FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

LAB SHEET

EEL4126 Power System Operation

and Control
TRIMESTER 1 2016-2017
PSOC 1 Contingency Analysis of Power Systems
PSOC 2 Study of Excitation Control System Responses

[The report must be submitted to the respective lab by forenoon on the next day of
the experiment]

EEL4126 Power System Operation and Control

EEL4126 Power System Operation and Control

Experiment # 1

Contingency Analysis of Power Systems

Objectives
To evaluate the effect of generator outage in a power system using AC power-flow
method
To evaluate the effect of line outages in a power system using AC power-flow
method
Introduction
The major security function in a power system is contingency analysis. The results of
contingency analysis allow systems to be operated defensively. The majority of the
problems that occur on power system can cause serious trouble within such a quick time
period that the operator could not take action fast enough. This is often the main reason of
cascading failures. Hence, the computers in modern power system operation control
centers are equipped with the contingency analysis programs that model the possible
systems troubles before they arise. These programs are based on a model of the power
system and are used to study outage events and alarm the operators to any potential
overloads or out-of-limit voltages. For example, the simplest form of contingency
analysis can be put together with the procedures to set up the power-flow data for each
outage to be studied by the power-flow program. Several variations of this type of
contingency analysis scheme involve fast solution methods, automatic contingency event
selection, and automatic initializing of the contingency power flows using actual data and
state estimation procedures.
Contingency Analysis Using Newton-Raphson (N-R) Power-Flow Technique
The most widely used power-flow solution employs Newton-Raphson technique. For
large power systems, the Newton-Raphson method is found to be more efficient and
practical. Because of its quadratic convergence, this method is less prone to divergence
with ill-conditioned problems. The number of iterations required to obtain a solution is
independent of the system size. This method is used in this experiment to study the
contingency analysis. A MATLAB program developed and reported in the book Power
System Analysis by Hadi Saddat is used in this experiment. Read this program carefully
and understand how to prepare the data for the power-flow analysis.
Data Preparation
To run the power-flow program the following data are to be given.
Base MVA of the system: The variable name is basemva
Accuracy to terminate the iteration: The variable name is accuracy
Maximum number of iterations: The variable name is maxiter

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Bus data: The bus data has to be given in the matrix form and the variable name is
busdata. The various columns of the 11- column matrix are:
Column 1 bus number
Column 2 bus code (0 load bus, 1 Slack bus, 2 Voltage controlled bus)
Column 3 voltage magnitude in pu
Column 4 voltage phase angle in degree
Column 5 Load in MW
Column 6 Load in MVAR
Column 7 Generation in MW
Column 8 Generation in MVAR
Column 9 Minimum MVAR generation
Column 10 Maximum MVAR generation
Column 11 Reactive power injection
If value for a particular column is not specified, enter zero.
Line data: The line data has to be given in the matrix form and the variable name is
linedata. The various columns of the 6-colum matrix are:
Columns 1& 2 bus numbers between which the line is connected
Column 3 Line resistance in pu
Column 4 Line reactance in pu
Column 5 One half of total line charging susceptance in pu
Column 6 For transformer tap setting; for lines 1 must be entered.
N-R Power-flow program
clear
basemva = 100; accuracy = 0.001; maxiter = 10;
busdata=[
linedata=[
Lfybus
warning off
Lfnewton
Busout
Lineflow

];
];
% form the bus admittance matrix
% Load flow solution by Newton-Raphson method
% Prints the power flow solution on the screen
% computes and displays the line flow and losses

Test System
The figure shows the one-line diagram of a 5-bus power system with generators at
buses 1, 2 and 3. Bus 1 is the slack bus and its voltage is set at 1.06 0o pu.
Voltage magnitude and real power generation at buses 2 and 3 are 1.045 pu, 40
MW and 1.03pu, 30 MW, respectively. Each line is rated for 65 MVA and Bus1
generator rating is 100 MVA. The allowable voltage variation in load buses is 1.05pu to
0.95pu. Assume minimum and maximum MVAR for each generator to be 0 and 50
MVAR. When doing the power-flow do not set the maximum limit for generation.
Maximum value is given to verify the overloading of generators for contingencies.

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EEL4126 Power System Operation and Control

Procedure
For the test system prepare the linedata and busdata matrices and do the following.
Case 1: Base case
Perform the power-flow analysis for the base case system. Show the results in the oneline diagram of the system. Check for overloading of generators and transmission lines
and voltage limit violation in load buses. Indicate all the limit violations clearly in red
ink.
Case 2: Generator outage
Open Generator connected to Bus 3, perform power-flow analysis and show the results in
the one-line diagram of the system. Check for overloading and voltage limit violation.
Indicate all the limit violations clearly in red ink. [Changing the bus to be a load bus with
generated MW and MVAR to be zero may simulate opening of a generator.]
Case 3: Line outages
1. Restore the original busdata matrix. Open line 4-5, perform power-flow analysis
and show the results in the one-line diagram of the system. Check for overloading
and voltage limit violation. Indicate all the limit violations clearly in red ink.
[Delete the row in the linedata matrix corresponding to line 4-5 for line removal].
2. Restore the original linedata matrix. Open line 2-5, perform power-flow analysis
and show the results in the one-line diagram of the system. Check for overloading
and voltage limit violation. Indicate all the limit violations clearly in red ink.
3. Restore the original linedata matrix. Open lines 2-4 and 4-5 simultaneously,
perform power-flow analysis and show the results in the one-line diagram of the
system. Check for overloading and voltage limit violation. Indicate all the limit
violations clearly in red ink.

