Aloe ferox Medicinal Plant

By Tshililo Mashau

CONTENTS

Plant Description

History and Traditional uses

Environmental Conditions

Cultivation of the Plant

Harvesting, Handling and Processing

Current Uses

Markets

Regulatory Environment for Market Access

10

References

11

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1. PLANT DESCRIPTION
Scientific name:

Aloe ferox

Common name:

Bitter aloe,
Cape aloe,
Red aloe,
Bitteraalwyn,
iNlaba,
iKhala

Family:

Xanthorrhoeaceae
(formerly Aloaceae)

Figure 2. Aloe ferox flowers

Source: www.delange.org, Accessed: 08/04/2016

Related species:

Aloe vera,
Aloe arborescens,
Aloe marlothii,
Aloe africana,
Aloe aristata

Aloe ferox is a shallow rooted, long-lived succulent plant

species characterised by its tree-like shape. It belongs to the
family Xanthorrhoeaceae and is considered as one of the
most important commercial species in Aloe family.
Aloe ferox is single-stemmed and can grow to 3.0 m in
height. It has leaves which are broad, dull green to grayish in
colour. The leaves turn reddish when under stress from
drought. There are dark brown spines on the edges of the
leaves.
Figure 1. Aloe ferox plants

2. HISTORY
USES

AND

TRADITIONAL

The word ferox refers to the spiny leaves of the plant. The
Aloe genus has around 360 species in Southern Africa, East
Africa and Madagascar.
Aloe ferox was used by early sailors to treat skin injuries
caused by salt and rope burns. Local traditional use of Aloe
ferox, included medicinal use by chewing the leaf to soothe
stomach-ache. Leaves of the plant were also used to heal
broken skin and wounds by applying the sap to the affected
area. For centuries it has been used as a laxative (through the
properties of anthrone glycosides).
More recently it has been shown to have fungicide properties,
anti-inflammatory properties and assists in the regeneration
of skin cells.
Aloe ferox is native to South Africa. It originated in the
Swellendam area and is now found throughout the Western
Cape, Eastern Cape, Kwazulu-Natal, Free State and Lesotho.
The plant is able to grow on mountain slopes, rocky places
and flat open areas.
Figure 3. Geographical distribution of Aloe ferox species in
South Africa

Source: skinclays.wordpress.com, Accessed: 08/04/2016

Flowering usually occurs between May and August, although
in colder parts of the country it can be as late as September.
The flowers are commonly bright orange-red, bright red or
yellowish in colour.

Source: Coates Palgrave, 2005.

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3. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

Table 1. The timing of production practices through the life

cycle of the plant

Aloe ferox is one of the dominant species in the succulent

bushland vegetation in South Africa. The species shows a
remarkable adaptability and flourishes in the extremely dry
areas of the Karoo but also in relatively wet parts of the
eastern part of its distribution. It is found at altitudes up to
1000m, with temperatures ranging from 12 to 27oC and
rainfall from 50 to 300mm per annum. The plant tolerates
low humidity, but may not grow well in high humidity
conditions. The adventitious root system, that grows only a
few centimeters below the soil surface, allows it to exploit
small amounts of precipitation.
Aloe ferox prefers full sun and well drained soils. It can
tolerate a variety of soils, including sandy soils, silt loams
and loamy sands that are of moderate to low fertility and well
drained. It often grows on rocky hill slopes. Waterlogged,
saline and alkaline soils are unsuitable for aloe cultivation. It
prefers a soil pH ranging from 6.5 to 7.5.

4.2 Propagation
Aloe ferox can be grown from either seeds or stem cuttings.
Cuttings:

The plant can withstand a light frost, but the flowers are more
sensitive to low temperatures and will be damaged at
temperatures close to zero. Plants are killed at temperatures
below freezing (-2oC).

If cuttings are used, they are collected from the side

branches (if any) or the stems of mature plants; this
is difficult because it is a single stem plant and has
few side branches. The side branches of a plant are
removed and the wound is allowed to dry off for
some time and then it is planted. The stem cutting
should be about 15 to 18 cm long and be planted in
a nursery in such a way that a two-third portion of
the cutting is underneath the soil; after six months
it normally has a good root system and can be
transplanted into the field.

