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Pronunciacin Resumen de la Lengua Inglesa Unit 1-6

Pronunciacin de la Lengua Inglesa (UNED)

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PRONUNCIACIN DE LA LENGUA INGLESA


UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION, A THEORETICAL APPROACH
1. Phonetics and phonology: allophones and phonemes

Phonetics: studies sounds from a physiological approach.


Phonology: Describes sounds from a mental (linguistic) perspective.
Phoneme: the smallest unit in a language that can cause a difference in meaning (or a contrast) between
two words.
Allophone: one of the different possible realizations of a phoneme. Allophones do not trigger a contrast in
meaning between two words.

Allophones can appear in two types of distribution (or set of environments):

complementary distribution: they are mutually exclusive, they appear in different


environments and whenever one allophone appears the other does not. (example: dark l
(milk, mill*) and normal l (light, lure))

free variation: they can appear in the same context. (example: put (t o glottal stop))

For two sounds to be interpreted as allophones of the same phoneme, they should also be
phonetically similar.

2. Perspectives for the study of phonetics:


1) from the perspective of the speaker (articulatory phonetics)
2) from the perspective of the listener (auditory phonetics)
3) from the way the sound is transmitted though the air (acoustic phonetics)
Articulatory phonetics: studies how sounds are produced by speakers of a given language. It examines the
different positions (articulatory movements) of the organs of speech used to produce a given sound or string
of sounds.
Auditory phonetics: studies how sounds are perceived by listeners.
Acoustic phonetics: examines the properties of sounds and how they are transmitted though the air.
3. Organs of speech:
Thee releasing of the air through the mouth or through the nose depends on the position of the velum (aka
soft palate). If the velum is raised (there is a velic closure), the nasal cavity is closed and thus the air can
only escape though the oral cavity. If the velum is lowered (there is a velic opening), the nasal cavity is
open allowing the air going through it.

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Active articulators: articulators that move, for example, the lips, the tongue or the soft palate.
Passive articulators: do not move. For example, the teeth, the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. They take
part in speech production because an active articulator approaches them to utter a given sound.
Organs of speech in the oral cavity:

Alveolar ridge

Teeth

Lips

Tongue

Tip

Blade

Front

Center

Back

vocal folds

Pharynx

Uvula

Soft palate (velum)

Hard palate

Vocal folds: Two chords situated in the larynx. They can basically have three positions

Closed: The air that comes from the lungs is blocked and cannot escape until they open again.

Open: the air that comes from the lungs is expelled freely. The position of vocal folds is also used to
produce voiceless sounds.

Nearly together: the air cannot escape freely. It pushes through the vocal folds. This makes the
vocal folds vibrate. The vibratory movement of the vocal folds causes sound. (voiced sounds)

The vibratory movement of the vocal folds is also responsible for two other perceptual features, namely,
pitch and loudness.

The quicker the vibration, the higher the pitch.

Our perception of loud or soft sounds depends on the intensity (or amplitude) of the vocal fold
vibration: the higher the amplitude (or displacement) of the vibration, the louder the sound.

4. The production of sounds:


Three factors:
1) the origin and the direction of the airflow (initiation stage)
2) the position of the vocal folds (phonation stage)
3) the position of the articulators (articulatory stage)

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4.1. Initiation:
Airstream mechanism (origin of the airflow):

pulmonic: Origin in the lungs

glottalic: Origin in the larynx.

velaric: origin in the velum.

Airstream mechanism (direction of the airflow):

eggressive: outwards (pulmonic and ejective)

ingressive: inwards (implosives and clicks)

Ejective sounds: sounds produced with a glottalic airstream mechanism and an eggressive airflow.
Implosive sounds: sounds produced with a glottalic airstream mechanism and an ingressive airflow.
4.2. Phonation:
Modal voice: or normal. Most sounds are voiced.
Whisper: open vocal folds. We can say that when we whisper all sounds are voiceless.
Creaky voice: Vocal folds can only vibrate at one end.
Breathy voice or murmur: vibration is combined with a considerable amount of air.
4.3. Articulation
Sounds are describe according to their place of articulation and their manner of articulation.
Examples:
[b] = voiced, bilabial, plosive
[s] = voiceless, alveolar, fricative
5. The segmental level and the suprasegmental:
Segmental level: the articulation of a series of sounds (vowels and consonants) also known as segments.
Suprasegmental level: the production of a series of suprasegmentals that involve more than consonants
and vowels and include features such as stress, length, intensity and intonation.

