CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS MIKYAS ABAYNEH JUNE 19870020049 48. Contents Preface \ PART ONE: NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF ‘MATE! Nature of Materials Interatomic Attractions Interatomic Distances Atomic Arrangements +1 Crystal Structures +2 Amorphous (Noncrystalline) Structures 1-3. Melecular Structures Chapter 2 Properties of Materials 21 Mechanical Properties Testing of Materii The Tension Test +1 Nominal Stress-Strain Properties in Simple Tension +2 Properties for the Elastic Range +3 Properties for the Plastic Range for Nechanical Properties 2.2 2.2.2 262.1 2.2.1 2.261. 2.2.2 ‘The Compression test 2.2.21 Nominal Stress-Strain Properties in Compression 2.2.3 The Shear Test 2.2.3.1 Direct or Transverse Shear 2.2.2.2 Torsional Shear 2.2.4 The Bending Test 2.2.4.1 Properties for the Elastic and Plastic Ranges 2.3 Relationship Between Material Constants Chapter’ 3 Behaviour of Materials Under Load (further Considerations) 3.1 Failure of Materials Under Load 2 Stress Produced in a Specimen Under Tensions or Compression Test StressrStrainProperties For Combined Str al State of Stress in Two Dimensions +1.1 Stresses on an Inclined Plane 12 State of, Sttain in Two Dimensions PART TWO: CEMENTING MATERIALS AND CONCRETE Chapter 4 Line : 4 Introduction 42 Lime 4.2.1 Production of Lime 4.2.11 Quick Lime 4.2.1.2 Hydrated LimeWet Slaking Dry Slaking Preserving Quiklime Setting and Hardening of Lime Hydraulic Lime The Use of Lime Standards on Line Chemical Requirements Physical Requirenents Testing of Limes Chapter 5 Gypsum Plasters Gypsum Manufacture of Plasters Piaster of Paris Hard-Finish Plaster Other Derivatives of Gypsum 6 Cement Manufacture of Portland Cement Proportioning of Raw Materials Mineral Composition of Portland Cement Determination of Compound Composition Hydration of Portland Cement Hydration of The Pure Compounds Mechanism of Hydration and Setting Heat Evolution in a Setting Cement Factors Affecting the Rate of Heat of Hydration Structure of Hydrated Cement Theories on Structure Development Structure of Cement Paste Constituents Internal Surface area of Hardened Paste Models of Hadened Paste Structure Volume of Product of Hydration Factors Affecting Paste Structure ‘Types of Portland Cenet Tests on The Properties of Portland Cement Chemical Tests Physical Tests Determination of Specific Gravity Determination of Fineness Determination of Normal Consistence Yetermination of Setting Time Determination’ of Soundne: Determination of Bending and Compressive Strength of Plastic Mortar 7 Definition and Use Mortar Mixes Properties of MortarWorkability Strength Water Tightness Materials for Mortar Batching and Mixing 8 Composition of Concrete Functions of the Component Materials Concrete Making Concrete Making Materials Water Water Cement Ratio Aggregate Classification of Aggregates Grading of Aggregate Specific Gravity Bulk Density and Voids Porosity, Absorption and Surface Moisture Bulking of Sand Handling and Stockpiling Aggregates Fresh Concrete Properties of Fresh Concrete Workabi lity Consistence Factors that Affect Workability and Consistence Batching and Mixing Fresh Concrete Handling, Placing and Compacting Concrete Volume of the Fresh Concrete Looe volumes of Materials Required for 1cu.m. of Fresh Concrete for Volume Batching.° Tests on Fresh Concrete From the Fresh to the Hardened Concrete Bleeding Pore Content of the Hardened Paste in Concrete Curing Concrete Shrinkage of Concrete Hardened Concrete Properties of Hardened Concrete Strength of Concrete Theories on Strength and Strength Development of Cement Paste Compressive Strength Effects of Water/Cement Ratio and Degree of Compaction Effect of Cement Effect of Aggregates Effect of Age and Curing Condition Other Factors Tensile Strength Shear Strength Elasticity and Creep Durability Mix DesignTrial Mettiod of Proportioning Arbitrary Proportions Recommended Practices for Selecting Proportions Effects of Quality Control PART THREE: BUILDING STONE, BRICKS, TIMBER AND METALS Chemical Classification Teste on Building Stones Raw Materials Functions of the Constituent Materials Manufacture of Bricks Types of Bricks Solid Clay Bricks Testing and Classification of Bricks Field Test Laboratory Test 1 The Tree and its Structure ication teristics of Timber Defects in Timber Drying of Timber Decay and Preservation of Timber Strength Properties of Timber Characteristics of Common Ethiopian Timber Conversion of Tinber 12 Classification of Metals Iron Ores and Extraction of Iron Alloys of Iron Steel Properties of Plain Carbon Stee! +1 Influence of Carbon Content .2 Influence of Heat Treatment and Mechanical Work Alloy Steels Corrosion+The non-availability of a text book suitable for courses on construction materials (C.E 208 and CED 124) offered at the Faculty of Technology of Addis Ababa University prompted the author to prepare this teaching material. It is the outcome of the author's several years of experience in teaching related courses to civil engineering students. The teaching material is divided into three parts. The firet part consisting of three chapters deals with general pro- perties of materials. The five chapters of part two treat cementing materials, mortar and concrete. Part three is devoted to building stones, bricks, timber and metals (namely iron and steel). Informations on the different subjects discussed were gathered from numerous standard books and research papers and no originality is claimed. Sample problems are solved whenever appropriate and lists of references are given with the aim of helping those students who would like to have further readings on particular Subjects. As the reader will soon realise, special attention has been given in the text to concrete and concrete making materials, namely Portland cement and aggregates. The reason is that unlike the naturally occuring or industrially produced materials, concret is mostly manufactured at the building site under the supervisionof the engineer. Hence its properties and performance will depend on the standard and experience of those who produce it and the one who controls the production. It 1s the author's belief that the engineer ought to have a thorough knowledge of this material whick je otherwise becoming the most important component of practically every modern building. Every effort has been made to present each chapter in a most simple, systematic and consise manner. It is hoped that this teaching material will prove to be of help also to architecture and building technology students taking Arch 106/207 and Bld 205/206 respectively. Mikyas Abayneh /Dr. June, 1987Part ONE NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALSCLASSIFICATIONS AND NATURE OF MATERIALS Se 1.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATERIALS There are a number of materials available for construc- tion purpos: These can be broadly classified into metalic and non~metalic with further subdivisions as follows: 4) Non-Metalic ~ Cementing materials ~ Concrete ~ Timber ~ Stone - Plastics ~ Ceramics bd) Metalic - Ferrous - Wrought iron - Cast iron - Steel - Non Ferrous - Aluminium Copper Lead - Zine Engineers also devide materials based on their physical nature: *) Solids (Crystaline or amorphous) b) Liquids ¢) GasA third method of classification of materials relies on the mode of manufacture. a) Naturally occuring materials b) Industrially produced materials c) Materials produced at construction site 1.2 NATURE OF MATERIALS The behaviour of construction materials such as solids’ liquids and gases is mainly due to the way in which their atoms are bond together. At one time the atom was believed to be the ultimate unit in the subdivision of matter. However, subsequently it became known that the atom is composed of still smaller units. In fact, atoms can be subdivided and the study of their internal structure reveals they contain # nucleus surrounde* with electrons Fig, 1.1 The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons. . Quantum shells (different energy lavels of electrons) _-—— lowest energy level* Nucleus (protons + neutrons) \______Electrons Fig. 1.1 Schematic representation of an atom. "wax nO of electrons in a given shell N= 2n’ where n is the quantun number of the shell.The electrons are charged particles (negative charge) and have a mass of 9.1x10~*%gm. Since they are components of all atoms, their electrical charge is frequently regarded as unity. This charge is equal to 1.6c 10719 amp. sec. (Coulomb) per electron. The proton carries a charge that is equal but opposite to that of an electron and has a mass of (9.1x107%%) 1840 gm. The neutron ig electrically neutral and has the same mass as the proton.. This means that the electron has a weight of 1/1840 (or about 0.0005) times that of a proton or electron which ‘leads to the conclusion that the weight of an atom which is usually referred-to as atomic wetght, is nearly proportional to the total weight of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. Atomic weight is expressed in grams per gram-atom. One gram-atom always contains 6.02x107° atoms ‘(Avogadro's member.) Hence, Weight of atom = Stomle weight 6.02 x 10 expressed in a s yram-atom atoms/gram-atom Except for density. and specific heat, atomic weight has practically no influence on the engineering properties of materials. In fact, it is the number of electrons sur- rounding the nucleus, especially the outermost ones, which is more significant as regards the engineering properties of a material including its physical, mechanical and chemical characteristics. The number of electrons (atomic number) also determines the size of the atom and establishes the nature of the interatomic bonding. As seen in Fig. 1.1 the electrons are grouped into shells depedning on their energy level.1.2.1 INTERATOMIC ATTRACTION Although materials are made up of atoms, they are not always bound together in the same manner. The attraction between atoms are caused by their electronic structuri In order to produce stable outer shells, atoms may release, receive or share electrons resulting in what is know ionte bond and covalent bond. Ionic bond which is one of the primary bonds, results from the mutual attraction of positive (+) and negative (-) charges; eq. in non-metallic crystals such as NaCl where the Na releases its unstable electron.in its outer shell and the Cl receives one as shown in Fig. 1.2. . Atom A | Atom B ©) — = + Atom A Atom B Orz:27®. Fig.1.2 Schematic representation of Ionic bound (Ionization).Covalent bond, which is an other primary bond, occurs when an atom shares a certain number of electrons with an adjacent atom inorder to form stability on its outer shell (Fig. 1.3). Fig.1.3 Schematic representation of covalent bond in seme diatomic molecules. A third type of primary bond, or interatomic ‘force, is the metallic bond which results from the attraction between positive ions ‘and dettached (free) negative electrons’ which move about within a metal structure. This bond cannot be readily discribed by a model as the previous two, however, a shematic representation is given in Fig. 1.4. A combination of the primary bonds can occur in some elements. In such cases, the atoms are bonded in more than one manner.@-@®-@ - ® @Q - @ - @--+-O "® (ler ®@-®-@ Fig.1.4 Schematic representation of metallic bond. In addition to the above three relatively strong primary bonds there are other weaker interatomic attractions. These, which are normally refered to as secondary bounds, are grouped as Yan der Waale forces. They are weak surface attraction forces. 1.2.2 INTERATOMIC DISTANCES ‘The space between atoms is caused by interatomic repulsive forces, which exist in addition to the inter- atomic attractive forces discribed above. The equilibrium distance between the repulsive and the attractive forces, creates the equilibrium distance between the atoms (Fig. 1.5). In general the equilibrium distance between the centers of two neighboring atome may be considered to be the sum of their radii. This distance which is the bond length is equal to 2r in a pure metal. In an ionic solid where the radii are different, it is equal to the sum of r, and rp (Fig. 1.6),Attraction Repulsion g Attraction’ ° a, Interatomic spacing Fig.1.5 Interatomic distance The distance 0-a' at which the attractive forces equal the repulsive forces is the equilibrium spacing. : The lowest potential energy occurs when 0-a' is the interatomic distance. e® beer, Bond lengths between two adjacent atoms,Se petestier scammer A number of factors such as temperature, number of adjacent atoms and ionic valence can affect the bond length. ‘The atoms in any material are in continous motion, but in crystals that motion is limited to os¢illations about points called equilibrium positions, The higher the temperature. the wider and more violent are the oscillations which accounts for the termal expansion of materials. Energy sources, other than thermal, can also produce changes in the bond length. Mechanical forces can pull the atoms apart and produce deformation or even fracture of the material. The further away an atom gets from its equilibrium position, the stronger is the force tending to bring it back. Conversely, a solid or liquid resists compression because the compressive force must overcome greater and greater repulsive force. 1.2.3 ATOMIC ARRANGEMENTS Atoms can take different arrangeménts depending the type of material. The arrangements, which strongly affect the properties of materials, may give (1) crystal structure, i.e., @ repetitious pattern of atoms, (2) amorphous structure, i.e., structure without specific form, (3) molecular structure, i.e. grouping of atoms. 1.2.3.1 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES The majority of engineering materials have atom arrangements which have repeating patterns in three dimensions due to atomic coordination within the materials, such struc- tures are called crystals.In metal crystals there are commonly found two simple atomic arrangements (space lattice) known as (1) cubic crystals, and (2) hexagonal crystals. 