4. CULTIVATION OF THE PLANT

4.1 Production planning
Aloe ferox is mainly harvested from the wild, but potential
exists for expanding its cultivation as a crop. The production
of Aloe ferox as a cultivated crop is still not common and
consequently information on cultivation practices is limited.
Current harvesting levels in the wild do not have a major
negative impact on the population of the species, but a
harvesting permit is required from provincial and national
authorities monitoring protected areas. The SANS (South
African National Standards) industry requires that a plant has
to be at least 70cm in height before it is harvested.
It is usually planted from September to February. Plants
grown are grown from seed or cuttings in a nursery. Plants
grown from seeds reach maturity in 4 to 6 years and they are
fully grown in 7 to 8 years depending on climatic conditions.
It takes about 4 to 5 years from seed for Aloe ferox plants to
reach their first harvest. Harvesting is done after flowering
usually from September to November, but this depends on
the local conditions.
Aloe species were found to have a lifespan of over 100 years
in the wild, but are thought to be commercially productive for
at least 20 to 30 years.

Seed:
Propagation by seed is done by sowing seed in a
nursery. Seeds are sown in well drained medium
shallow trays and cover lightly with sand to prevent
the seed to be blown away.
An Aloe ferox seed takes about five weeks to
germinate. Seedlings are transplanted into small
pots or bags once they are about 4 cm tall, about 6
months after sowing.
Aloe plants are ready for planting into the field
after 3 to 4 years growing in the pots. They are
planted in spring and early summer. At this age,
plants have not yet developed the characteristic
stem of the Aloe ferox, and merely show a series of
succulent leaves close to the soil. The series of
stages from the nursery to transplanting into the
field are shown in the figure below.

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Figure 4. Propagation of Aloe ferox seedlings in a nursery

(a) New seedlings in trays in nursery
(b) Seedlings moved into individual pots
(c) Seedlings transplanted from pots into the field
(a)

(b)

(c)

applied if it is low in soil analysis results. If drip is used

nutrients can be applied through the drip system (fertigation)
and their levels monitored in the soil through soil water
extraction. Nitrogen levels must be kept below 100ppm and
reduced to below 50ppm before and during flowering.
Potassium is required before and during flowering.
Discolouration of the leaves caused by a lack of chlorophyll
(chlorosis) or plants becoming shrivelled and plants not
flowering, are sometimes signs of insufficient nutrients. Also
lack of trace elements in the soil will cause leaf
discolouration and levels of micro-elements must be checked
(especially zinc and iron on alkaline soils). High pH (above
7.5) can also result in unavailability of these micro-nutrients.

Source: Department of Environmental Affairs, South Africa.

Soil analysis must be done before the summer growth (before

September). This will provide an insight into potential
deficiencies before the main growing period from October to
April.

4.3 Planting
Transplanting into the field is done in spring or early summer
onto beds 15 to 20 cm high, with a width of 90cm and furrow
(pathway) of 30cm wide. The field must be well-drained and
receive full sunlight.

4.5 Irrigation
The plant is drought tolerant, but it grows and flowers well if
there is sufficient moisture in the summer months.

The bed must accommodate two rows, with 60 cm between

rows and 50 cm between plants. If drip is used, a drip line
must be placed between two rows on each bed with an
emitter spacing of 50cm.

Aloe ferox can be watered once it is 20cm in height. The

plant can survive with less than 500mm per annum. If
irrigation is used, it must be done with care because the plant
is sensitive to water-logging; also this can induce root
diseases.

This planting arrangement will give an average plant

population 33 333 plants per hectare but variations to this are
common.
Figure 5. Spacing of Aloe ferox plants in the field

4.6 Pest and diseases

Under natural wild conditions Aloe ferox is virtually disease
and pest free. However, when cultivated as a crop, with
plants close together, there is a higher risk of pest and disease
problems.
Pests:
Snout weevils:
Weevils are grey, dark brown to black in colour. They are
between 5 mm to 10 mm in length. The larvae tunnels into
the stems. The plant will show the symptoms of rot.
Figure 6. Snout beetle (Brachycerus monachus)

Spacing is sometimes done in single rows with 60cm

between plants and with rows 1m apart; that is, planting is
done on the flat in single rows resulting in a population of
16 666 plants per hectare.

