection is right (R) or
left (L).

Deflection

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Types of Measured Angles

DIRECTIONAL ANGLES

to the right - are turned from the back line

in a clockwise or right hand direction to the ahead line.
These angles are sometimes referred as azimuths from the

Angles

back line.

formed between a reference line, called a meridian line and

the line in question

MERIDIAN - a fixed line of reference for specifying directions

true meridian
magnetic meridian
grid meridian
assumed meridian

Reference meridian
(N-S line)

Bearing angle (0 to 90)

Reference parallel
(E-W line)

it can be BEARING angle or AZIMUTH angle

acute horizontal angle between a reference line and the

line in question
Either the letter N or S precedes the bearing angle and the
letter E or W follows the indicated value of the angle

E
Examples:
N 23 35 30 E
S 59 50 00 W

N
0

N-E
quadrant

N-W
quadrant

Reference meridian
(N-S line)

90

Reference parallel
(E-W line)

30

90

90
E

S-W
quadrant

N 30 E

90

S-E
quadrant

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90

90

90
E

90
E

20

45

S 70 W
S 45 E
0

Forward and back bearings

N
0

90

opposite

90

Forward bearing - the bearing of the line is observed

in the direction in which the survey progresses
Back bearing - the bearing of the line is observed in an

PT 2

due W

PT 3

PT 1

N 50 E

Direction of the survey

Forward and back bearings

Forward and back bearings

Forward bearing - the bearing of the line is observed

in the direction in which the survey progresses
Back bearing - the bearing of the line is observed in an
opposite

Forward bearing - the bearing of the line is observed

in the direction in which the survey progresses
Back bearing - the bearing of the line is observed in an
opposite

PT 2

PT 2
PT 3

PT 1
S 50 W

Direction of the survey

S 80 E

PT 3

PT 1

N 80 W

Direction of the survey

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Azimuths (0 to 360)

N
0

is the clockwise angle made by the line with the meridian

line from either the north or south branch of the meridian
line
usually preferred over bearings by most surveyors because
they are more convenient to work with such as in
computing traverse data by electronic digital computers.

Examples:
BEARING
N 23 35 30 E
S 59 50 00 W

=
=

N 30 E

30

30

90

90

AZIMUTH
23 35 30
239 50 00
0

90

90

90
E

45

90

20

135

250
S 70 W

S 45 E

Forward and back azimuth

N

RULE 1
If forward azimuth > 180, subtract 180 to obtain back
azimuth
RULE 2
If forward azimuth < 180, add 180 to obtain back azimuth

90
W

270

90
E

due W

PT 2
PT 1

50

PT 3

N 50 E

Direction of the survey

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Forward and back azimuth

Forward and back azimuth

RULE 1
If forward azimuth > 180, subtract 180 to obtain back
azimuth
RULE 2
If forward azimuth < 180, add 180 to obtain back azimuth
PT 2
PT 1

230
S 50 W

100

PT 2
PT 3

S 80 E

Direction of the survey

Measuring horizontal angles

most

RULE 1
If forward azimuth > 180, subtract 180 to obtain back
azimuth
RULE 2
If forward azimuth < 180, add 180 to obtain back azimuth

common operation performed with the

engineers transit
done by measuring angle around a point

PT 1

280

PT 3

N 80 W

Direction of the survey

General Procedure
set-up and level the transit (with telescope in
normal position) over a selected point
Take backsight reading on a point
Turn the telescope & take foresight on another
point
For INTERIOR ANGLE:
set vernier to zero (0 00 00)
backsight point A (use lower clamp)
loosen the upper clamp
foresight point B

For BEARING:
Release the magnetic needle
Backsight A and read the bearing
foresight point B
determine the interior angle
For AZIMUTH:
set vernier to zero (0 00 00)
aligh the N-mark of the compass box woth the
north seeking end of the magnetic needle
backsight point A (loosen upper clamp)
foresight point B (loosen upper clamp)
determine the interior angle

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Closing the horizon

process

of measuring horizontal angles about a

point
provides an easy way to test instrument
readings if the sum of the angles are equal to
360
Horizon misclosure or horizon closure or
angle of closure - any difference between
360 and the sum of the measured angles

Determination of the Horizon misclosure or

angle of closure
Angle of closure
Correction factor

=
=

360 - measured angles

angle of closure
number of angles

Allowable error (AE)