1.2.3.2 AMORPHOUS (NONCRYSTALLINE) STRUCTURES Many solids are noncrystalline, i.e, their structures are not composed of repetitive, three-dimentional patterns of atoms. These type of solids are sometimes referred to collectively as glasses. The group of materials with ‘amorphous (without form) structures also includes gases and liquids. 1.2.3.2 MOLECULAR STRUCTURES As explained by Van Vlack (1): "smoleoule may be defined a2 a Limited member of atoms which are etrongly bonded together but whose bonds with other, similar groupe of atoms ave relatively weak. These groups of atoms, vhioh possess no net oharge, aot ae a untt beomse the intremolecular attractions are strong, primary bonds, whereas the intermolecular bonds result from weaker, Van der Waals forces — and consequently each molecule ie free to act more or lese tndepend- etly. These observations are borne out by the following facte: (1) Each of these molecular compounds has a Low melting and a tow botling temperature compared with other materials. (2) The molecular solide are soft beoause the molecules oan slide past each other with enall etrese applications. (3) The molecules ranain intact in the liquid and gaseous forme".References LH. Van Viack, "Elements of materials science", Addisan-Wesley © bl. Co. Inc.2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS Properties which relate to materials generally and ich are of interest to the civil engineer are: a) Physical Properties Density and specific gravity. Mechanical properties Thermal properties Acoustical properties b) Chemical Properties . Corrosion (resistance of materials to various types of corrosive environments). ° In the following articles only the mechanical properties materials are dealt with because it is believed they have t practical significance and also because @ broad under- ling of these properties and the behavior of materials load is esséntial in all branches of Civil Engineering.= 12 - 2,1 | MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (Static Stress-Strain Properties) When forces are applied to a solid body in equilibrium, two resulte are, in general, produced: (1) internal resisting forces are developed in the body which balance the external applied forces, and (2) the body is deformed to a varying Sgree** The “internal forces and deformations are called etreeeee and etraine respectively. The stress per unit area is refered to as unit etrese and the strain per unit length as unit-etratn. Depending upon the arrangement and direction of the external forces, the stress produced in a body may be a) Tensile Stress b) Compressive Stress c) Shearing Stress d) Bending Stress e) Torsional Stress £) Various combinations of the above Strer When a body which has been deformed under the action of external forces is released from such action, a greater or less recovery of form takes place. To the extent to which the body recovers its original form, it is said to be elastic. and to the extent to which the body fails to recover its original form, it is said to be plastic. By definition a perfectly elastic body, after the application and removal of load,’ returns to. its original size and shape. Most engineer- ing materials are in part elastic and in part plastic, the relation between these properties varying widely in different materials. For relatively small unit stresses and deforma- tions, most materials are nearly or quite perfectly elastic; that is to say they fully recover their form when the load is removed, but as the deformation increases, a point is reached beyond which the original form is not fully recovered.Materials used for building structures, must be capable of safely supporting their own weight and any applied loads without distortion which would reduce the efficiency of the structures or be unsightly. Such materials are said to be strong. When a material is said to be strong it is its strength “in tension or compression which is usually refered to, but it is often necessary to know its strength properties in shear and torsion as well. Strength properties vary with the rate and frequency of loading and, in non-homogeneous materials, with the direc- tion of load. Strength properties are further influenced by the moisture content of materials such as timber and the temperature of materials - such as plastics. 2.2 ESTING OF MATERIALS FOR MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Since the selection of a material for a particular structural application depends on its mechanical properties, it is important to be familiar with some of the standard tests used to measure these properties and to understand the Signicicance of the information obtained from these tests. Mechanical tests are those used to examine the per- formance of materials of construction under the action of external forces.. Such tests, normally made under conditions approximating those of practice, are generally standardized. _ Standardization is necessary in order to mako test results “comparable wherever or by whomsovver they are made. Mechanical tests may be classified under several headings. With reference to the arrangement and direction of the external forces, the following classification may be made:~ rath h 1, ‘Tension test: a specimen under tension test is ‘ subjected to an axial tensile force. Tensile stress is produced on cross-sectional areas per~ pendicular to the line of action of the force and the specimen increases in length. Compression test: a specimen under compression test is subiected to an axial compressive force. Compres- sion stress is produced on cross-sectional areas perpendicular to the line of action of the force and the specimen decreases in length. 3. Shear test: in this test, the shearing stress in i i a specimen is determined on cross-sectional areas parallel to the line of action of the external forces which are themselves parallel. 4. Bending test: a specimen under bending is subjected to forces that give rise to bending moments. The resulting stresses are compressive on one side of a neutral plane and tensile on the other side, whereas shéaring stresses exist, in general, through- out the beam. 5. Torsion test: this is an indirect test used to determine the shearing strength of a material. Test specimens for torsion test are generally cylindrical shape, solid or hollow. | | With reference to the rate and duration of the load application, the following. classification may be made: 1. Static tests: these are made with gradually increasing * load, such as the ordinary tests in tension, compression etc. ... 2, Dynamic tests: these are’made with suddenly applied “loads, as by falling weight or pendulum. such as drop-impact test.3. Wear tests: these are made to determine r to abrasion and impact, as in the case of paving materiais. 4, Long-time tests: these are made with loads. applied to the object under test for a long period of time. They are used for materials such as concrete. 5. Fatigue tests: these are made with fluctuating stresses repeated a large number of times. With reference to the effect of the test on the specimen, following classification may be made: 1, Destructive tests: under these test methods the specimens are either crushed or ruptured and made useless at the end of the tests. Tests to determine the ultimate strengths of steel specimens in tension, concrete specimens in compression are examples in this category of tests. Non-destructive tests: these are usually used to test the strength of members of existing structures without affecting their performance, Strength test of concrete structural members by the rebound hammer test is an example in this group. 2.1 THE TENSION TEST The tersion and compression tests are generally used provide basic design informations on the strength of terials and as an acceptance test for the specification of erials. The tension test will be discussed first.2.2.1.1 NOMINAL STRESS-STRAIN PROPERTIES IN SIMPLE TENSION In the standard conventional tension test, a specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing axial tensile force P by means of a testing machine. At various increaments of force, the changes in length AL.of the specimen for an initial gage length Lo are measured by a strain gage. It is generally assumed that, for a gage length Lo of the specimen, the stress is uniformly distributed for all points on each cross section and for all cross sections perpendicular to the line of action of the force. P 4 the tensile stress applied load area of the section perpendicular to the line of ‘action of the applied force. > 1 It is also assumed that this uniform stress will produce | a uniform elogation At. The value of the elongation per unit length, strain, is expressed as: AL . (2.2) ee tog where strain total elongation original length of specimen \ AL u " | i With the values of the stress ¢ and strain ¢ known for | various tensile load values. a diagram showing the relation | between the stress and strain, called the stress-strain | diagram, can be plotted: (Fig. 2.1 to 2.3). hIt should be noted that as the specimen streches, the cross-sectional area reduces and the gage length increases in value. However, the stress and strain values as defined by the above equations do not include these changes in area and gage length but are based on the original values of area A and gage length Lo- For this reason the stress ¢t and atrain ¢ are called the nominal stress and etrain. Some common types of nominal stress-strain diagrams for engineering materials are shown in Fig. 2.1. Pa 2 Le a Strain ©, mm/mm (b) Brittie material Stress o, Stress 0, Pa (c) Nonmetalic elastic material (soft rubber) Fig.2.1 Types of nominal stress-strain relation. The amount of deformation which the material will undergo before tupture varies widely with different materials.- 18 - A stress-strain diagram for a ductize material such as a steel alloy will show a large deformation after yield point before the specimen ruptures, whereas that for bittle materials will show small deformation before rupture. This means that a ductile material will exhibit a large deformation before complete failure whereas a brittle material will fail without showing much deformation. An inspecticn of the diagrams indicates that there is considerable variation in stress-strain relations for various However, for practical engineering the initial stress- ‘Then the initial engineering materials. purposes and many engineering materials, strain relations may be assumed to be line: straight-line portions of these stress-strain relations may be represented approximately by the equatior = Ee (2.3) or Bete (2.4) € E = (P/Ao) . (2.42) (2/L9) PLS -. Boba (2,4) E, the slope of the straight line, is called the modulus of elasticity. The moduli in tension and compression are usually equal. The modulus for either direct stress is known as Young's modulus. The stress-strain relation given in Eq. (2.4) is refered to as Hooke's law after the British Scientist who observed the relationship for the first time in 1678. Hooke's law represents a very important mate- rial behaviour since it is this property which is made use of in the analysis of stresses and strains in most engineering designs.The larger scale diagram of Fig. 2.2 shows that the stress-strain relation includes two ranges: an initial Stress o, Pa o Strain ©, mm/mm he) Strain c, mm/mm eo Elastic and Plastic Fig.2.3 Determination of strains for ductile elastic strength material. for materials. elastic range for which Hooke's law generally applies, and a sebsequent plastic range where the strains become: large and Hooke's law no longer applies. 2.2.1.2 PROPERTIES FOR THE ELASTIC RANGE. ‘The parameters which are used to describe the mechanical properties of a material for the elastic range are the pro- portional limit, the elastic limit, the elastic strength, the nudulus of elasticity, stiffness, ete -- .= 20 - @. Proportional Limit The proportional limit (some times called proportional elastic limit) is the greatest stress which a material is capable of withstanding without a deviation from the law of proportionality of stress to strain (point a of Fig. 2.2). b. Elastic Limit The elastic limit is the greatest stress which a material is capable of withstanding without a permanent deformation re- maining upon release of stress (point b of Fig. 2.2). c. Elastic Strength The elastic strength is measured by the stress which represents the transition from the elastic range (where the strains are small and recoverable) to the plastic range (where the strains become large and are partly nonrecoverable). All the elastic values indicated by points a to d of Fig. 2.2 represent stress values on the boundary hetween the elastic and plastic ranges. A material has a high elastic strength if it resists loads without yielding and without being perma- nently deformed. d. Yield Point The yield point is the stress at which there occurs a marked increase. in strain without an increase in stress. Only ductile materials can be said to have yield point with further distinction betweén upper and power yield points (c and d of Fig. 2.2) for some of them. When it occurs it indicates the transition from the elastic to the plastic range and may be used to define the elastic strength.. Xield Strength Yield strength is the stress at which yielding occurs. However, the stress-strain relations of most materials do not show specific yield points; hence other means are used to define the yield strength and consequently the elastic strength. The most commonly used method is to define the yield strength as the stress where the permanent set or plastic deformation has reached an arbitrary value. To determine this stress, an offset strain OA = ¢, is measured from the original o in Fig. 2.3 and a line AB is drawn through the point A, parallel to the straight’ line portion of the stress- strain curve. The stress, at the intersection point e, is called the yield stress and is a measure of the yield strength based on the offset method. A.S.T.M. commonly used values are ¢, = 0.002 mm/mm and > = 0.0035 mm/mm. ft, Modulus of Elasticity As explained above, the modulus of elasticity, or Young" Modulus, is the slope of the initial linear portion of the stress-strain curve. The greater the modulus of elasticity, ‘the smaller the elastic strain resulting from the application of a given stress. For materials with nonlinear stress-strain curves, the slope of the stress-strain curve varies and the modulus of elasticity cannot be readily determined. Three different “Methods are employed to define the modulus of elasticity for materials with curved stress-strain diagrams, There, are: i) Initial-Tangent Modulus: the slope of the stress- strain curve at the origin which has a value of Ez, = tan 0, from Fig. 2.4.Secant Modulus: the slope of the line joining the origin and a selected point A on the stress- strain curve with a value of E, = tan 0) from a a o » 8 & 5 a Strain ¢, mm/mm Fig.2.4 Determination of the modulus of Elasticity for materials with nonlinear stress-strain curves. 