4.4 Fertiliser recommendation

Aloe ferox grows in natural conditions in soil of low fertility,
but it does respond well to fertilizer application. Nitrogen
must be used judiciously as well as phosphates. Potash can be

White scale insects:

These insects are the most common scale which affects aloes.
They appear as neat white rows on the leaves.

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Figure 7. White scale insects (Duplachionaspis brevipora)

Figure 9. Aloe canker

Source: www.sunbirdaloes.co.za, Accessed: 14/04/2016

Mealy bugs:
These are small, sucking insects which are covered with
numerous fine white fluffy threads.

Galls and malformations:

They are usually caused by insects or mites. Roll galls may
be a result of nematodes.
Diseases:

Figure 8, Mealy bug (Pseudococcus longispinus)

Aloe rust:
A disease caused by fungus Uromyces aloes. The fungus
leaves black spots on the upper and lower leaf surfaces of the
plant.
The first signs of rust are small orange-yellow spots on the
leaves and they burst in a later stage to form black and yellow
scaly crust.
Figure 10. Aloe rust (Uromyces aloes)

Mites:
Aloes are attacked by several mites; however red spider
(Tetranychus cinnabarinus) is the most common.
Figure 8. Red spider mite (Tetranychus cinnabarinus)
Source: www.sunbirdaloes.co.za, Accessed: 14/04/2016
Leaf spot:
The disease is caused by several fungi, including
Montagnella
maxima,
Alternaria
alternata
and
Placoasterella rehmii. The disease is identified by black
spots on the leaves.

It causes Aloe canker which results in deformation of the

leaves and flower. The mite cannot be seen with the naked
eye, which makes it difficult to control before damage
occurs.

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Figure 11. Leaf spot (Alternaria alternata)

Figure 12. Harvesting Aloe ferox leaves.

Source: www.sunbirdaloes.co.za, Accessed: 14/04/2016

Rot:
Rot is commonly caused by weevil-like beetles belonging to
the Brachycerus genus. The symptoms of rot on a plant
include dwarf plants, blackened leaves, spongy and rotted
leaves.

www.natural-beauty-care.co.uk

Table 2. Disease control in Aloe ferox

Figure 13. Harvested leaves

Disease
Aloe canker
Galls and
malformations
Aloe rust
Rot

Harvesting is not done on windy days or if the plants are

under stress. Water stress is identified by a red colour in the
leaves.

Control
Infected areas should be removed
carefully with a sharp knife.
Soil can be fumigated if the attack
is severe.
The infected leaves must be
removed and burned.
The centre part infected must be
carefully cleaned out.
Source: aloeferox.co.za, Accessed: 08/04/2016

5. HARVESTING,
PROCESSING

HANDLING

AND

5.1
Harvesting
Aloe ferox harvesting normally takes place after flowering in
spring or early summer.

5.2
Handling
The cut leaves are stacked into a circle after harvesting to
drain the bitters from the cut ends. The leaves are stacked
around a hole that is lined with plastic; the bitters drain into
the hole. The bitter sap is collected into drums for further
processing.
Figure 14. Harvesting of bitters from cut leaves

Plants should have at least 20 leaves and be more than 70cm

in height before the first harvest is taken; this will be 4 to 6
years after the plants have left the initial nursery phase.
Harvesting begins with the leaves at the base of the plant.
They are cut 3 to 4cm away from the stem to ensure that any
infection does not move into the stem. During the first season
only the bottom row (or circle) of leaves on the stem are
removed which will be about 5 leaves.
Once the plants are fully matured 2 to 3 rows of leaves (15 to
20 individual leaves) can be harvested annually. At least 12
to 16 leaves per plant must remain on the plant after
harvesting; this ensures plants can survive droughts, cold
spell or any other stress.

Source: sapj.co.za, Accessed: 08/04/2016

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Fig 15. Collection of bitters in the field

Figure 17. The layer of yellow bitters between the rind and
the inner flesh or gel

Source: sapj.co.za, Accessed: 08/04/2016

Yields:
One leaf of Aloe ferox can weigh from about 0.6 kg to 2.0 kg.
A plant can produce on average about 80 ml bitter sap a year.
Depending on the spacing and the growth of the plants, yields
of bitter sap can range from about 800 l/ha to 2400 l/ha per
annum.
5.3
Processing
Components of the leaf are used in processing can be
categorized into the outer green skin, the inner leaf fillet (or
gel) and the yellow bitter sap which is found between the
outer green skin and the inner leaf fillet.