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UNIT 2: VOWELS, A THEORETICAL APPROACH


1. Parameters to describe vowels:
Vowels are produced:

with no obstruction of the airflow in the oral cavity

with vocal fold vibration.

= vowels are produced with an open approximation of the articulators and they are always voiced.
Vowels are described according to: tongue position, tongue height, lip posture and vowel duration.
1.1. Tongue position:

front: the front of the tongue raises towards the front of the hard palate.

back: the back of the tongue raises towards the back of the soft palate.

Central: the centre of the tongue raises towards the middle of the hard palate.
1.2. Tongue height:

close (high): the tongue raises towards the palate (no friction)

half-close (high-mid): the tongue raises (less than for close vowels)

half-open (low-mid): the tongue raises (less than for half-close vowels)

open (low): the tongue does not raise.


1.3. Lip posture:

rounded: the lips have a round position.

Unrounded: the lips are not rounded.

Neutral: with no movement

spread: with a slight smile.

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1.4. Classification of English vowels:

Tongue location

Tongue height

Lip posture

Duration

Front

Between open and Unrounded


half-open

Short

Back

Open

Unrounded

Long

Central

Open

Unrounded

Short

Front

Between half-close Unrounded


and half-open

Short

Central

Between half-close Unrounded


and half-open

Long

Central

Between half-close Unrounded


and half-open

Short

Front

Close

Unrounded

Long

Front

Half-close

Unrounded

Short

Back

Open

Rounded

Short

Back

Between half-close Rounded


and half-open

Long

Central

Half-close

Rounded

Short

Back

Close

Rounded

Long

2. Types of vowels:
Monophtong: vowels produced with only one quality.
Diphthongs: vowels produced with a change in quality (two qualities)
Tiphthongs: vowels produced with a change in quality (three qualities)
English closing diphthongs are with or whereas English centring diphthongs are with .
English triphthongs are composed of one of the closing diphthongs followed by .
Smoothing: When the middle vowel of a triphthong is not fully targeted and thus the first vowel is
lengthened.
Strong vowels: mainly occur in stressed syllables.
Weak vowels: can only occur in unstressed syllables. They are , , , I and u. u occurs in unstressed
syllables, specially after [j].
3. Related phenomena:
3.1. Nasalisation: The only difference between an oral and a nasalised vowel is the position of the
velum. Nasalised vowels only occur next no nasal consonants.
3.2. Voiceless vowels and aspiration: voiceless vowels are produced when whispering. The
phenomenon of aspiration in English can be interpreted as a partial devoicing of vowels.

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3.3. Pre-fortis clipping: Vowels that precede a voiceless sound (fortis) are shortened or clipped, as
opposed to vowels preceding voiced sounds (lenis). It mainly occurs when the consonant
preceding the vowel occurs word-finally.
3.4. Rhythmical clipping: The higher the number of unstressed syllables that follow the stressed
one, the shorter the duration of the vowel in the stressed syllable.

UNIT 3: CONSONANTS, A THEORETICAL APPROACH


1. Parameters to describe consonants: the position of the vocal folds, the place of articulation and
the manner of articulation.
1.1. Vocal fold position:
- Open: voiceless sounds.
- Nearly together: Voiced sounds
1.2. Place of articulation:
Place of articulation

First articulator

Second articulator

Examples

Bilabial

Upper lip

Lower lip

p, b, m

Labiodental

Upper teeth

Lower lip

f, v

Dental

Upper teeth

Tongue tip

Alveolar

Alveolar ridge

Tongue tip

s, z, l

Post-alveolar

Between the palate and Tongue blade


the alveolar ridge

Palatal

Hard palate

Tongue front

Velar

Velum

Tongue back

K, g,

Pharyngeal

Rear wall of the pharynx

Tongue back

Glottal

Right vocal fold

Left vocal fold

Homorganic: sounds produced with the same place of articulation.