4ii) Tangent Modulus: the slope of the tangent to the stress-strain curve at a selected point B with a value of E, = tan 0, from Fig. 2.4. Stiffness The stiffness of a material is measured by its modulus of elasticity as defined by Eq. 2.4. A material has a higher stiffness value when its deformation in the elastic range is relatively small, in other words, the higher the modulus, the stiffer the material. Comparing steel alloys with E = 210GPa and aluminium alloys with E = 70GPa, the steel alloys areabout three times as stiff as the aluminium alloys since ¥o/Eq = 3. That is steel alloys will deform about one-third as ouch as aluminium alloys for the same stress (aluminium “alloys which are as strong in tension as mild steel are far less rigid). h. Poisson's Ratio Experiments show that if a bar specimen is lengthened by @ tensile force, there is a reduction in the transverse dimensions. The ratio of the unit deformations: or strains” in these directions to that of the longitudinal strain is constant for stresses within the propprtional limit; i.e. by definition Poisson's ratio is oh vere uw o= Posson's ratio € = longitudinal strain = transverse -"- Fig.2.8 Determination of Poisson's ratio y=£-Poisson's ratio is a measure of the stiffness of the material in the direction at right angles to the applied uniaxial tensile stress. Most metals have a value of Poisson's ratio between 0.25 and 0.35, The Poisson's ratio for concrete varies between 1/6 and 1/5 for values of stresses up to about one-half the fracture stress. i. Resilience The ability of a material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and to return it when unloaded is called resilience. Resilience is measured by the mudulus of resilience, which is the internal work or strain energy per unit volume required to stress the material from zero stress to the proportional limit (Fig. 2.6.) From the above definition the modulus of resilience is (2.6) Stress 5, oq ‘The unit for the modulus of resilience is N-m per Cu.m. (kgf-Cm per cu.om.) len} Strain, mm/mm Fig.2.6 Determination of Modulus of Resilience For a specimen of cross-sectional area A and length L, the total elastic strain energy in axial loading can be obtained as the product of the modulus of resilience and its volume.ee Be (2.7) 2A2n BE With regasd to scruin energy; the same expression can obtained with the following analysis: As an axial load, static stress test, is gradualiy applied to a specimen of snt cross-section, the load P increases from zero to its ied Value within the proportional limit, as the specimen \dergoes a totel deformation Af. The work done, stored as in energy in the body, is the product of the average e, }p, and tho deformation, AL= RE: Hence we obtain. us dp x at PL. PL Ka” AE is the same a= Hq. (2.7). If the spesizeu varies in cross-section, this result be applied to cermonts of length dx and integrated over Jength of the epeciuen to obtain: 1.3 PROPERTIES FOR TH The characteristic feature of the plastic range is that |permanent deformation remains in thé stressed body after mplete renovel of tke load, The strain at this stage is wpof two parts: a recoverable elastic strain ¢, and a recoverable piastiz strain ¢,, as shown in Fig. 2.7.reloading unloading Stress 0, Pa Strain e, ™m/mm Fig. 2.7 Blastic & Plastic Strains re used to describe the mechanical The parameters which @ are the ultimate proporties of a material for the plastic range strength, ductility and toughness- Plastic Strength the plastic strength of @ material ie the maximum stress a material can possibly resist Just pefore failure. Depend- ing on the stress strain relationship of # particular materialthe plastic strength will correspond to the altimate strength (ultimate stress) or to the fracture (rupture)strength Ultimate or Fracture stress Fracture Stress o, Ultimate strength 4, Stress 0,P, Strain €, mm/mm Strain ¢, mm/mm (a) Ductile material (b) Brittle material Fig. 2.8 Determination of plastic strength. (Fig.2.82 & b). Both the ultimate stress and the fracture stress are calculated on the basis of the original cross- Sectional area of the specimen. b. Ductility Ductility of a material represents its ‘ability to deform in the plastic range. Ductile materials show relatively high plastic deformation, i.e. they are capable of being drawn-out, before rupture occurs (Fig. 2.8). ‘Wuctility is usually measured by the percentage elongation 4. (2.10), which is the percentage strain corresponding to rupture. (2.10) (2.108)‘the plastic strength will correspond to the altimate strength (ultimate stress) or to the fracture (rupture)strength Fracture stress Ultimate strength 4, Stress 0,P, Ultimate or Fracture Stress oy Strain ¢, mm/mm Strain ©, mm/mm (a) Ductile material (b) Brittle material ig. 2.8 Determination of plastic strength. (Fig.2.8a & b). Both the ultimate stress and the fracture ress are calculated on the basis of the original cross- etional area of the specimen. Ductility Ductility of a material represents its ‘ability to in the plastic range. Ductile materials show sletively high plastic deformation, i.e. they are capable being drawn-out, before rupture occurs (Pig. 2.8a). tility is usually measured by the percentage elongation » (2.10), which is the percentage strain corresponding Tupture. Btn ¥e 100 (2.10) 0 €, x 100 (2.108)= 28 - where De = percentage elongation, ductility Ly = original length of specimen Ly = length of specimen at rupture = unit strain at rupture Ductility is also measured by the percentage reduction in area, Eq. 2.11. As show in Fig. 2.9 a ductile material shows a considerable reduction in crossectional area, which = Ay ry Ao 100 (2.11) where D, = percentage reduction in crossectional area A, = original crossectional. area '¢ = crossectional area at rupture After fracture _Necking down section Before loading Fig.2.9 Plastic deformation of a tensile (ductile) specimen. is known as necking, before rupture (fracture) occurs.} Peve 0(2.40) becomes maximum fracture load maximum or fracture deflection cross-sectional area of specimen length of specimen SAMPLE 2.5 Determination of static bending properties. A wood specimen 50 by 50 mm in cross-section, with a epan Length of @m, was tested with a center load to fracture. The Proportional limit load was 4,359N and the maximum fracture load was 4,982N. For a load of 2,669N on the linear part of the load deflection diagram the center deflection was 1.524mm. Determine: (a) the proportional limit, (b) the ulus of elasticity in bending, (c) the average elastic mesilience per unit volume, and (d) the modulus of rupture. SOLUTION ) ‘The maximum bending stress at the proportional limit is Myc _ (Ppl /4)(4/a)_ SPgL abe Paseed (va3/12) 2a” = 3x 4359x510. 2x 50 x 502 26.677 N/mm” = 26.68 MPa56 - b) ‘The modulus of elasticity in bending is z= Ph. Pte ib” aBTy ~ Gnady 2 = 2669 x 510" _____ 9, 293.533 N/nm? 4x50 x 5091-524 . 9 299 cpa ©) For a beam of rectangular cross section the average resilience per unit volume is expressed by Eq.2.38, or 2 oye 26,6777 = ——— = 0.00425 Namm per cu.mm. > Ie " Tex9,292.533 2 4) ‘The modulus of rupture is 3.PyL = 3% 498 x 510 — = 30.490 N/mm” 2a? 2.x 50 x 50 30.49 MPa os 2.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MATERIAL CONSTANTS. The three material constants, namely the modulus of elasticity in tension (E), the modulus of elasticity is shear or otherwise known as the modulus of rigidity (E,) and the Poigon's ratio (u) are generally used to. discribe the elastic behaviour of materials. These constants are related by the following expression. E a 2.41) ®s “2a4n) : That is, the modulus of rigidity can be obtained from the tension modulus and Poison's ratio, meaning to say that for an isotropic material there are only two independent elastic constants.CHAPTER 3 BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS UNDER LOAD (FURTHER CONSIDERATION) $,1 FAILURE OF MATERIALS UNDER LOAD In the previous chapter mention has been made that Mterials under load fail* once the stress reachs the wtimate strength and/or the fracture stress. Materials tan exhibit different types of fracture depending on their uture, state of stress, rate of loading and temperature and the resulting fractures are classified with respect to feveral characteristics, such as strain‘to fracture, crystal- lographic mode of fracture, and appearance of the fracture. The terms commonly used to describe fractures are summarized i8 follows: Behaviour Terms used Crystallographic mode Shear or cleavage Strain, to fracture Ductile or, brittle Appearance of fracture Fibrous or granular The different forms of failure and fracture ere shown dn Fig. 3.1, A shear fracture (Fig. 3.1a) occurs as the tesult of extensive slip on an active slip plane in the + failure. of materials under load can also occur due to fatigue and cteep. However the discussion here is limited to failure under static short-term load.- 58 - fino. | (a) (b) (ce) (4) Shearing Brittle Ductile Completely fracture fracture fracture rupture Fig.3.1 Modes of fracture of materials specimen under test. This type of fracture is promoted by shear stresses. In metals a fracture surface caused by shear appears to be gray and fibrious. A.eleavage mode of fracture is controlled by tensile stresses acting normal to a crystallographic cleavage plane. In metals this type of fracture normally. appears bright or granular owing to reflection of light from the flat cleavage surface: Brittle fracture (Fig. 3.1b) occurs before deformation can occur by shear; i.e. outwardly there might be no evidence of deformation and eminent failure (eq. glass, cast iron --). This type of failure is characterized by separation normal to the tensile stress. Because it does not produce plastic deformation, it requires less energy than a ductile failure. Ductile fracture can take several forms. It occurs =, a slow tearing of the material with the expenditure of considerable energy. In most ductile materials failure occurs ductively before the level of fracture stress is reached.2 STRESSES PRODUCED IN A SPECIMEN UNDER TENSION OR SERESSES PRODUCED IN A SPECIMEN UNDER TENSION OR COMPRESSION TEST. Observing Fig. 3.1a the student might ask why a specimen ls in shear fracture when it is subjected to a tensile load. following discussion will give an insight into the cause. Consider a small element ABCD (Fig. 3.2a) which is a from specimen (a) of Fig. 3.1 and assume it is cut by Plane EF perpendicular to the plane of the paper and lined at an angle 6 to AB. The free body diagram of the shaped piece EBF is shown in Fig. 3.2b. ce Py. G So typ i. 2 B E B y °y ) (b) i", 3.2 Determination of stress on an inclined plane. For equilibrium, the wedge-shaped piece EBF must be essed on the face EF and this stress may be resolved into components, one normal to EF and labelled og xr tangent to EF and labelled Te: endicular to EF gives and an Resolving forces“2°80 *- 1,(EF) = 0,(EB) cos & w = oy BB cos 8 = 0, cos Oy * oy gp cos O = 0, (3.1) Resolving forces paraliel to E¥ gives T9(EF) = 0, (EB) sin 9 EB 9" °yag Sin 8 cos @ sin sin 26 (3.2) Tad Eq. (3.1) and (3.2) give the values of the normal and the = shear, stresses respectively on the plane EF for any angle pla in terms of the known tensile stress oye From these equations it can also be seen that } i) The meximum value of og and it occurs when | Sin ® = 0 or 9 = 180° | the ii) The miiimun value of og is 0 and it occurs when 6 = 90° @ i1i) . The maximum value of t, is oy /2 and it occurs when @ = 45° iv) The minisum value of t, is 0 and it occurs when 6 = 0 or 6 = 00° From thé above discussion it can be concluded that the ce) nature and magnitude of the stress in a specimen subjected to tension depends on the inclination of the surface under . consideration with respect to the line of action of the applied load. Similar conclusion can be drawn with external compressive force. From this it follows that’ materials weak in shear will fail in shear fracture. Most engineering materials are weak in shear which explains their failure in shearPLE 3.1 A 20mm diameter rod is made from a material with imate strengths in tension and shear equal to 350MPa and Pa respectively. The rod is subjected to a pull of KN, (a) Is this rod safe to carry the load ? (b) What have a shear stress of 100MPa? (c) What are the 1 stresses on these planes. TON Direct tensile stress 100 x 103 9 7 918,910 N/mm? 4(20x107%)” = 318,3MPa shear stress occurs on a plane inclined at 45 to the normal to the tensile load. Its magnitude is 318.810, 4-159 wpa ©, and tgs are less than 350MPa and 175MPa respectively rod is safe. For a shear stress of 100MPa Eq.’ (3.2) gives BT 2b2 82005, eee HE STE 8 ee 38°.54' or 180 - 39°.54' = 141°,06' 19°.27' or | 90-19°.27'.