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4.Classificationofreagents
(a)Electrophilicreagents(Electrophilies):
Asthenameimplieselectrophilic(electroelectron,
philelove)reagentsareelectrongseekingorlovingandthusattackthesubstancesatthepointof
maximumelectrondensity.Thusanelectrophilicreagentoranelectrophileisaspecieshavingelectron

deficientatomorcentre.Theelectrophilicreagentmaybepositivelychargedspecies,orneutralmolecule
withelectrondeficientcentrre.Someoftheimportantelectrophilesaregivenbelow.

Itisinterestingtonotethatsinceelectrophilesarecapabaleofacceptingelectronspair,theyareLewis
acids.
Thereactionsinvolvingtheattackofelectrophiliesareknownaselectrophilicreactions,vizelectrophilic
additionandsubstitutionreactions.
(b)Nucleophilicreagents(Nucleophiles):
Thereagentspossessingatleastonelonepairofelectronsare
knownasnucleophilicreagentsornucleophiles(nucleonucleus,philelove).Sincetheypossesshigher
electrondensity,theyattackthesubstrateatthepointofminimumelectrondensity.Thenucleophilic
reagentmaybenegativelychargedspeciesorneutralmoleculewithfreeelectronpair(s).Someofthe
importantnucleophilesaregivenbelow.

Thestarindicatestheatomthatdenoateselectronstothesubstrate
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5.TypesofOrganicReactions
(a)substitution(displacment)reactions:
Thedisplacmentofanatomorgroupfromamoleculebya
differentatomorgroupisknownassubstitutionreaction,e.g.

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Substitutionreactionsarefurtherclassifiedintotwotypesdependinguponthemechanism:
(i)freeradicalsubstitutionreactions:
thoseinwhichfreeradicalsareformedasintermediatesand
(ii)ionicsubstitutionreactions:
thoseinwhichionsareformedasintermediates.
(b)Additionreactions: Reactionsinwhichatomsorgroupofatomsareaddedtoamolecule(i.e.thereis
simplyanetgainofthereagentatomsintheproductmolecule)areknownasadditionreactions.Thistype
ofreactionoccursonlywhenthereisacentreofunsaturationinthemoleculewhichisgenerallydueto
thepresenceofamultiplebondbetweenatoms,e.g.

Likesubstitutionreactions,additionreactionsmaybeinitiatedbyelectrophilies,nucleophilesorfree
radicals.Henceadditionreactionsmayalsobeofthreetypesdependinguponthemechansim
electrophilicadditionreactions,nucleophilicadditionreactionsandfreeradicaladditionreactions.
(c)Eliminationreactions:

Asmentionedearlier,eliminationreactionsarereverseofadditionreactions

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andinvolvetheloseofatom(s)orgroup(s)fromamoleculetoformamultiplelinkage.Mostcommonly,
lossofatomsorgroupoccursfromadjacentcarbonatomstoyieldanolefin,e.g.

(d)Rearrangements:
Rearrangmentreactionsinvolveeitherthemigrationofafunctionalgroupto
anotherpositioninthemoleculecontainingadoublebondorthereshufflingofthesequenceofatoms
formingthebasiccarbonskeletonofthemoleculetoformaproductwithnewstructure.Forexample,

6.FreeRadicalMechanism
Thereactionbetweenmethaneandchlorieninthepresenceoflightisatypicalexampleofthesubstitution
reactioninvolvingfreeradical.Themechanismofthisreactioninvolvesthefollwoignthreesteps.

1. Initiation(Formationoffreeradicals)

2. Propagationoffreeradicals

3. Terminatinstep(Terminationoffreeradicals)
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7.ElectrophilicSubstitutionReactions
ThesearegenerallywrittenasSE(SforsubstitutionandEforelectrophilic)andaremorecommonin
aromaticcompounds.Nitration,halogenationandsulphonationofbenzenearefewexamplesofthistype
ofreactions.Themechanisminvolvesthefollowingthreesteps.

1. Formationoftherealelectrophile

,e.g.nitroniumioninnitration.

2. Attackofelectrophileonbenzene

3. Eliminationoftheprotontogivesubstitutionproduct

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8.Nucleophilicsubstitutionreactions
Nucleophilicsubstitutionreactionsarethosesubstitutionreactionswhichinvolvetheattackofa
nucleophile.TheseareusuallywrittenasSN(SstandsforsubstitutionandNfornucleophilic)andare
morecommoninaliphaticcompounds.HydrolysisofalkylhalidesbyaqueousKOHisanexampleof
nucleophilicsubstitution.

Thenucleophilicsubstitutionreactionsmayfollowtwomechanism,viaunimolecualrandbimolecular.
(a)Unimolecularmechanism:
Nucleophilicsubstitutionreactionsproceedingviaunimolecular
mechanismareusuallyabbreviatedasS
N 1reactions(Sstandsforsubstitution,Nfornucleophilicand1for
unimolecular)
Therateofsuchreactionsdependsonlyontheconcentrationofthealkylhalide(substrate)and
independentofbase(nucleophile).

Suchreactions(S N1reactions)arebelievedtobecompletedintwostagse.Inthefirststagewhcihisalso
theratedeterminingstep(slowstep),thealkylhalideionisestogivecarboniumion.Inthesecondfast
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theratedeterminingstep(slowstep),thealkylhalideionisestogivecarboniumion.Inthesecondfast
step,thecarboniumioncombineswiththenucleophilicreagenttoformthefinalsubstitutedproduct.

(b)Bimolecularmechanism:
Nucleophilicsubstitutionreactionsproceedingviabimolecularmechanism
areusuallyabbreviatedasS N2reactions(2standsforbimolecular).Therateofsuchreactionsdependson
theconcentrationofthealkylhalide(substrate)aswellasthebase(nucleophile).

Suchreactionsarebelievedtobecompletedinonestep
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