Two main components are extracted are extracted from the

leaves:
The bitter sap which drains spontaneously from the
leaves and which produces crystals, (bitter sap is
composed of a chemical complex called aloin,
anthraquinone glycosyl, which has laxative
properties), and
The gel or juice, which is expressed from the inner
fleshy part of the leaf; after draining the bitters the
whole leaf, including the rind, is sometimes
macerated and dried into a powder.
The options for processing the leaves are shown in Figure
below.

Figure 16. Components of the leaf used during processing

Figure 18. The processing of harvested Aloe ferox leaves

5.3.1
Processing bitter sap into bitter lump

Bitter sap is collected into drums from the holes in the

ground.

The fluid (bitter sap) is boiled in drums on open fires to

remove the water.

After boiling the fluid it hardens to form a dark-brown

aloe lump.

The process takes up to five hours when boiling 100

liters of bitter sap before the dehydrated aloe lump is
obtained.

Approximately 2.3 liters of bitter sap forms 1 kilogram

of bitter lump crystals.

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The leaf remaining after the bitter sap has been drained,
is taken back to the factory and processed into juice and
gel.

Figure 21. Aloe ferox tea

Figure 19. Aloe ferox bitter lump

Source: www.organicaloe.co.za, Accessed: 20/04/2016

5.2.2

6. CURRENT USES

Gel processing

Aloe ferox liquid gel:

De-bittering is a washing process that is done to remove

the bitter sap (aloin) from the chaff.

Pressing and filtering processes, extract the Aloe ferox

pectin (jelly) from the de-bittered chaff.

The product obtained is light to dark brown and sets like

normal jelly once it has cooled down. This is because of
the high levels of naturally occurring pectin in the jelly.

Recently a simpler factory process was developed and

patented for extracting the gel. This avoids exposure to
organic solvents and temperatures above boiling point.
This ensures a much more natural product.

The gel is a mixture of polysaccharide polymers,

minerals, amino-acids and biological agents.
Figure 20. Aloe ferox gel

Source: www.organicaloe.co.za, Accessed:

20/04/2016

The extracts are sold to traditional healers, cosmetics

companies, processing factories and phytomedicine
companies.
A survey of retail and specialist stores in South Africa in
2014 showed that Aloe ferox was used mainly in cosmetic
products, followed by complementary medicinal and personal
hygiene products, as shown in the table below.
Table 3. Use of Aloe ferox in various consumer products

product

no. products

A. ferox products
%

Food flavourants

Complementary
medicines

37

25

Cosmetics

69

47

Personal
hygiene
products

33

23

Dept. Environmental Affairs, 2014

Aloe ferox tea leaves:

The first step is to wash the whole leaf of Aloe ferox

with water to remove as much of the bitter sap (aloin) as
possible.

Then the leaves are cut into pieces and allowed to sundry under hygienic conditions.

The dried leaves are ground and used in supplements

and teas.

The tea is used for refreshment purposes or as a

detoxifier; it is usually packed in 250 g jar with a screw
cap.

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6.1 Medicinal uses

Note: Medicinal compounds based on Aloe ferox must only
be used on the recommendation of a medical doctor.
Furthermore, there can be side-effects from the compounds.
Pregnant women are especially vulnerable.
Aloe ferox has a number of claimed medicinal effects. These
are advertised on the products listed below. However the
scientific basis for many of these effects has not been
thoroughly investigated and is often based on experience of
users.
-

Anti-oxidant effects,
Anti-inflammatory activity,
Anti-microbial activity,
Anti-cancer activity through its permeation-enhancing
effect; that is, it facilitates the movement of nanoparticles through membranes of tumours and these
particles can then be used to treat the cancers,
Anti-malarial activity, and
Anti-helmintic activity; that is, activity on parasitic
worms.

Complementary medicines include products used as

laxatives, products to treat gastrointestinal ailments, dietary
and herbal supplements and immune boosters.
Various Aloe ferox products are used for their specific effects
as shown below.

baby care
body care and bath products
hair products
skin cream products
sun care products
soap
shower gel

6.3 Food
A number of food products contain Aloe ferox as a
flavourant, including slimming tea and in drinks. It is also
used in yoghurt, food flavourings, and various health and
wellness supplements.