= 70°.33' 19°.27' the normal stress is 0, cose = 318.3 (cos 19.27)” t = 283MPa (tension) 70°.33' the corresponding normal stress 318.3 (cos 70°.35)” 35.3 MPa (tension)3.3 STRESS-STRAIN PROPERTIES FOR COMBINED STRESSES. The simple stfesses in tension, compression, shear and bending discribed in the previous chapter, are not always the kind of stresses encountered in structures. Conbined states of stress are produced in many parts of structures such as beams, and to design such members it is necessary to under- stand the effect of combined stresses and the behaviour of materials under these types of stresses. From the previous discussions it can be concluded that there are three basic loadings which can be summarised with the corresponding stress formulae as follows: Axial loading or ag" u P, fg : s 7 Shear loading (direct or torsional) t= = ,t=—y— Flexural loading There are four possible combinations of these loading: 1) Axial and shear (torsional) 2) Axial and flexural 3) Shear (torsional) and flexural 4) Axial, shear (torsional) and flexural (acting simultaneously) STATE OF STRESS IN TWO DIMENSIONS The conbinations of the above loadings (stresses) can be two or three dimensional, Nevertheless, many problems can be simplified by considering a two-dimensional state of stress. This condition frequently arrises in practice when one of the dimensions of the body is small relative to the others, e.g. thin plate loaded in the plane of the plate.{ i - Fig. 3.3 Combined stresses. Consider the example of a thin walled tube of internal fimeter d and wall thickness t, closed at both ends and ubjected to an end torque T = Fa and an internal pressure . (Fig. 3.3a). The values of the stresses acting on small jlement of the tube (Fig. 3.3b) can be obtained from the pnditions of equilibrium as follows: 2 ma’ o,( trad) =p x = bd ox * at oy( ath ) °y a 2In addition, tyy = ty, because of equilibrium and this can be verified by taking the moment of the stresses about any corner of the element, The normal and the shear stresses on the element represent the general case of two dimensional stresses. 3.3.1.1 STRESSES ON AN INCLINED PLANE Refering to the enlarged figure of the element ABCD, on planes such as EF inclined at 0° to the x axis, normal and oy Tyx Wa x v Ty ] Complimentary shear stresses (a) 6, . } porns stresses yx Fig. 3.4 Determination of stresses on an inclined plane. shear stresses are produced which may exceed the value of the normal and shear stress components o,, 8y and t.. In fact, if EF were rotated about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the paper, there would be particular positions at which maximum normal stress or maximum shear stress would exist. There are two methods of determining these positions of thefined plane and computing the maximum stress to which it jected; one is-analytical, the other is graphical based r's circle. First the analytical method will be ed. Normal Stresses on an Inclined Plane. To determine the stresses on the plane EF, consider enlarged free-body diagram of the element EBF as shown Hig. 3.4b. The stresses on the plane EF consist of a 1 stress component c, and a shear component tg. The lwe of cg can be determined from the equilibrium of the in the direction perpendicular to EF for the element, o,(EF)t-o,(BF)t sin 0-o,(BE)t cos 6-t(BE)t sin @-t(BF)t cos 8=0 #0 BE BE + BE BE % oO, pF Sin 0+ OF cos 8 typ Sin 6+ tHE cos =o, Sin? e+o, cos@+1 cos @ sin 6+ sing x Sine + 0, cos”s + 1(2 sine cos 8) fince 2 cor 9 = Locos @ sin . 2 cos%9 = L+C08-8 ang 2sin® cos 26 = sin 26 @ above equation can be writtenEq. (3.3) gives the value of the normal stress %_ on the plane EF for an angle © in terms of the known stress components o, , cy and t. To determine the maximum or minima value of 04, as the angle ¢ varies, we set dog/d@=0. Theres fore differentiating Eq.(3.3) with respect to @ and equating to zero: dog Oo, —ge 7 0 = - Sy (-2 sin 26) + 2 cos 20 “tan 26=- 5 t ae. 2 There are two values of 26, differing by 180° which satisfy this equation as illustrated in Fig. 3.5, and from the triangle shown in Fig. 3.5a it follows that the angle 20 defined by Eq. (3.4) is either in the second or fourth quadrant for o, > gy, and the first or third quadrant for (a) Measurement of angles 2¢ (b) Actual planes inclined at © on which og acts Fig.3.5 Measurement of the angles of inclination of the inclined planes for norm:1 stresses. 0, < oy, (20; and 285 respectively in Fig. 3.58). Then the values of sin 20 and cos 26 become:- 68 - characteristic of the principal stress planes also known as principal planes is that they are free from shear stress and this will be shown in the next section. b. Shear Stress on an Inclined Plane. To determine the value of the shear stress for any ' value of the angle @, the summation of the forces in the direction parallel to EF for the element (Fig. 3.4b) must equal zero or Te(EF)t + 0,(BF)t cos 9-y(BE)t sin +19(BE)t cos @- t9(BF)t sia BF BE BE BE Te “~ Oygp cos 6 +0, pn sind - TEE cose +t Ee sin 0 =~ 0, sin8cos®+ co, cos sin@ - 1 cose +sin6 o,- 6, = - 45 sin 26-1(cos?6 - sin?e) Since cose - sin2e = COS 2@ the above equation can be written o,- 9, tg = - 45 sin 20-1 cos 20 (3.9) To determine the maximum value of tg we set dtg/g, =0 , at : ae 7 0 = - 2LE (2 cos 20) - t(-2 sin 26) } (9, - 9,)/2 } tan 20 = = (3.10) There are two values of 2, differing by 180°, which satisfy this equation, as shown in Fig. 3.7a, and therefore i two values of §(@, and 6) differing by 90° as shown in i Pig. 3.7b. From Fig. 2.7a we have:¥ig.3.7 Measurement of the angles of inclination of the inclined planes for shear stress. (oy - 0, )/2 Sin 26 = + —-~—Y__. Gg, 5y.2 {A +0 Substituting these values in Eq, (3.9), the maximum and minimum values of TT, are obtained. These maximum and minimum shear stress values are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign and have the value ona =e Eady + Tomax * [Ca *t Note that wheh 1t, is zero Eq. (3.9)is o,- 9, - sin 20-~ 70 - From Eq. (3.4) tan 2@ has this value when the normal stress og is a maximum or a minimum; therefore the shear stress t, is zero when tO is a maximum or minimum. Hence maximum and minimum normal stresses occur on planes of zero shearing stress. Secondly, if we compare Eq. (3.4) and Eq. (3.10), t.e (047 55)/2 (3.4) and tan26 = 2 (310) tan 26 = - (04 - by)/2 One is the negative reciprocal of the other. This means that the values of 28 defined by these two equations differ by 90°. In other words, the planes of maximum shear stress are at 45° with the planes of principal stresses, i.e. with the principale planes. Thirdly, the difference between o, and 0, is 1 Ox +0, o.- 9, O,- 0, 2 os - yk + By + 07) - (Et - [ =, +1) This is equal to twice the value of t, max which is given by Eq. (3.13). Therefore, Tomax 7 $69} ~ 99) (3.15) © Graphycal Methods There are two graphical methods for determining the positions of the elements or the stresses they are subjected to ci) Simple Coordinate Method (Semi-graphical) In this method Eq. (3.3) and (3.4), i.e. Spee haet, = - y= sin 20 - 100s 20 lite plétted on a rectangular coordinate system, i.e., angle Bis plotted along the horizontal axis and the str along the vertical axis. For any given value of © the stresses tre read on the graph or vis-versa. As could be seen, this method is not a graphic solution but a graphical representation of Eq. (3.3) and (3.9). It can best be explained with an example as follows. HUMPLE 3.2 Show the variation of the normal stress and shear stress with 6 for the biaxial-plane stress situation given jn Fig. 3.8 (hint: measure @ on the x-axis at 15° interval and measure the corresponding values of the stresses on the y-axis). 16 MPa 2 MPa + 16 MPa Fig.3.8 Element subjected to biaxial stres:Fig. 3.9 Variation of og and og with 6AZ sin 20-1 cos 20 +7cos2 +2 sin 20 Tg = 7 sin @ - 2 cos 20 7@) + 20) 16 740) = 20) 7(0.866) + 240.5) 16.062 7(0-5) ~ 2(0.866) 70.5) + 2(0.866) 14.232 7 (0.866) - 2(0.5) 70) +21) L- 70) = 200) 7(-0.5) + 2(0.866) 7.232 7 (0.866) ~ 2(-0.5) 7(-0.866)+ 2(0,5) 3.938 7(0.5) = 2(-0.866) M1) + 200) Qe 7) = 2-1) 7(-0.866)+ 2(-0.5) 1,938 7(-0.5) - 2(-0.866) 7(-0.5) + 2(-0.866) 3.768 7(-0.866) - 2(-0.5) 70) + 20-1) We) = 200) 70.5). + 2(-9.866) 7(-0.866) - 20.5) 7(0.866) + 2(-0.5) 7(-0.5) = 2(0.866) aD 20) 7(0) 21) The variation of the normal stress (o,) and shear stress (t,) with @ for the given biaxial plane stress is shown in Hig. 3.9. ei) Mohr's Circle Method Let us take again the element subjected to the combined stresses shown in Fig. 3.4a. It will be assumed in the construction which follows that o,>o,. They are both tensile stresses, but either or both of them may be compressive. Steps 1, Draw a rectangular co-ordinate system in which normal stresses are represented, along the horizontal axis and shearing stresses along the vertical axis.2. Using the same scale along the two axises, locate point P, the horizontal and vertical co-ordinates of which are Fig. 3.10 Construction of Mobr's Circle. equal to the values of o, and ty, respectively. Note that according to the generally accepted sign convention for the construction of Mohr's circle. a) Tensile stress are considered to be positive and compressive stresses negative. Shearing stresses are considered to be positive if they tend to rotate the element clockwise, negative if they tend to rotate it counter clockwise.In the given example o, is tensile, hence positive and the shear stress t,, on the horizontal faces on which cy acts is negative, hence this value is plotted as negative. 3. Locate point P, in a similar manner with the abscissa equal to the value of o, measured on the positive side and the ordinate equal to that of t,, measured also on the positive side since t,, this time corresponds to the shear stress acting on the vertical plane. 4. Joine P; and P, which cuts the horizontal axis at C and arava circle with center at C and diameter equal to P, Po. The circle thus obtained is the Mohr's circle for the element subjected to the stress condition as shown in Fig. 3.4a. 5. Let us take any point P (whose co-ordinates are o, and t, representing any inclined plane subjected to o, and t, in the original element; we have Og oy (04+ 0y) + R cos (20-2855) + 0, +0, y= + R (cos 20 cos 26,, + sin 26 ~ o)/2 +R [eos 20- So Es 20 the same as Eq. (3.3). We have also pv R [ein 20 cos 20,)- cos 2@ sin 20 R sin (20 - 20 pl Oy -0,)/2 x [sin 2072? coe 20 +6 + LS sin 26-1 cos 20 ee O,- 9, = - 1 sin 20-1 cos 20 which is also the same as Eq. (3.9). 6. Using the. geometric figures it can also be shown that the points N; and Ny along the horizontal diameter of the circle represent the principal stresses and the radius R of the circle represents the maximum shear stress. The inclinations of the principal planes are measured by 29,1). and 20,9), respectively. EXAMPLE 3.3 The small block ABCD shown in Fig. 3.11 has been re- moved from a stressed elastic body. Using Mohr's circle determine: a) The values of the principal stresses and direction of the principal planes. b) The value of the maximum shear stress and direction of the planes on which it acts. c) The normal stresses on planes of maximum shear strest d) Show the planes within the block. 8 MPa 8 MPa hs Wa 3.11 Stressed block; p; [ov 15"Pa, [Syx=- SMPa Scale 10 mm = 2 MPa Fig. 3.12 Mohr's circle for the stressed block of fig. 3.11. Measuring to scale in Fig. 3.12 we have a) The values of the principal stresses and the inclinations of the principal planes: Cmax 7 21.64 MPa °min = 5.36 MPaThe value of maximum and minimum shear stresses and inclinations of planes on which they act ° Tmax 7 8-14 x, = 84.7 = -8.14 6 7 2174.7° Thin t2 The normal stresses on planes of maximum and minimum shear stresses =o. = 13.5 MPa e4.1 ~ 174.7 15 MPa, Fig. 3.13 Principal stresses and principal Planes in block ABCD. 3.3.2 STATE OF STRAIN IN TWO DIMENSIONS. If an element is subjected simultaneously to tensile stresses im the x and y directions such as in Fig. 3.14, the strain in the x direction due to the tensile stress 9, is o,/E. Simultaneously the tensile stress oy will produ lateral contraction in the x direction of the amount us,/E.Fig. 3.14 Biaxial stress. refore the resultant unit deformation in the x direction 6, ©, re-use (3.16) e resultant unit deformation in the y direction isLIME 4,1 INTRODUCTION Cements, in a general sense of the word, are materials with adhesive and cohesive properties which make them capabl of uniting or bonding together fragments or particles of sol! matter into a compact whole. This definition covers a large number of very different substances having little in common with one another except their adhesive property. For engineering purposes the meaning of the term cemen is restricted to one group of adhesive substances, namely, to those materials which when mixed with water form a paste. The paste is temporarily plastic and may be molded or deform But later it sets and hardens to a rigid mass. Cements of this kind are known as calcareous cemente whose principal constituents are compounds of lime which might include certaii allied compounds of magnesium. Clacareous Cements are classified into Non-hydraulic cements and Hydraulics cements. - Non-hydraulic cements are cements which are either not able to Set and harden in water (e.g. non-hydraulic 1ime) or which are not stable in water (e.g. gypsum plasters). = 60 =ant = - Hydraulic cements are cements which are able to set and harden in water, and give a solid mass which does not | disintegrate, i.e. remain stable in water. Portland cement is, by far, the most important and widely used hydraulic cement. It consists mainly of silicates and aluminates of Hine. Lime, Gypsum, Portland cement are used in the construc- tion of buildings and engineering works either as components for binding materials, e.g. mortar for the purpose of producing i bond between masonry ir ts, such as stones, bricks, concrete blocks, etc; or as constituents of building materials such as concrete. Lime is found in many parts of the world in its natural form as a rock of varying degree of hardness. It is mainly composed of calcium oxide (C,0) which in its pure form associates with CO) to give white C,CO,. However, lime deposites are generally found mixed with impurities such as C0p, Fep05, Fep03, MgCO,. Depending on the impurities lime | deposits aquire different colours. 