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EEL4126 Power System Operation and Control

Exercise
1. Discuss your results for all the cases done.
2. In the case of generator outage (Case 2) which generator takes over the lost
generation?
3. Suggest suitable action to be taken to remove the limit violations in case 2.
4. Compute the change in the line flows for outage of Generator 3 (case 2) using
generation shift factors and compare the results with the ones obtained by AC
power-flow method.
5. Find the change in line flow in line 2 4 for the outage of line 4 5 (case 3-1)
using line outage distribution factor and compare the result with the one obtained
by AC power-flow method.

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EEL4126 Power System Operation and Control

Experiment # 2

Study of Excitation Control System Responses

Objectives
To develop a suitable model for the excitation system of a generator
To simulate the excitation system using SIMULINK and analyse the responses of
the system with different types of controllers
Synchronous Generator Excitation System
The generator excitation system maintains generator voltage and controls the reactive
power flow. The generator excitation of older systems may be provided through slip rings
and brushes by means of dc generators mounted on the same shaft of the rotor of the
synchronous machine. However, modern excitation systems usually use ac generators
with rotating rectifiers, and are known as brushless excitation. Recently Static Excitation
System is increasingly used. Static rectifier, controlled or uncontrolled, supplies the
excitation current directly to the field of the main alternator through its slip rings. The
supply of power to the rectifiers is from the main generator or the station auxiliary bus
through a transformer to step down the voltage to an appropriate level.
It is well known that a change in the real power demand affects essentially the frequency,
whereas a change in the reactive power affects mainly the voltage magnitude. The
sources of reactive power are generators, capacitors, and reactors. The generator reactive
power is controlled by field excitation. Other supplementary methods of improving the
voltage profile on electric transmission systems are transformer load-tap changers,
switched capacitors, step-voltage regulators, and static var control equipment. The
primary means of generator reactive power control is the generator excitation control
using automatic voltage regulator (AVR). The role of an (AVR) is to hold the terminal
voltage magnitude of a synchronous generator at a specified level. The schematic
diagram of a simplified AVR is shown in Figure1.
A drop in the terminal voltage magnitude accompanies an increase in the reactive power
load of the generator. The voltage magnitude is sensed through a potential transformer on
one phase. This voltage is rectified and compared to a dc set point signal. The amplified
error signal controls the exciter field and increases the exciter terminal voltage. Thus, the
generator field current is increased, which results in an increase in the generated emf. The
reactive power generation is increased to a new equilibrium, raising the terminal voltage
to the desired value. We will look briefly at the simplified models of the component
involved in the AVR system.

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Amplifier Model
The excitation system amplifier may be a magnetic amplifier, rotating amplifier, or
modern electronic amplifier. The amplifier is represented by a gain K A and a time
constant A, and the transfer function is
----(1)
Typical values of KA are in the range of 10 to 400. The amplifier time constant is very
small, in the range of 0.02 to 0.1 second, and often is neglected.
Exciter Model
There is a variety of different excitation types. However, modern excitation systems uses
ac power source through solid-state rectifiers such as SCR. The output voltage of the
exciter is a nonlinear function of the field voltage because of the saturation effects in the
magnetic circuit. Thus, there is no simple relationship between the terminal voltage and
the field voltage of the exciter. Many models with various degrees of sophistication have
been developed and are available in the IEEE recommendation publications. A reasonable
model of a modern exciter is a linearized model, which takes into account the major time
constant and ignores the saturation or other nonlinearities. In the simplest form, the
transfer function of a modern exciter may be represented by a single time constant E and
a gain KE, i.e.,
---(2)
The time constant of modern exciters are very small.

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Generator Model
The synchronous machine generated emf is a function of the machine magnetization
curve, and its terminal voltage is dependent on the generator load. In the linearized
model, the transfer function relating the generator terminal voltage to its field voltage can
be represented by a gain KG and a time constant G and the transfer function is
---(3)
These constants are load-dependent, KG may vary between 0.7 to 1, and G between 1.0
and 2.0 seconds from full-load to no-load.
Sensor Model
The voltage is sensed through a potential transformer and, in one form, it is rectified
through a bridge rectifier. The sensor is modeled by a simple first order transfer function,
given by
---(4)
R is very small, and we may assume a range of 0.01 to 0.06 second. Utilizing the above
models the AVR block diagram (without the stabilizer) is shown in Figure 2.