1.3. Manner of articulation:
- A complete closure of the articulators (as in plosives (p b t d k g) or nasals (m n )).
PLOSIVES:
- approximation of the articulators to produce a clomplete closure (closing phase)
- holding of the closure for a little while so that the aire does not escape (holding phase)
- opening of the closure and release of the air producing a burst (opening phase)
NASALS: are also produced with a complete closure of the articulators in the oral cavity, but
the air is released through the nose.

A close narrowing of the ariculators (as in fricatives s, f, ).

A partial closure (as I laterals l). This involves a closure of the tip of the tongue against the alveolar
ridge, but with the sides of the tongue lowered.

An open aproximation of the articulators (as in approximants j w).

Affricates ( ) are produced with a complete closure followed by a fricative release.

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English consonants: (left: voiceless, right: voiced)

Bilabial

Plosive

Labiodental Dental

Alveolar

Fricative

Postalveolar

Nasal

Velar

Affricate

Palatal

Labiovelar

Approximant

Glottal

Lateral

See how to represent consonants in graphs (position of the vocal folds, place of articulation and degree of
the constriction)
2. Types of articulation:
Single articulation: with some kind of a constriction in a particular location of the oral cavity.
Double articulation: two simultaneous constrictions at two different places of the oral cavity (they have to
have the same degree of approximation or manner of articulation).
Primary articulation: the most important (and often the only) articulation of a consonant.
Secondary articulation: involves a simultaneous constriction to the primary one but of lower rank. This
means that the manner of articulation of the second constriction has to be more open than that of the primary
one. For instance, t can sometimes be labialised / l can sometimes be velarised (=dark l).
3. Types of consonants:
Obstruents: sounds produced with a blockage of the airflow in the oral cavity that causes noise. Obstruents
include plosives, fricatives and affricates.
Sonorants: sounds produced with a free escaping of the airflow that causes no noise. Sonorant sounds are
approximants, laterals, nasals and vowels.
4. Allophonic variation in English consonants (aspiration, devoicing and velarization)
Aspiration: takes place when p, t or k are located at the beginning of a stressed syllable. Aspiration is
blocked when p, t, and k are preceded by s.
Devoicing: two devoicing processes:

the devoicing of voiced obstruents: are devoiced when the originally voiced sound is located
before or after a pause or is in contact with a voiceless sound. When the voiced obstruent is next to
a voiced sound, devoicing does not apply. When devoicing takes place at the end of a word, the clue
that distinguishes a word ending with a devoiced sound from a word ending with an originally voiced
sound is the duration of the preceding vowel. (=pre-fortis clipping)

the devoicing of voiced approximants and laterals: English approximants j, w, r and al are
devoiced when they are preceded by p, t, k at the beginning of a stressed syllable. When p, t and k
are preceded by an s, devoicing does not apply.

Velarisation: Dark l (only occurs before consonants (except for j) or before a pause.

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UNIT 4: COMBINATION OF SOUNDS AND CONNECTED SPEECH PROCESSES, A


THEORETICAL APPROACH
1. The syllable:
Syllable: unit of speech made up of one sound (namely, a vowel) which may be followed and/or preceded by
other sounds (consonants). The only compulsory element to have a syllable is the vowel.

Nucleus: corresponds to a vowel and is obligatory.

Onset: made up of a consonant or a group of consonants preceding the nucleus.

Coda: made up of a consonant or a group of consonants following the nucleus.

Rhyme: contains the nucleus and the coda.

Syllabic consonant: A consonant that makes up a syllable on its own. It is due to the dropping of schwa
when it's followed by a consonant.
Sonority hierarchy: Sounds have different degrees of sonority.
More sonorous
vowels
laterals
nasals
approximants
fricatives
affricates
plosives
Less sonorous
2. Phonotactics: combination of sounds
Phonotactics: The area of phonetics that studies the combination of sounds allowed in a given language.
Initial consonant clusters (in syllable onset position)

Zero consonants: All English vowels can occure syllable initially except for and .