4.2.1 PRODUCTION OF LIME The production of line for use in building construction involves burning of the raw material and then slaking. The amount of heat applied and the method of slaking depend on whether the product is hydraulic or non-hydraulic lime.Upper ground level where lime stone gas of combustion + — Cover of fine sized material Lime stone Temperature 1000°C - 1300°C Fine, gate — Opening (air) Tower ground leve where burnt lime collected Tig. 4.1 Lime Kiln Lime is mostly purnt in vertical kilns like the one shown in the figure. Kilns of this type are used in Gud near Ambo, 120km West of Addis Ababa. ‘The raw material is fed in at the top and the finished product dvawn off through an opening at the bottom. (To avoid over burning, which injures the setting properties, high-magnesium lim should not be subjected to temperatures above 1000°C and high-calcium limes should be purnt at temperatures lower than 1300°C.)4.2.1.1 QUICK LIME The manufacture of non-hydraulic lime (commercial or building lime) consists in heating or "burning" the lime stone in some form of vertical kilns to a temperature of 1,000°C (Fig. 4.1). The CO, (carbon dioxide) is driven off, leaving the C,0 (calcium oxide) which is known as quick lime or caustic lime, white in colour and having a specific gravity of about. 3.40 in its pure form. This quick lime is highly caustic and possesses a great affinity for water, readily combining with about 30% of its own weight. 4.2.1.2 HYDRATED LIME (Slaked Lime) Quick lime can never be used as such for construction purposes but must be mixed with water. This process is called slaking or hydration of lime. During the slaking the water is absorbed, considerable heat is energerically evolved, driving off mich of the excess water in the form of steam, there is also a considerable and sudden expension which makes the lime burst into pieces and finally become powder or pasty. The mixing of 56 parts of pure quick lime with 18 parts of water, by weight, causes an increase of nearly 100 percent in absolute volume in forming the resulting product. The resulting product is calcium hydroxide C,(0H) and is called slaked or hydrated lime. It is ready to be made into plaster or mortar by adding water and sand to form a temporary plastic mass. There are two types of slaking: Wet-Slaking and Dry- Slaking, depending on the amount of water added.4.2.1.3 WET-SLAKING Lime is slaked or hydrated at the building site by mixing quicklime, which is delivered in lump form, with an exéess of water and the resulting slaked lime should be passed through @ fine sieve to remove slow slaking particles and then left to mature for several days. If the mixing is made directly in a water tight box or a hole dug in the ground (Fig. 4.2) the lip must be continually stirred by a shovel or a stick during the slaking process to reduce all unhydrated particles which might) hydrate later in tbe building and cause popping, pitting, and disintegration, especially objectionable in wall plaster, or expension of brickwork. As will be explained later in detail, the tendency of limes and cements to expand is expressed as soundness. 4.2.1.4 DRY-SLAKING If the operation is carefully controlled, as it can be in a factory so that just sufficient water is added to hydrate tb quick lime, the lumps break down into a dry powder known as dry hydrate or hydrated lime. It is obtained by adding almost exactly the theoretical quantity of water required to change the burnt lime into hydrate of lime. The proportion of lime and water and stirring are scientifically carried out by mechanical means, and the product is very dependable. It is reduced to a fine powder and shipped in paper bags ready to lime has a certain advantage over quicklime. It is a better product and is of uniform quality because it is manufactured under controlled conditions.Depending the impurities present; the specific gravity hydrated lime varies from 2.08 to 2.40. Hig.4.2 Arrangement for Wet-Slaking and Storing at the building site. 4.2.2 PRESERVING QUICKLIME Fresh burned lime has so much affinity for water that it will quickly absorbed moisture and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and becomes air-slaked, and loses its cement- ing qualities. It must therefore be kept in dry storage and carefully protected from dampness until ured. i4.2.3 SETTING AND HARDENING OF LIME Slaked lime hardens or sets by gradually losing its water through evaporation and absorbing carbon dioxide from the air, thus changing back from calcium hydroxide (C,0,H)) to calcium carbonate (C,CO,) or lime stone The cycle is completed in the chemical changes from the original limestone, through burning, slaking, and setting, as shown below. 1. When burnt, the limestone loses its carbon dioxide and becomes oxide of lime or quicklime. C,CO, + heat ——+ C,0 + CO + (2.1) When slaked, the oxide of lime combines with water and becomes hydroxide, slaked, or hydrated lime. c,0 + Ho + C, (0H), + heat (2.2) When setting, the calcium hydroxide loses its water through evaporation and absorbs carbone dioxide from the air, becoming C,CO, or limestone once more. C,(0H). + C,C0q + Hy0 + ©4005 Heating (=1000°C) Slaking Fig.4:1° Complete Cycle in lime used as a cementing material.2.4 HYDRAULIC LIME This lime which hardens to some extent by an internal reaction is prepared by burning impure limestone which contains clay, producing compounds similar to those present in Portland Cement. It is stronger but less fat or plastic than non- hydraulic lime, Hydraulic lime is manufactured in the same way as quick- | lime, although a somewhat higher temperature is required in burning. Hydraulic lime presents some difficulty in slaking. While like non-hydraulic lime it must be thoroughly slaked, considerable care is required to provide just sufficient water and no excess, since an excess water would lead to perature hardening. The exact amount of water required can only be determined by experience with the particular lime concerned. Clearly, hydraulic lime cannot be soaked over- night to improve its workability. The specific gravity of hydraulic lime is about 3.15. 4.2.5 THE USES OF LIME In construction, slaked lime is chiefly used to make mortar for building brick and stone. masonry and for plaster- ing walls of buildings. When so used, quicklime should be completely hydrated by slaking for several days depending upon the kind of lime, temperature, and slaking conditions. If.the lime is to be used in mortars for plastering, its proper slaking is essential since any hard-burnt particles left unslaked will absorb water from the atmosphere and become slaked in due course Since slaking is accompained _ by expension, this will create pockets on the surface of the wall plaster which are often seen in many buildings. The pockets will ultimately peel off from the wall (popping and pitting). Hydrated lime, although immediately usable, is usually improved by soaking overnight or longer.eg) If it were attempted to use lime as plaster or mortar unmixed with other materials, wide cracks would occur on account of the shrinkage of the lime while hardening. Therefor sand is commonly used to mix with the lime to reduce the shrinkage and for economy of cost. The usual mixtures for mortar are 1 part of lime to 3-6 parts of sand by volume. When so used, the calcium carbonate (C,C0,) hardens around the grains of sand in the mortar and binds them together. It is evident that as the outer surface becomes more impervious to the passage of the carbon dioxide (C0,) the rate of setting is greatly decreased, this accounting for the long time required for lime mortar to harden completely throughout its mass. Lime mortar will not harden under water, and in all cases exposure to air is necessary for prompt setting. Lime mortar without addition of cement should never be used in foundations or where exposed to moisture. As will be explained later, hydrated limes are often added to Portland cement mortars in proportions varying from 5 to 85 percent of the weight of the cement the product being known as compo-mortar, This is done to increase plasticity and workability. Quicklime and hydrated lime are the most commonly used binding materials in Ethiopia. At present, the Ethio-lime factory at Senkele is the only modern establishment in the country producing quicklime and hydrated lime. Monthly production of both quicklime and hydrated lime is estimated to be 1800 tonnes. There are also small scale lime factories around Guder, with monthly production of about 600 tonnes of quicklime. A large proportion of quicklime and hydrated lime is consumed in Addis Ababa. In Dire Dawa the Ethiopian Cement Corporation used to produce quicklime and hydrated lime which was delivered in paper bags 25kg each. Several lime factories in Asmara produce a total of about 1,500 tonnes of quicklime per month.2.6 STANDARDS ON LIME There are a vareity of building lime possessing different operties, utilized for different purposes and manufactured ftom. raw materials of varying composition. Therefore, the Hhiopian Standards Institution recently introduced Ethiopian andards to improve the existing quality of lime production nd prepared draft Standards on quicklime and hydrated lime. Draft Standards ES:C. D5.002 (1) ES.C.D5.003 (2) specify quirements for quicklime and hydrated lime used in the ilding industry respectively. 2.6.1 CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS According to the Ethiopian Draft Standards ES.C.D5.002 ni BS.C.D5.003, the chemical composition of quicklime and hydrated lime must comply with the requirements specified in ble 4.1 and Table 4.2. ble 4.1 Chemical Requirements for Quicklime Types of Quickl: Constituent High-Calcium Limes - 1. Carbon dioxide,: Co, . If sample is takén at the place of manufacture, not more than - If sample is taken at the place of delivery, not more than 2, Insoluble matter, not more than 3. Lime plus magnesia, C,0+6,0 not more than 4, Magnesia, M,0, not more then not less thanTable 4.2 Chemica? Kequirements For Hydrated Lime Types of Hydrated Lime High-Caloium Hydraulic Magnesian ‘Lime ‘Lime Line 2) 2) Conatituent 1, Carbon dioxide, £0, \ Te sampleiis talén at the place of manufac~ ture, not more than 5 4 5 - If sample i. taken at the place of delivéry, not more than 10 8 10, 2. Isoluble matter, not more than 1 1 1 3. Lime plus magnesia, ©,0 + 4,0, not less than 60 50 60 4. Magnesia, M0, noc more ‘than + & & e ‘not less than - : 4 5. Solubie Silica, 5,0, not less than - 5 = 4.2.6.2 PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS Quicklime and hydrated lime when tested according to the Ethiopian Standards concerning the relevant methods of test should conform to the appropriate physical requirements specified in Table 4.3 and Table 4.4 respectively.Physical Requirements For Quickline Ean seb qe a jie se 1. Residue on slating + Residue: on 1.00mm fine mesh test sieve, not more than st = Total residue (including residue on 1.00um sieve) on 250 um fine mesh test sieve, not more then m n 2, Putty of standard consitence 3 Density, not more than 1.45g/en 1.45g/em " Workabitity, bumps not less then a vy AA Phydical Requirements For Quicklime Test one_orot Myphatot mplvarh® ties" —_ High-Calcium Bydrauli¢ Magnesian Lime Line. Line 1, Fineness Resideve on 180 ym fine eesh test sieve, not more then Total residue (including residue on 180um sieve) on 901m test sieve, not more then 2. Soundness dverage of three test samples, not more than 10mm 10 3. Putty of Standard Consistence. 3 3 3 Density not more than 1.5 s/w 1.5 g/cm” 1.5 s/o 4. Compressive Strength. Sand-Lime mortar (1.4) ; At the age of 7 days 0.70 5/mm not less than (7g fen) At the age of 28 days 2.18/mm? not _less than (Qikgtfen?)4.2.7 ‘TESTING OF LIMES In addition to the chemical and physical requirements, the Ethiopian Draft Standards for quicklime and hydrated lime specify certain tests. These include ES.C.D8.450: Quicklime @ hydrated lime: “METHODS OF SAMPLING’) which specifies the methods of sampling lump or granular quicklime and hydrated lime powder. ES.C.D8.47: Quicklime: "DETERMINATION OF RESIDUE ON suantne‘*) “see Tables 4.3 and 4.4. ES.C.D8.56: Quicklime.and Hydrated Lime: "PREPARATJG OF LIME PUTTY OF STANDARD CONSISTENCE" >). This standard specifies the method for preparation of lime putty required for the determination of density and workability of quicklime and hydrated lime. ES.C.D8.457: Quicklime and hydrated lime. “DETERMINATION OF DENSITY". ©) ES.C.D8.458: Quicklime and hydrated lime "DETERMINATION OF WORKABILITY". 7) ES.C.D8.463: Hydrated lime "DETERMINATION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH". (®) ES.C.D8.464: Hydrated lime "DETERMINATION OF Fineness" ®) ES.C.D8.465: Hydrated lime "DETERMINATION OF sounpngss” , (1°)ES Ethiopian Standard. (ES.C.D5.002) "Quicklime, General Requirements" Let Edition. Ethiopian Standard. (ES.C.D5.003) "Hydrated Lime, General Réequirments" 1st Edition Ethiopian Standard (ES.C.D8.450) "Qukcklime and Hydrated Lime. Methods cf sampling". 1st Edition. Ethiopian Standard. (ES.C.D8.451) “Quicklime, Determination of Residue on Slaking". 1st Edition. Ethiopian Standard. (£S.C.D8.456) "Quicklime and Hydrated Lime. Preparation of Lime Putty of Standard Consistence." ist ition. Ethiopian Standard. (ES.C.D8.457) "Quicklime and Hydrated Lime. Determination of density. 1st Edition. Ethiopian Standard. (ES.C.D8.458) "Quicklime and Hydrated Lime. Determination of Workability.” st Edition. Ethiopian Standard. (BS.C.D8.463) "Hydrated Lime, Determination of Compressive Strength.” ist Edition. Ethiopian Standard. (ES.C.D8.464) "Hydrated Lime, Determination of Finen Ast Edition. Ethiopian Standard. (ES.C.D8.465) “Hydrated Lime, Determination of Soundne: "Ist Edition.cure GYPSUM PLASTERS Gypsum Plasters are used in the arts and in building construction. In this country, plaster of Paris and Stucco are used to a certain extent, In all these powders, gypsum in a more or less dehydrated state is the essential element. When water is added to these substances they become rehydrated, forming compounds similar to those existing before calcination. 