7. MARKETS
Exports are destined for Europe, Asia and North America, in
particular the US, Japan and Germany, where it is refined and
used in many laxative products.
Local supply for processed product is low because of the lack
of secondary and tertiary processing; some products are
imported into this country.
The regional importance of Aloe ferox production and
processing is shown by the provinces which have the greatest
areas of the species.
Figure 22. Total protected area of Aloe ferox in South Africa,
(ACSA, 2015)

Table 4. Medicinal uses of Aloe ferox

Product

Use

Tea

Detoxifier

Bitter lump

Widely used as laxative

Gel

Relieve skin irritations, burns and

bruises

Aloe fillets

Toothache
Eczema
Hypertension
Stress and stomach-ache
Conjunctivitis

6.2 Cosmetics and personal hygiene products

A range of products are manufactured for cosmetic and
personal hygiene use. The skin healing properties of the Aloe
ferox contribute to the success of many of the products shown
below. Personal hygiene roducts containing Aloe ferox
include shampoos, soaps and mouth products (toothpaste,
mouth wash). It is also found in:

The Western Cape region produces a product with a high

content of aloin (23% to over 30%) compared to Eastern
Cape which has a low percentage about 5%. Aloesin is
formed from aloin. There is great demand for aloesin in Asia.
A 1kg of aloesin sells for about 1800 US$.

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8. REGULATORY ENVIRONMENT FOR

MARKET ACCESS
These regulations, with particular reference to export, are
outlined in the document
Profile on the aloe industry for export - A focus on South
Africa
from DAFF and ACSA of March 2015.
The introduction to the regulations provides are an overview
of requirements, especially for export; more detail can be
obtained from the complete document.
The international regulatory environment for aloe products
is complex with multiple layers of compliance that apply for
various categories of end products from aloe. Countryspecific standards increased over the past decade. The many
mandatory country and buyer requirements necessitate
modern factory conditions for successful supply to
international markets. Fairly large and sophisticated
operations are required to successfully focus on exports
owing to the volumes that would be economically viable.
Batches of products usually have to be tested before these
can be distributed on the market and be used as ingredients.
Modern practices require minimum facility standards and the
administration burden is relatively heavy.
South African national standard for aloe raw materials:
The Aloe Council of South Africa was founded in 2006 with
the aim, among others, to promote the setting of standards
for the industry and to deal with mutual issues for the
promotion of the industry. Standards go a long way towards
improving the credibility of the industry for sustained growth
in international markets. Standards South Africa (the former
SABS) developed SANS 368:2008; a minimum National
Standard for Aloe Raw Materials.42 The standard specifies
the requirements and test methods, especially with A. ferox
raw material in mind, although many of the guidelines can
apply to any aloe species because it focuses on safety
standards

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REFERENCES:
1.

Aloe Council of South Africa. 2015. The Aloe Council

of South Africa proposal to amend Appendix II; aloe
spp. 39 Industrial Ave, P. O Box 199, Albertina, 6695.

2.

Alvaro Viljoen (PhD). 2008. Indigenous South African

Medicinal Plants: Aloe ferox (Cape aloes). Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tshwane University of
Technology.

3.

Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries,

South African Government. 2015. A profile on the
aloe industry for export (A focus on South Africa).
Directorate: International Trade, Private Bag X250,
Pretoria, 0001.

4.

Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries,

South African Government. 2013. Aloe ferox.
Directorate: Plant Production, Private Bag X250,
Pretoria, 0001.

5.

Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries,

South African Government. 2013. Medicinal plants of
South Africa. Directorate: Plant Production, Private Bag
X250, Pretoria, 0001.

6.

Department of Environmental Affairs. 2014.

Resource Assessment for Aloe ferox in South Africa.
Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria, 0001.

7.

Ernst van Jaarsveld. 1996. The Cape aloe (Aloe ferox

and its uses). Kirstenbosch.

e-Sources
1.

Alice
Aubrey.
2001.
Aloe
ferox
www.plantzafrica.com, Accessed:08/04/2016

Mill.

2.

The
medicine
garden.
Aloe
ferox.
www.medicinegarden.co.za. Accessed: 08/04/2016

3.

Ecocrop. ecocrop.fao.org, Accessed: 22/06/2016

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