One consonant: All English consonants can appear at the beginning of a syllable except for .

Two-consonant clusters: are never found in two or three-consonant clusters in syllable


onset positions. English two-consonant clusters in syllable onset position tend to have two possible
combinations:

s + consonant (voiceless plosive= p, t, k / f / nasal = m, n / aproximant= only w, j, l)

consonant (plosive= p, t, k, b, d, g / f / v / / s / ) + approximant (w, j, l, r)

consonant (n / m / l / h) + approximant (only j)

Three-consonant clusters:

s + consonant + approximant (the second consonant tends to be a voiceless plosive.


Sometimes f and m can also occur in this position, but only in a few rare words.

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Final consonant clusters (in syllable coda position)

Zero consonants: cannot occur syllable finally.

One consonant: cannot appear at the end of a syllable.

Two-consonant clusters: Consonants cannot occupy the second position of a two-consonant


cluster in syllable coda position. Two possible combinations:

Nasal / lateral / s + obstruent (plosive, fricative, affricate)

Consonant + t / d / s / z /

Three-consonant clusters: Tend to be made up of a two-consonant cluster followed by a consonant


that corresponds to some kind of morpheme boundary. There are a few words that contain a syllable
with a three-consonant cluster (glimpse, text)

Four-consonant clusters: Can only be made by adding a morpheme consonant to a syllable which
already has a three-consonant cluster.

Connected speech processes:


Assimilation: a process by which one or more sounds take characteristics from another sound. They can be
regressive or anticipatory, progressive or perseverative and coalescence.

Regressive (or anticipatory) assimilation: Sounds change their place of articulation to that of the
following sound but they keep their original voice condition and their manner of articulation.

t / d / n = p / b / m when followed by a bilabial sound

t / d / n = k / g / when followed by a velar sound.

s / z = / when followed by a post-alveolar sound.

Progressive (or perseverative) assimilation: Only takes place when there is an alveolar syllabic
nasal (n) preceded by a bilabial or a velar consonant.
Open = = =

Coalescence: involves the merging of two sounds into another sound which takes characteristics
from the two original ones.

t + j =

d + j =

Elision: is a phenomenon which involves the loss of one sound in a given environment. Only t / d. T / d must
be in word or syllable final position and they must be preceded by a consonant of the same voicing and the
following word must start with any consonant except for h.
cold beer = =
Liaison: is a phenomenon which involves the pronunciation of a sound at the end of a word so as to link it
with the first sound of the following word.

Linking -r: Both linking and intrusive -r are typical of non-rhotic accents. Words ending with r or
re in the spelling are pronounced with final r if the next word begins with a vowel. = linking -r is the
pronunciation of a word-final orthographic r or re when followed by a vowel in the next word.

Intrusive -r: Some speakers pronounce r after certain vowels (even though no r is present in the

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spelling), when the next word starts with a vowel. Intrusive -r can only be found after thouse vowels
which can be followed by an ortographically motivated r. Thus, it is not possible after high vowels ( ,
, or ) or diphthongs ending with a high vowel (closing diphthongs). Intrusive -r is common after ,
and , and also after centring diphthongs.

UNIT 5: STRESS AND RHYTHM, A THEORETICAL APPROACH


An accented syllable has pitch prominence and is always stressed.
An unaccented syllable which has no pitch prominence and which can be stressed or unstressed.
1. Lexical stress:
There are different levels of stress: primary, secondary, tertiary and unstressed. Characteristics:

Stress levels

Nuclear

Pitch prominence

Rhythmic beat

Strong vowel

Primary

Secondary
Tertiary
Unstressed

Primary stress (PS): is always accompanied by a pitch movement and a rhythmic beat. It is the main (or
nuclear) stress of a words and the syllable always contains a strong vowel. Representation: '
Secondary stress (SS): is very similar to PS but is non-nuclear. A secondary stress always precedes the
primary one. Representation: ,
Tertiary stress (TS): is weaker than the secondary one. Usually a tertiary stress is located between the
primary and the secondary stresses of a word. Representation: ,
Unstressed (U): tends to be produced with a weak vowel (sometimes strong vowels can also occur in
unstressed syllables but these cases are minotity).
Introduce =
discontinuation =
2. Predicting the location of stress: (these rules have loads of exceptions)
Phonological structure of a syllable: strong or weak
Strong: a strong syllable contains a long vowel or a diphthong (except for ) or ends with more than one
consonant.
Weak: a weak syllable contains a short vowel (or ) and one (or no) final consonant.