5.1 GYPSYM Gypsum is a combination of sulphate of lime with water of crystallization. It occurs naturally as either hydrous sulphate of lime (C,S0,2H,0) which is generally 76% C,S0, and 24% H0, or as anhydrate (C,S0,). The gypsum rock usually contains silica, alumina, lime carbonate, carbonate of magnesia, iron oxide, and other impurities. To be classed as gypsum rock at least 65% by weight must be C,S0,.2H,0. Pure gypsum is known as alabstor and it is a white translucent crystalline mineral, so soft that it can be scratched with the fingernail. When heated to pure gypsum it loses its luster and its specific gravity’ is increased from 2.3 to approximately 2.95 due to the loss of water of crystallization.MANUFACTURE OF PLASTERS Gypsum plasters are manufactured by heating the raw terial gypsum at either moderate or high temperatures the its being plaster of Paris or hard-finish plaster. 2.1° PLASTER OF PARIS Gypsum as pointed out before, contains a good deal of iter of crystallization (as much as 24% by weight). If some it the water is driven off by: incompletely dehydrating pure, finely ground gypsum at a temperature just abové the boiling int of water - 100°C, a semi-hydrated plaster is obtained ch is known as plaster of Paris. (C,804.2H0) + moderate —» (C,80 age" heat ss y gg0) + Ya Hy0+ (5.1) 4 Plaster of Paris is a white powder having a specific wity of 2.57. This plaster is also known as low-temperature psum derivative or semi-hydrated plaster (hemihydrate). When mixed with sufficient water to form a plastic paste it sets very rapidly, the whole process taking only 5 to 10 mutes. The setting of gypsum derivative is not a chemical nge as in the setting of carbonate of lime but is due to e recombination of the dehydrated lime (calcined calcium) phate, C,S0, or C,804.Yo H,0, with water to form the iginal hydrated sulphate C,S04.2H,0. Recrystalliaation es place, the dehydrate precipitates from -the solytion to form a solid mass of fine interlocking crystals, the material wrdening back to its original state and attaining its timate "strength on drying.Spores Hydration Moderate Heat ‘2 C + 2804" "Ve Ho Fig. 5.1 Complete cycle in gypsum used as plaster. In many instances, ia order that the workman may properly handle plaster of Paris or Stucco, it is necessary to delay the time of setting. This is accomplished by adding a fraction of 1 percent of a retardant like glue, sawdust, or blood after the plaster has cooled. Plaster of Paris while setting under water, does not gain strength dnd ultimately, on continued water exposure, will disintegrate. In hardening, plaster of Paris first shrinks and then expands. The latter property makes the material valuable in making casts, since a sharp impression of the mold can be. secured, Owing to the rapidity of set and difficulty in working its use in structures is limited to ornamental work. It produces hard surfaces, sharp contours, and is sufficient); strong. 5.2.2 HARD-FINISH PLASTER ‘By Durning EyPSuR To B CONELerehy Wigwer ‘Vemperevare, than in the previous case there may be produced unhydrous sulphate which is known as unhydrous plaster or high-temperatu gypsum derivative.+ high —» ¢.so,+2H,0f (8.2) heat Boafy tank This plaster is léss soluble with consequent. reluctance absorb water in the process of recrystallization,\ which st occur in order to develop a plaster comparable with the ginal gypsum formula. The result is a plaster too slow setting action. for practical purposes. $2.3 OTHER DERIVATIVES OF GYPSUM In Europe and North America are produced other derivatives of gypsum. A group of these derivatives include products that are known a© gypsum wall plasters. According to ASTM 28.68(1) these include the following: a) Gypsum Ready-Mixed Plaster which is a calcined gpsum plaster (C,S0,.1, 8,0), mixed at the mill with a Mineral aggregate, designed to function as a base to receive arious finish coats. It might contain other materials to control setting time and other desirable working properties. The calcined gypsur content in generally 60 percent or more , by weight. At the construction site it is prepared for use simply by adding water and its setting time is between 14 and 8 hours. b) Gypsum Neat Plaster containing not less than 66.0 weight percent of C\S0,.')H0, the remainder being material added at the mill for controliing workability, time of set, and cohesiveness. The addition of aggregate (sand) is required on the job. c) Gypsum Wood~Fibered Plaster composed of not less than 66.0 weight percont of C,S0,.14H,0 end about 1 percentor more of wood fiber made from a nonstraining wood to increase the cohesiveness, and other materials to control workability and time of set. 4) Gypsum Bond Plaster is calcined gypsum mixed at the mill with other ingredients to control working quality and setting time and to adapt it for application as a bonding scratch-coat over monolithic concrete. Addition of water only being required on the job. It contains not less than 93.0 weight percent of calcined gypsum and not less than 2.0 or more than 5.0 percent of hydrated lime. e) Gypsum Gauging Plaster For Finish Coat is prepared for mixing with lime putty for the finish coat. It contains not less than 66.0 weight percent C,S0,.1hH,0. Materials are added to control setting time and working quality. AMSTM specifications require that gypsum neat plaster mixed with 3 parts by weight of standard sand,shall set in not less than 2 nor-more that 16 hours. When mixed with 2 parts by weight of standard sanc its compressive strength should not be less than 5,2MN/m” (52 kgf/cm*). Gypsum wood- fibered plaster shall set in not tess then 1% nor more than 8 hours and shall develop 2 compressive strength not less than 8.3§MN/m? (83 kgf/cm”). Gypsum bond plaster when tested in accordance with ASTM Methods C472(2), Physical Testing? of Gypsum Plasters and Gypsum Concrete, shall not set less than 2 nor more than g hours. Gypsum gauging plaster for finish coat shall all pass a N.14 (1.40mm) sieve and not less than 60 percent shall pass a N.100 (150m) sieve, When not retarded, it shall set in not less than 20 or more than 40 min, and, when retarded, shall set in not less than 40min. Its compressive strength shall not be less than 8.3MN/m? (82 kgt/m?).|. ASTM, 28-68 “Standard Specification for Gypsum Plaste | Ategican Society for Testing Material , ASW 472-70 "Standard Methods for Physical Testing of Gypsum Plasters and Gypsum Concrete". American Society for Testing Materials.Portland cement, by definition (ES.C.D5.201.1973), a cementing material which is obtained by thoroughly mizing together calcareous or other lime bearing material vith, if required, argiltaceous and/ or other silica, alumina or iron oxide bearing matertale, burning them at a.clinkering temperature and grinding the resulting olinker. The Ethiopian Standard (ES.C.D5.201.1973)(1) also stipulates that Portland cement shall contain no additions after burning except as provided below: - Water or caleiun sulphate, or both, may be added in optimm amounts such that the requirements for chemical composition shall not be exceeded. Processing additions euch as grinding aid may be used ‘in the manufacture of the cement, provided that such materials shatl not be harmful in the qnounts weed and shall comply with the requirements 5.1*. races, of metallic eubstances which may result from the grinding process shall not be regarded as additions. * Quality requirements which include chemical composition. - 100 -primarily from a calcareous material, such as lime stone or chalk, and from argiliacious material, alumina and silica, found as-clay or shale. The process of manufacture consists essentially of: Digging end grinding the raw material mixing them intimately in certain proportions, burning the mixture in a large rotary kiln at a temperature of approximately 1,300 to 1,500°C when the material sinters and fuses into balls known as clinker, the clinker is cooled and ground to fine powder, with some gypsum added and the resulting product is the commercial Portland cement. The mixing and grinding of the raw materials can be done either in a dry condition or in water, hence the names dry and wet. process. In the dry process the raw materials are crushed, @riéd in. rotary driers, proportioned, and then ground in ball mills consisting of rotating steel cylinders containing acharge of hard steel or ceramic balls. The resulting powder is then burnt in its dry condition in the rotary Kiln. The difficulty in the control of dry mixing and blending have made this method of production of Portland cement much less popular than the wet process. In the wet process the materials are first crushed and then ground and .disperssed in water to form a slurry in@ washmill. The wasimiil is a circular pit with revolving radial arms.whicn are fixed to a centrally positioned vertical shaft and carry iro rakes which break up the lumps of solid matter. This process is done for the combined calcareous and argillaceous materials or for each constituent separately which are then mixed in predetermined proportions. The resulting cement slurry with a water content between 35 and 50 percent is made to pass through screens in the walls of the pit to storage tanks where it is continuously agitated to prevent sedimentation of the suspended solids. Samples of the slurry are taken frow these tanks trom time to time for testing, and any correction in the chemical composition is made by changing the proportions of the calcareous and argillaceous consistit~ uents. Fireliy, the slurry with the desired proportions is fed to the rotary kiln by means of kiln feeders. The rotary kila in which the slurry is burnt is a large, refractory-lined steel cylinder, up to 5m in diameter, some- times reaching 200 in length, slowly rotating on its axis and slightly intliced so that the material fed in at the uppe end travels slowly to the lower end. At the lower end fire is blown in-by au air blast (Fig. 6.1). As the slu:ry moves downward in the kiln, it encounters ~ a progressively increasing temperature. Around the intake it loses the water waich is driver off as steam. C02 is then liberated’, az it continues its descent in the kiln, the dried material undergoes series of chemical reactions. Uppon * reaching the hottest part, i.e. the lower end of the kiln, where the temperature roaches 1400 to 1500°C the material “sinters becoming 20 to 30 percent liquid. Lime, silica and © alumina recombine to form new chemical compounds which fuse into balls,-10 to 25mm in diameter, which is the clinker. the lower end of the “kiln the cément clinker them drops into coolers which are generally rotating Steel sylinders. iThe cool clinker, which is characteristically black, glistening, bard and porous is then fed into ball mills where it is inter-ground with a small quantity of gypsum, 2 to 3 percent by weight, in order to prevent flash set of the resulting cement. Once the desired degree of fineness is reached, to about 1 billion particles per gram, the cement is conveyed to storage silos from which it is drawn for packing in the familiar paper bags of 50kg each. At some plants it is fed directly to bulk-cement lorries for delivery to large construction sites. Table 6.1 Cement Production in Ethiopia (EC. 1977) Ordinary Portland Portland Pozzolana Addis Ababa Conent Factory Dire Dava Cement Factory Metsewa Cement Factory Mugher Cement Factory 6.1.1 PROPORTIONING OF RAW MATERIALS In the manufacture of Portland cement, correct propor- tioning of the raw materials is of prime importance in securing clinker of proper ccnstitution. In order to fix the proportions accuratelly, chemical analysis should be made on the raw materials. The results of chemical analysis are usually reported in terms of the oxides of the principal constituent elements (Table 6.2), and this procedure is the basis for proportioning the raw materials in manufacturing Portland cement. The proportions may vary depending on the oxide composition of the raw materials, and’ indeed differest types of cement are obtained by suitable proportioning of the materials.ble 6.2 Approximate Oxide Composition Limits of Raw Materials (2) ee Oxide Content. (wt.2) Farha Lime (C,0) 60 - 67 Silica (8,0,) 7 - 25 Alumina (A1,0,) 3-8 Iron Oxide (Fe,03) 0.5 = 6.0 Magnesia (0) 0.1 = 5.5 Sulphur trioxide (80,) 1-3 Alkalis - Soda (Na,0) -Potassa “(K,0) Titanium Oxide (7,0,) 0.1 - 04 Phosphorous pentoxide (P05) 0.1 - 02 0.5 = 1.3 Carbon dioxide (C0,) 1-3 Manganese Oxide (My,0,) 0-01 ee Present day trend in the manufacture of Portland coment towards higher lime content, above 65%. As will be mplained later, cements with lower lime content are slow to den. On the other hand, the maximum line content should limited in order to avoid the presence of free lime in the nt since free lime may cause volume instability (soundness) in the hardened coment paste (3). The ulumina and iron oxide act as a flux to reduce the ning temperature (4), this explains the limit on’ their yr percentage. On the other hand the upper limit of ese Oxides is determined by the need to control the pidity of the setting of the cement. Iron oxide imparts the grey colour to cement.In cement chemistry it is customery to represent the oxides by abbreviations (Table 6.3) which make the chemical equations less cumbersom. Table 6.3 Abbreviations of Coumon Oxides Oxide * Abbreviation Oxide Abbreviation c,0 c 5 8,0) * 1,0, Fey03 4,0 MINERAL COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT As explained above, Portland cement is manufactured from lime, silica, alumina and iron containing raw materials. When heated to clinkering temperature, these compounds: interact with one another in the kiln to forma series of more complex compounds. The resulting pulverized cement is a heterogeneous mixture of several fine-grained minerals. Its chemistry is