=
where T - # of angles

For 4 angles with LC = 30,

For 4 angles with LC = 1,

TYPES OF MERIDIAN
Astronomical

or True Meridians
Meridian
Grid Meridian
Magnetic

Assumed

LC T

N
Reference meridian
(N-S line)

Meridian
W

AE = 30
AE = 1

Astronomical or True Meridians

A plane passing through a point on the surface of the

earth and containing the earth axis of rotation;
determined by observing the position of the sun or a star
Astronomical or true meridians on the earth are lines of
longitude and they converge toward each other at the
poles

Astronomical or True Meridians

For a given point on the earth, its direction is always the

same and therefore directions remained unchanged
(makes it a good line of reference)
The amount of convergence between meridians depends
on the distance from the equator and the longitude
between the meridians

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Magnetic Meridian

A magnetic meridian lies parallel with the magnetic lines

of force of the earth; the earth acts very much like a bar
magnet with a north magnetic pole located considerably
south of the north pole defined by the earths rotational
axis

Magnetic Meridian

Grid Meridian

Assumed Meridian

A rectangular XY coordinate system in which one central

meridian coincides with a true meridian; all remaining
meridians are parallel to this central true meridian

An arbitrary direction assigned to some line in the survey

from which all lines are referenced

This could be a line between two property monuments,

the centerline of a tangent piece of roadway, or even the
line between two points set for that purpose

The important point to remember about assumed

meridians is that they have no relationship to any other
meridian and thus the survey cannot be readily related
to other surveys

If the line of reference is disturbed, the direction may

not be reproducible

The magnetic pole is not fixed in position, but rather

changes its position annually
The direction of a magnetized needle defines the
magnetic meridian at that point at that time
Because the magnetic meridian changes as magnetic
north changes, magnetic meridian do not make good
lines of reference

Expedient methods of determining

true meridian

Angles can be named based on the

reference meridian
True

bearing
bearing

Magnetic

(Reading Assignment)

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MAGNETIC DECLINATION
TN

The horizontal angle and direction by which the magnetic

meridian deviates from the true meridian at a particular
place and at particular time
MN
west declination

TN MN

east declination

TN

declination
W

TN

S
W

VARIATIONS IN MAGNETIC
DECLINATION
Daily

variation
variation
Secular variation
Irregular variation
Annual

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Daily Variation (diurnal variation)

Annual Variation

Oscillation of the compass needle through a cycle from its

mean position over 24-hr period

Another form of periodic swing by the magnetic meridian

with respect to the true meridian

Extreme position
extreme eastern position - early morning
extreme western position - after noon time

Usually amounts to 1 minute of an arc and thus considered

negligible

Daily variation is greater/higher in higher latitudes

Usually neglected when observing magnetic directions

(because it is relatively small compared to the inaccuracies
in measurements)

Secular Variation

Irregular Variation

Slow, gradual but unexplainable shift in the position of the

earths magnetic meridian over a regular cycle

Uncertain and cannot be predicted as to amount or

occurrence

Meridian swings like a pendulum in 1 direction for about

150 years and gradually comes to a stop and then swings
back in the opposite direction

Most likely to occur during (1) magnetic storms and

disturbances associated with sunspots and (2) auroral
display

The rate of change magnetic declination varies yearly and

irregularly at different locations

Important to surveyor because it is used in checking or

retracing old survey lines established by magnetic compass

LOCAL ATTRACTION EFFECT

The deviation of the magnetic needle from its normal

pointing position
May be constant or may vary depending upon the
surrounding magnetic influences
Factors that cause local attraction
ore deposits
objects made of steel or iron (fences pipelines,
moving vehicles)
power transmission lines

MAGNETIC DIP

A characteristic phenomenon of the compass needle to be

attracted downward from the horizontal plane due to the
earths magnetic lines of force
angle of dip (equator)

= 0

Local attraction can be detected by reading the forward

and back magnetic bearings

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EXAMPLES
If

the magnetic declination in a locality is 2 30 E,

determine the true bearing and true azimuth of
the line whose magnetic bearing is N 30 40 E

In

1980, a line had a magnetic bearing of N 80

23 E. At that time, the magnetic declination was
3 45 W. In 2005, the declination changed to 3
30 E. Determine the true bearing and magnetic
bearing of the line in 2005

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