The open-loop transfer function of the block diagram in Figure 2 is

---(5)
and the closed-loop transfer function relating the generator terminal voltage V t(s) to the
reference voltage Vref(s) is
---(6)
or
---(7)
For a step input Vref(s) = 1/s, using the final value theorem, the steady-state response is
(if KE, KG and KR = 1) ---(8)

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EEL4126 Power System Operation and Control

Test System
The AVR system of a generator has the following parameters

Substitution of the system parameters in the AVR block diagram of Figure 2 results in the
block diagram shown in Figure 3.

The SIMULINK block diagram of the test AVR system, with KA = 10, is given in Fig 4.

Excitation System Stabilizer - Rate Feedback

It is observed for higher values of KA the system become unstable, and a value exceeding
12.5 results in an unbounded response. Thus, we must increase the relative stability by
introducing a controller, which would add a zero to the AVR open-loop transfer function.
On way to do this is to add a rate feedback to the control system as shown in Figure 5. By
proper adjustment of KF and F, a satisfactory response can be obtained.

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Excitation System Stabilizer - PID Controller

One of the most common controllers available commercially is the proportional integral
derivative (P1D) controller. The PID controller is used to improve the dynamic response
as well as to reduce or eliminate the steady-state error. The derivative controller adds a
finite zero to the open-loop plant transfer function and improves the transient response.
The integral controller adds a pole at origin and increases the system type by one and
reduces the steady-state error due to a step function to zero. The PID controller transfer
function is
---(9)
The block diagram of an AVR compensated with a PID controller is shown in figure 6.

Construction of SIMULINK Model

To create a SIMULINK block diagram presentation of Figure 4 select new... from the File
menu. This provides an untitled blank window for designing and simulating a dynamic
system. You can copy blocks from within any of the seven block libraries or other
previously opened windows into the new window by depressing the mouse button and
dragging. Open the Source Library and drag the Step Input block to your window. Double
click on Step Input to open its dialog box. Set the step time to 0 and set the Initial Value
and the Final Value to represent the step input. Open the Linear Library and drag the Sum
block to the right of the Step Input block. Open the Sum dialog box and enter + - under
List of Signs. Using the left mouse button, click and drag from the Step output port to the

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Summing block input port to connect them. Drag a copy of the Transfer Function block
from the Linear Library and connect it to the output port of the Sum block. Click on the
Transfer Function block once to highlight it. Use the Edit command from the menu bar to
copy and paste copies of the Transfer Function. Open the Transfer Function dialog box
and enter values of gains and time constants to represent the correct transfer function. Put
appropriate names to the blocks. Highlight the Sensor block, and from the pull-down
Options menu, click on the Flip Horizontal to rotate the Sensor block by 180 degree.
Connect all the blocks as shown in Figure 4 by connecting the output to input ports.
Finally, get one Auto-scale Scope from the Sink Library and connect it to the output of
the Generator block.
Before starting simulation, you must set the simulation parameters. Pull down the
Simulation dialog box and select Parameters. Use default values for the Start and Stop
Time, and Maximum Step Size. Leave the other parameters at their default values. Press
OK to close the dialog box.
If you dont like some aspect of the diagram, you can change it in a variety of ways. You
can move any of the icons by clicking on its center and dragging. You can move any of
the lines by clicking on one of its corners and dragging. You can change the size and the
shape of any of the icons by clicking and dragging on its corners. You can remove any
line or icon by clicking on it to select it and using the cut command from the edit menu.
You should now have exactly the same system as shown in Figure 4. Pull down the File
menu and use Save as to save the model in a file. Make sure to delete this file at the end
of your experiment.
SIMULINK enables you to construct and simulate many complex systems, such as control
systems modeled by block diagram with transfer functions including the effect of
nonlinearities. In addition, SIMULINK provides a number of built-in state variable
models and subsystems that can be utilized easily.
Procedure
1. Draw the SIMULINK block diagram and construct the SIMULINK model of Fig 4.
Run the simulation and record the response. Find out the time domain performance
specifications, namely, peak time, rise time, settling time and percent overshoot.
2. Change the value of the amplifier gain, KA to 5, note the peak time, rise time,
settling time and percent overshoot, and discuss the improvement or otherwise of the
output response. Record the response.
3. Change the value of the amplifier gain, KA to 15 and check whether the system is
stable. Record the response.
4. Draw the SIMULINK block diagram and construct the SIMULINK model of Fig 5.
Assume the values of the parameters of Amplifier, Exciter, Generator and Sensor as
in Fig. 4. Assume KF and F to be 1 and 0.04, respectively. Record the step response
and check the stability of the system.

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5. Draw the SIMULINK block diagram and construct the SIMULINK model of Fig 6.
Assume the values of the parameters of Amplifier, Exciter, Generator and Sensor as
in Fig. 4. Assume KP, KI and KD to be 1.0, 0.25 and 0.28 respectively. Record the
step response and check the stability of the system.

EXERCISE
1. Print the SIMULINK block diagrams of all the test cases.
2. Print the system responses in each case.
3. Give values of peak time, rise time, settling time and percent overshoot for cases 1, 2
and 3.
4. Compare the performances of cases 4 and 5.
5. Discuss the improvement of the excitation response, if any, when the excitation
system stabilizer is used.

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