very complicated, and not yet fully under- stood; however its compound composition has been identified by cement chemists and is said to include those shown in Table 6.4.le 6.4 Compound Composition of Portland Cement (5) Chemical Compound T. Major Compounds Tricalcium silicate Dicalcium silicate Tricalcium aluminate Tetracalcium alumino Alkali Oxides = Soda = Potassa Manganese Oxide Titanium Oxide Phosphorus pentoxide Oxide Composition Abbrevation 3€,0.5,0,, 26,0.5,0, 3C,0.A1,0, 4C,0.A1,0,.F e703 ©,80,.28,0 c,o 4,0 B Na,0 K,0 Maz, 7,0) Fos Cements manufactured with raw materials of high lime content result in higher cys content (Fig. 6.2). On the other hand their alumina content will be high if the raw miterials contain higher quantity of aluminium oxide. In. the produetion of ordinary Portland cement, the maximumcontent of alumina and alro iron oxide is determined by the need to control the rapidity of the setting of the cement., 8 ‘o 2 Fig. 6.2 Composition limits of Portland cement in the system C,0~Al,0,- 8,0, (8) Generally the silicate phases form about 70% of the weight of an ordinary Portland cement. However, despite their small percentages, the minor compounds can have a strong influence on the properties of fresh and hardened cement paste. Gypsum is added ‘to clinker in the last stages of the production process of Portland cement. This industrial process is found necessary in order to regulate the setting time of the cement. The amount required depends on the CgA content of the cement and on its fineness. On the other hand, the gypsum content must be limited because an excesscause cracking and deterioration in the cement due to the It should be noted. tha sive nature of hydrating gypsum. molar ratio lower than 1.5* begin mts with a S,0,/R,0, show rapid setting which can no” longer be controlled, by, th lition of gypsum (7). Free (uncombined) lime may be present in the cement ither because the raw materials used in the manufaturing 6s contain more lime than can combine with the acidic les SO, A1,0,, and Fe,0, or because of insufficient ing at the clinkering stage. Free lime in cement is sirable since after ‘being hard burnt it is very slow hydrate when cement is mixed with water. Cofseguently, major hydration will occur after the cement has set. layed hydration of free lime under restraint will lead to build up of internal pressure since, as explained in sectiox 2.1 a hydrating (slaking) lime needs a larger space than The 9. This inturn leads to cracking and inevitable dieruptior Cements ‘which exhibit such expansion are the set cement. d to be “unsound” dnd the phenomenon is known as "unsound- Because it is difficult to determine the due to lime". t amount of free lime in cement (since it could also be at in the form of C,(OH),) most standards (1,8) do not ify 2 maximum free lime content measured by chemical ysis but rather specify the soundness of the cement: as red by its expansion. Magnesia which has a similar hydration to C0, in that also involves volume increase, may cause unsoundness’ dally if it is present in the cement in a quantity, ater than the upper limit. The presence of alkali oxides in) cement assumes tical importance when aggregates containing a reactive notation R,0, refers to the combined amount of alumina and iron oxide.form of silica are used in concrete production. The siliceous minerals in these types of aggregates, which are known as alkali-recttive aggregates, are attacked by the alkaline hydroxides derived from the alkalis in the cement. As a result an alkali-silica gel is formed which involves expensive forces, This leads to cracking and deterioration of the concrete. 6.3 DETERMINATION OF COMPOUND COMPOSITION There are a number of methods used to determine the compound composition of Portland cement. These include the direct methods such as the observation of polished surface with the electrons microscope (surface scanning)(9), the afflication of x-ray diffractometry (10), and the indirect method of the conventional chemical analysis (11). This) last method which is used in most laboratories and manufacturing plants, consists of finding the oxide composition of the cement by chemical tests and calculating the potential compound composition from the tést results. Borgue's equations (12) are used in these calculations as given below: 4.071€,0 - (7.6.950, + 6.718410, + 1.43Fe,0, + 2.852503) (61 2.8675,05 - 9.7544C,8 2.650A120, - 1.692Fe,0, 3.043Fe,0. It should be noted that small changes in! oxide composition of the raw materials leads to considerable changes in the proportions of the compounds; this is shown in Table 6.5.te 645.00 Influence of Changes in-Oxide' Composition on the Compound Composition (13) SEE ae ane nn nNSn Sonn wen Se ment 4 HYDRATION OF PORTLAND CEMENT Portland cement is rarely used:in construction’as a it paste,.However, it is an important component in ding materials such as mortar and concrete which, because itheir versatility, have found application in every branch #f construction industry. js0 known as alite i two principal forms: a -€,$ or felite which exists at high temperatures, and °@ - C,$ or on is etabJé between 675-1456°C.The property the cement has to acquire as a component of these materials normally depends on their usage. In struct members intended to carry loads, strength is the property mos! desired; in building parts subject to weather changes and to wetting and drying, durability and volume stability are essential. Perhaps the single most important factor that has a strong effect on these properties is the hydration of the cement which inturn is affected by the composition and finen of the cement. Hydration of Portland cement is the chemical reaction it undergoes when brought in contact/with water. However, unlil the reaction of the other calcareous cements, hydration of Portland cement is a far more complex phenomenon. This is so because Portland cement is a heterogenous mixture of several chemical compounds which are complex in themselv Hydration of Portland cement, and more extensively of its separate compounds, has been, and still is, the subject of numerous investigations (14). This is in recongnition of the fact that hydration of cement exerts an influence of primary importance on practically all the other properties of the paste and yet is not fully understood. The reaction of cement with water is, in the first instance, a reaction of the individual compounds (15). This reaction may occur in two ways. In the first, a recombination of the dehydrated compounds with water, i.e., a direct ’ addition of molecules of water to the chemical compounds, t# place. (e.g C,90,.¥,H,0.—> C,80,2H,0).. This is a true reactio of hydration. The second type of reaction with water, hydrolysis, leads to chemical changes (e.g. C,0+ 2H,0 —+ C,(OH), + Hy0).4.1 HYDRATION OF THE PURE COMPOUNDS 5 S38 Tricalcium silicate undergoes hydrolysis when mixed with ter, the equation of the reaction being as follows: 2C,8. + GH. —— Colt) ,Hy + 3C, (OH), (@.5) je corresponding weights being: 100 +24 —— 75 +49 cs In water, C)S also undergoes hydrolics 20,8. + 4H — C38)H, + C, (0H) 9 he corresponding weights being: 100 + 21 —— 99 +22 The product of hydration of both cs and cs has earlier m discribed as completely amorphous, but present day @lectron Hcroscope observations reveal that it is a poorly cristallised prous solid. This product which becomes a rigid get is some- imes referred to as " tobamorite gel" because of its apparent larity in structure to a naturally occurring mineral of he same name. The calculated weights indicate that both silicates quire approximately the same amount of water for their ration, but C,S produces more than twice as much C,(0H)2 is formed by the hydration of CS. The reactions of both licates do not stop when the solution is saturated with calcium hydroxide, but hydration continues and the further lime“the presence of C,(OH), makes cement pastes highly alkaline (pH12.5), This is the reason why ordinary Portland coment pastes are sensitive to acid attack. The high pH index also makes cement pasts provide good protection to embeded steel against corrosion. This has importance in reinforced concrete constructions. Fraction Hydrated 410 100 180 Time (log scale) - days Fig.6s3 Rate of hydration of pure compounds (16). Pure C,A reacts with water very rapidly (Fig. 3.3) and immediately converts to a stiff paste. As in the case of plester of Paris this is known as flash set. In cement, however, it will be seen that CA hydrates differently. because of the presence of gypsum. Its hydration reaction may be presented by: CA + 6H —+ CyAHy (6.2) The corresponding weight proportions are: 200 + 40AF C,AF is believed to hydrate into tricalcium aluminate drate similar to the one produced by CA and an amorphous e, probably C,0.Fe,0,.aq. C4AF + 2CH + 10H — CAHg + CaFHS @ corresponding weights being: 100, + neunt 37 In cement mortars and concretes, the ultimate strength Wviig structure of the hyrdened cement owes its properties marily to the hydrated calcium silicates which are the © main cementitious compounds. However, the exact manner which hydration progresses and bond develops is still not Ully understood. According to Noville (17) "It is possible that the newly produced hydrate forms an envelope which grows within by the action of water that has penetrated the ‘rounding film of hydrate. Alternatively, the disolved ilicates may pass through the envelope and precipitate as outer layer. A third possibility is for the colloidal plution to be precipitated throughout the mass after the endition of saturation has been reached the further hydration continuing within thie structure " (Fig. 6.4). Newly produced hydrate forms an envelope which grows from within. Dissolved silicales may pass ‘through the envelope and precipitate as an outer layer.3. Colloidal solution may pi throughout the mass after condition of saturation has reached. Fig. 6.4 Schematic description of the progress of hydratio in particles of cement compounds. 6.4.2 MECHANISM OF HYDRATION AND SETTING. The hydration and setting and consequent hardening of Portland cement is far more complex than that of gypsum pli or lime. This complexity arises not only from the presence several different compounds all of which undergo hydration more or less independently, but also from the nature of the! hydration products as shown in the previous article. In cement the tricalcium aluminuate (CA), the ferrite. phase (C,AF) and the tricalcium silicate (C8) react quickly at first, whereas the betta-dicalcium silicate (f~C,8) re with water more slowly (Fig. 6.5). The gypsum (S03) and all (Nag0 +Ky0) in cement also commence to dissolve rapidly. ‘= S 8 2 & Degree of hydration,% 1428 Age, days Fig. 6.5 Rates of hydration of the various compounds in Portland cement (18).md the alumina compounds crystallise out as hydrated cium sulphoaluminate. The whole process resylts in a 9 phase system, one solid and the other liquid, which form jo fresh cement paste. The liquid phase is essentially a solution of hydroxide ad sulphate of calcium and alkalis (i9,10). Depending upon the particular cement end water/cement ratio, the solution ould become supersaturated with respect to both hydroxides. ily extremely small amount of alumina (A1,03), silica (S09) md other oxides have been found to be present in the aqueous pase (21). The prevention of the solubility of alumina in nent paste is important, since the passage of alumina into plution hinders the normal formation of the hydrated calcium ilicates and leads to rapid precipitation of an alumina- ical gel (22), comparatively poor in lime, leading both to n almost instantaneous loss of plasticity of the mix (flash t) and to reduced strength. In practice, mortars and concretes in which cement is ed as the binding medium, must remain plastic for a while norder to be properly placed and finished. The instanta- ous hydraction of the aluminates, and hence the untimely Joss of plasticity of the resulting paste is avoided by adding jo the cement clinker the required amount of gypsum which will revent the passage of alumina into solution. In an ordinary Portland cement paste where the chemical reactions of the coumpounds with water proceed undisturbed, hydration produces layers of hydrates around the cement grains jithin the first few minutes. At the same time gypsum retards the hydration of C,A by preventing its dissolution in the liquid phase and, simultaneously, reacting with it to form a coating of ettringite (23,24), a practically insolublecomplex compound of needle-like crystal: calcium aluminate trisulphate hydrate (3C, .A1,0,.3C,S0,.324,0) - on the surface of the CjA grains, first stage ci Fi ettringite envelope ettringite ‘ monosulphate 3.6. Further Course of the reaction Ist stage Formacion of a thin envelope of ettringitecn che CyA surface 2nd stage Formation of more ettringite on the C,A surface @ = crystallization pressure 3rd stage Ettringite envelope bursts open ao a result of crystallization pressure 4th stage Envelope closes up again as 2 result of formation of more ettringite Sth stage Sof” not ‘adequate for forming ettringite; complete hydration of the C,A, in the process of which thé ettringite is consumed snd CACell,y-CyA (CysCE,, is fort Fig. 6.6 Schematic description of the retardation of the reactions in the-system CsA-Cy204-CeC-Hig0.tion proceeds with diffusion of sulphate calcium hydroxide and jl irene through the’coating in the earlier stages, and with the ance of cracking in the coating in consequence of the tion of more ettringite (which involves increase in volume) the latter hydration (2nd & 3rd stages). The gypsum is pidly used up as an increasing amount of hydrated calcium Iphoaluminate is formed and generally is dipleted within the rst 24 hrs of hydration (4th stage). Some time later, when more SO, is available (5th stage), a low sulphate calcium Iphoaluminate, another insoluble complex compound - calcium juminate monosulphate hydrate (3C,0.A1,0,.C,S0,.12H,0) - or @ lid solution of this compound with hexagonal tetracalcium inate hydrate (C,AH),) begins to make its apperance at expense of the trisulphate, and remains as a solid phase. it should be mentioned that there is still disagreement among archers (24,25,26) in this field of study as to which form the sulphoaluminates is formed first. In general, there to be a concensus that the trisulphate forms readily in mple water and crystallizes as needles, whereas the mono- phate crystallizes as hexagonal plate in cement pastes of Jow water/cemont ratio because of restricted mobility of ions in solution. Nevertheless, whichever form is formed first, ft fulfills its purpose, which is that of retardation. The hydration of the ferrite phase in the presences of sypsum in cement is similar to that of C,A(27). Because of the exothermic nature of the reaction, a tepid rise in the rate of heat evolution is observed (heat of imediate hydration) which, depending on the exact composition of the cement, reaches several calories per gramme per hour (28) (Fig.g.7). The formation of dense layers leads to a relatively inactive, or very slow reaction period, lasting 30 - 120 minutes, during which the paste remains plasticand workable. This ‘dormant’ period is followed by a new increase in the rate of heat liberation, i.e. a second period of relatively rapid chemical reactions lasting normally less ‘Rate.of heat liberation, Cal/em/hr Le cea @ 12 16° 20° 24 Time, hours Fig.6.7 Heat libration from a setting cement (29). than 8 hours(28). This is, in turn, followed by a last stage during which a gradual decrease in heat of hydration is observed (dropping to less than one calory per gramme per hour within. 