Simple words (two or three syllables and with no pre-primary stresses). We have to take into
account:

word category (noun, verb or adjective)

number of syllables: two or three

the phonological structure of those syllables

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Two-syllable words:
a) Verbs and adjectives:
1. If the last (ultimate) syllable is strong, when it will be stressed.
2. If the last (ultimate) syllable is weak, the penultimate syllable will be stressed.
b) Nouns:
1. If the last (ultimate) syllable of the noun contains a short vowel, the penultimate syllable will be
stressed. Otherwise, the last syllable will be stressed.
Three-syllable words:
a) Verbs:
1. If the last syllable is strong, then it will be stressed.
2. If the last syllable is weak, the penultimate syllable will be stressed.
b) Nouns:
1. If the final syllable is strong, the first (antepenultimate) syllable will be stressed.
2. If the final syllable is weak and the middle syllable is strong, the middle syllable is stressed.
3. If the final and the middle syllables are weak, the first syllable will be stressed.
Stress in complex words:

Stem + affix:

Prefixes: in most cases, the prefix will get a secondary stress, but the primary or main stress will
remain in the original syllable.

Suffixes: Can be:

stress-attracting suffixes: (suffixes that attract the primary stress) = -ette, -eer, -ese, -ee

stress-neutral suffixes: (suffixes that do not affect stress placement) = -able, -ish, -ful,
-less, -ous

stress-fixing suffixes (suffixes that change the location of the main stress into another
syllable which is neither the originally stressed syllable nor the suffix itself) = -ix, -ion, -ive

Compounds: The main tendency in compounds is to have a primary stress on the first element of
the compound. (Whereas noun phrases have their primary stress on the second element).

Stress reorganisations:

Stress shift: involves the relocation of a primary stress into a secondary stress position as a result
of a stress clash (Portuguese, Portuguese history)

Stress clash: involves the consecutive (or almost consecutive) production of two stressed syllables
in different words.

Consecutive stresses: when three stressed lexical words with one or two more syllables come
together in connected speech, the word in the middle tends to lose the stress.

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Weak forms:
Word

Weak form

Strong form

eI

Am

()m

An

And

n(d)

nd

Are

A:

As

At

Be

bi

bi:

Been

bIn

bi:n

But

bt

Bvt

Can

kn

kn

Do

Du / d

du:

Does

dz

dVz

Could

kd

kUd

For

fO:

From

frm

frAm

Had

(h)d

hd

Has

(h)z

hz

Have

(h)v

hv

He

(h)i

hi:

Her

(h)

h3:

Him

Im

hIm

His

Iz

hIz

Just

ds(t)

dVst

Me

mi

mi:

Must

ms(t)

mVst

Of

Shall

Sl

Sl

She

Si

Si:

Should

Sd

SUd

Some

sm

sVm

Than

Dn

Dn

That

Dt

Dt

The

D / Di

Di:

Them

Dm

Dem

There

Dea

To

t / tu

tu:

Us

Vs

Was

wz

wz

We

wi

wi:

Were

w3:

Who

hu

hu:

Would

wd

wUd

You

j / ju

ju:

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1.

Not all monosyllabic function words have a weak form (off, on, or, my, out, those...)

2.

There are some function words that have the same weak forms.

Apart from emphatic and citation contexts, there are other contexts in which function words tend not to appear in its weak
form.
1.

Auxiliary and modal verbs located at the end of a sentence are produced with a strong form.

2.

At the beginning of a sentence modal verbs tend to be strong.

3.

Auxiliary and modal verbs are also strong when they appear in the negative form.

4.

Prepositions located at the end of the sentence are strong.

5.

Sometimes, the presence of a weak or a strong form depends on the word category or the meaning of the word:

have: main verb (strong) / auxiliary (weak)

there: adverb (strong) / existential form (hay) (weak)

that: demonstrative adjective or pronoun (strong) / relative pronoun or conjunction (weak)

some: pronoun (strong) / adjectives (algunos) (strong) / adjective (unos, partitif) (weak).

UNIT 6: FOCUS AND INTONATION, A THEORETICAL APPROACH


Intonation: It deals with the pitch changes associated to utterances.
Tone: the pitch movements or kinds of accents that are linguistically relevant in the whole utterance. It can
be divided into falling tone or rising tone.
Stressed syllable: It is a syllable with rhythmic prominence. But not all stressed syllables are accented.
Accented syllable: It is a syllable which, apart from rhythmic prominence, also has pitch prominence. This
means that all accented syllables have to be stressed.
Focus: It is the part of the utterance that we want to highlight. It can be divided into broad focus sentences,
in which the whole sentence is new information, or narrow focus sentences, if a part of the sentence is old
or given information and the other is new.
Intonational languages: use pitch to change the meaning of sentences. This means that the same
sentence can vary its meaning if the pitch pattern varies.
Tone languages: pitch differences are not only used to produce different meanings at the sentence level but
also at the word level.
Tonality: the number of intonation units into which a speech chunk is divided.
Tonicity: It deals with the distribution of accents within each intonation unit in the utterance. Only stressed
syllables can get an accent, but not all stressed syllables must be accented.
Intonation unit: chunk of speech delimited by some kind of intonational boundary.

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Long constituents: It occurs when one of the constituents of the clause becomes too long, then it is treated
as a separate intonation phrase (IP). For example: the man with black glasses and a brown hat / goes to
Leeds (long subject = two IPs)
Lists: In lists, each item in the utterance tends to be included in a separate intonation unit.
Vocatives: They behave differently depending on whether they are located in initial or in final position. In
final position, vocatives are produced in a separate intonation group.
Reporting phrases: As in vocatives, reporting phrases behave differently depending on whether they are
located in initial or in final sentence position.
Tone inventory: it is the system of accentual choices of a given language which includes all the tones
(linguistically relevant intonation entities) used in that particular language.
Pitch range: It has to do with the key or amount of pitch displacement with which an intonation phrase is
produced. It can be divided into a broad pitch range (big amount of pitch displacement) and a narrow pitch
range (small amount of pitch displacement). Pitch range differences are speaker-dependent, that is, some
speakers have a broader pitch range than other. However, speakers can control and modify their pitch range.
Britich school: a main tradition for the analysis of English intonation. It is also known as the configurational
modal since tone units are analysed according to two configurations: the nuclear configuration (which
includes the last accented syllable and all the subsequent unaccented syllables) and the pre-nuclear
configuration (which includes all the syllables unaccented and accented preceding the last accent).
British school divides each intonation phrase into the following parts: pre-head, head, nucleus and tail.
American school: a main tradition for the analysis of English intonation. It describes intonation by means of
a series of tone levels such as H (high), L (low), M (mid). On the other hand, the American tradition does not
differentiate between nuclear and pre-nuclear accents. According to the American School, each stressed
syllable may become accented, which means that it may be associated to one of the preceding tones.
Nuclear tones: They are associated to the nuclear syllable. The inventory of nuclear tones includes five
simple tones and two complex tones. The simple tones indicate the origin of the pitch (high, low or mid) and
direction of the pitch (fall, rise or level). The complex tones show the combination of two pitch trajectories
(fall-rise, rise fall).
Pre-nuclear tones: the types of tones found in pre-nuclear position differ from those in nuclear position in
that they de not account for the pitch trajectory at the end of the intonation phrase, but they just describe the
pitch movements of the accented syllables before the nucleus. There are two types of tones: high and low. A
high tone indicates that the first accented syllable of the head is produced with a high pitch. A low tone
indicates that the first accented syllable of the head is produced with a low or mid pitch.

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