24 hours, and to still lower rates after that) indicating a slow rate of hydration by diffusion through the solid hydration products. At the beginning of the second period of high rate of hydration, the paste loses its plasticity and, although still soft, acquires ‘a certain degree of firmness and becomes unworkable. This corresponds to initial set and the time-it takes to reach this stage is’the initial setting time. Hydration continues and the paste becomes stiffer and at the end of certain period it converts to a rigid mass, This is know as final set and the time required for the pasteTeach this stage is the final setting time (Fig. 3.8). cording to Copland and Kantro (30) the chemical reactions at are predominant during this second cycle are those mainly aston ot water : ‘ortebie poste cnwomtabe poste q lg. 6.8 Schematic description of setting and hardening of a cement paste, ponsible for setting and consequent hardening of the paste. ) Feactions are predominant during this time: (1) the tion between CA and gypsum to form new and additional cium aluminate sulphate hydrate in the cracks of the ously formed layers on the surface of C,A grains. ig. 3.6), and (2) the bydration of some of the alite (C,8) i the cement to form CSH gel. Setting and consequent harden- is brought about by the spread and interlocking of these dration products’ in the paste between the dispressed grains e Fig.6.17). Of the four major compounds those which contribute most o hardening (strength development) and consequent strength ins are the silicates (31). CS which strengthens fastest (32) is said to contribute most to the strength developmentof hardened paste during early age (one month) and C)S influences the gain in strength from one month onwards (Fig.6.9), a 8 eee So 1o 5 Compressive strength, N/mm? > Age days Fig.6.9 Development of strength of Pure Compounds (32). 6.4.3 HEAT EVOLUTION IN A SETTING CEMENT In the last section it has been stated that the hydration of Portland cement. is exothermic; i.e. it is accompanied by liberation of heat which is termed as the heat of hydration. Generally it is measured in Joul (or calories*) per gramme of unhydrated cement, and for ordinary Portland cement it varies from 420 to 500 J/g (100 cal/g) upon complete hydration. About one half of this total is liberated between 1 and 3 days, about three quarter in 7 days, and up to 90% in six months. As seen in Table 6.6, of the major compounds, the one that liberates the largest quantity of heat in its pure form is the C,A. In each case the quantity of heat evolved is the sum of the heat of chemical reaction and the heat of water adsorption on the newly formed products (34). ¥Calory = 4.185 joul.Heats of Hydration of the Pure Compounds of Portland Cement (33) Compound Heat of Hydration c,8 503 J/g 120 Cal/g cs 260 62 cya Ce CAF he In cement, the silicates are reported to liberate more less the same amount of heat as the one they give in their re state (Table 6.7) (34). However the results reported the aluminate and ferrite phases vary widely (35). No ific reason has been given so far except the fact that Heats of Hydration of the Compounds in Cement (35) Heat of Hydration, J/g at the age of Compound § 3 days 7 days 28 days 90 days 1 yesy 6 C38 243222377 436 490 490 so 420105176 226 222 888 1559 1378-1303 1169 496 495 10. 3776.4.3.1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE & HEAT OF HYDRATION The rate of hydration of Portland cement, and hence the heat evolution, are affected by a number of factors which include, cement composition, fineness of cement, water-cement ratio, age of paste, ambient condition. It was pointed out earlier that the single most important factor that-has a str effect on the properties of cement paste as a component of — building materials such as mortar and concrete is its degree of hydration. Hence, it can ve concluded that all the above factors will necessarily affect the propurties of the paste. a. Cement Composition The reaction of cement with water is, in the first instance, a reaction of the individual compounds (15). It follows that, at an early age, the rate of hydration of the constituentsin the cement is the same as the rate of hydrati of the separate compounds. Hence, at an early age, the hydration is selective. At the early stage, the speed with which the chemical reactions proceed depends on the affirmity of the individual compounds to water. ‘he first to react are the aluminates. The reaction of the pure aluminate compounds with water is instantaneous and violent and results in a rapid crystalliza~ tion and precipitation which in turn, results in quick sett- ing of the paste. The instantaneous hydration of the aluminates, and also the ferrites, is retarded by the presence of gypsum (C,S0,.2H0) and, by varying its percentage in the cement it is possible to alter the rate of hydration at an early age and the setting (36,37). The amount* of gypsum to properly retard the setting, varies mainly with the content of CgA and the fineness of the cement. It is recommended ¥ ‘According to Learch (36) the amount required is also affected by the alkali oxides content of the cement.t this amount be just sufficient for the gypsum to fulfil its function of retarder. Too little amount of gypsum (i.e. less than what is called "optium" (38) will not be sufficient decrease the rate of hydration of C,A and properly retard ‘the setting of the cement, whereas . too high a quantity will have @ negative effect on the physical properties of the hardened paste - The selective hydration described above is limited to the arly stage when the paste is fresh. At later stages, however, the cement grains become enveloped with layers of hydration products such as CSH gel which grow thicker with age. Water has to difuse through these layers in order to come in contact with the unhydrated parts. Hence at later stage the rate of hydration becomes increasingly dependent on the rate of water diffusion through the layers and less on the rates of hydration of the individual compounds. Powers and Brownyard (33) who were the first to report this found that the same products are formed at later and all stages of hydration of the paste. 120} y fagarn Heat of Hydration-cal (004 008 0% O68 020 O24 Non-evaporable Wcter Content — er cent of weight of cement Hig.@.10 Relation between the heat of hydration and the amount of non-evaporable water for Type I Portland cement (35)They concluded that irrespective of the water/cement ratio the constituents of an ordinary Portland cement hydrate at an equal fractional rate, meaning to say that when the cement is, say 50% hydrated, each ote of its constituents is also 50% hydrated. This rather suprising conclusion, inview of the results of tests on the rate of hydration of different compounds, has been supported by Verbeck and Foster (35) who reported that the amount of heat of hydration perum#ttt weight of hydrated material is constant at all ages (Fig. 6.10). However, these results are confined to ordinary and rapid hardening Portland cement (39 ). ‘As with the pure compounds, the hydration of Portland cement is exothermic and liberates a substantial amount of heat. Experimental results have shown that the total heat of hydration of cement can be approximated from the contribution of the individual constituents. The form of the equation is: Qy = a(CgS) + b(CyS) + C(CgA) + a(C4AF) where Qy is the heat of hydration of the cement a,b,etc. are the heat of hydration contributions of the individual constituents and, Cg8, C8 etc. their fractional contents in the cement. By making svat’ analysis on test results obtained from a number cf commersia) cements,Waods , Steinour and Starke (40) obtained vaiues ior the coefficients a,b,c and d as follows: Qq + 136(Cg5S) + 62(C,8) + 200(CgA) + 30(C4AF) (6.10) where in this case Qy meacured ia calories, is the heat of hydration of one granme of cement.The rate of heat evolution of cement, as well as the tal heat, is greatly affectea by its C,A and C,S content (Fig. 6.11 and Fig. 6.12) (35) The effects are strongest jn the first few hours. es Hest of hydration, cal/g Ses Heat of Fydration,wig Time; hours: Hig:8.11 Effect of C3A content on heat of hydration of Portlani cement of approximately equal C48 content (33) 60} Heat of hydration,J/g e & @ 5 3 S a rm 3 s 2 a Time, hours Fig.6.12 Effect of C,S content on heat of hydration of one cements of approximately equal C,A.content In cement and concrete technology it is the rate of heat liberation which atracts more interest than the total heat evolved. This is especially trues in regions of very hot or very cold climatic conditions. In very hot countries, cements that are used for making concrete should have reduced pro- portions of the constituents that hydrate rapidly (CA &C,8)..with accompanying high rate of heat liberation. Unchecked rate of hydration accompanied by hot climatic conditions will lead to excessive expansion of the fresh concrete. At later stages, however, when the temperature of the concrete drops due to, among other things, the decrease in rate of heat liberation, contraction takes place with resulting cracks that will seriously affect the structure. On the other hand, the high heat liberation of the rapid hydrating consistituents can be put to advantage in very cold regions where freezing and thawing might adversly affect a freshly cast concrete. The differences that can be introduced in the rate of hydration, hence the rate of heat evolution, by varying the compound composition is made use of in the production of special cements such as the law heat Portland cement (see end of chater). b. Fineness of the Cement As may be understood from the earlier descriptions, hydration arises from the chemical reaction between water molecules and cement grains, which in turn, is made possible through the contact of the two materials. While gypsum and the other salts dissolve to form ions, the silicate constit- uents remain in solid state, The contact is made at the surface of the grains, obviously the more contact area provided, the faster the reaction will proceed. Later on, however, hydration: proceeds through the diffusion of water and other ions through the coatings and its speed will very much depend on the density of the coating. It is logical, therefore, that the finer the grinding of the cement, the faster should be the hydration process and vice-versa. However, the ultimate degree of hydration is not affected by the fineness of cement. A finer cement will require not only more water to cover the higher surface area, but alsoatively more gypsum to retard the speedy hydration of the Learch (36) indicates increased number of aluminate particles. that cements deficient in gypsum become more deficient (i.e. wore gypsum is required) with increase in fineness of grinding. Water/cement Ratio Both the rate of hydration and the heat evolution are fected by the water/cement ratio. Taplin (41) found that the water/cement ratio has practicaliy no influence on the rate of hydration in the first 24 hours after mixing. Later on, however, the rate of hydration decreases with a decrease in w/c ratio (Fig.6.13). The decrease is more pronounced ‘and takes place earlier the lower the w/c ratio. This effect of the w/c ratio is attributed to the decrease in the space available for the cement which requires double its original volume on hydrating (42) (see also section 6.5.5). Fig.6.13 Effect of w/c ratio on the hydration of Portland cement (41) Data reported by Vebreck (43) indicate that the influence of w/c on heat evolution is also marked at later stages (Table 6.8).6.8 Effect of w/e on The Beat Evolution of Portland Cement (43) wie Heat of Hydration at 70°F (cal/g') Ratio “3 daya 7 days 28 days 90 days. 1 year ee ee 0.4 61 79 96 104 109 0.6 66 a8 11s 120 0.8 66 89 120 122 Age of Paste The rate of hydration of cements, -and hence the heat evolution, is highest at early age. Depending on the grain size distribution in the cement and the presence of water, hydration may continue for several years after mixing but at a much reduced rate. This is attributable to the forma~ tion of dense iayers of hydration products, such as the SH gel, around the cement grains. Water has to diffuse through the layers in order to get to the unhydrated parts and the thicker the layers the more difficult and time consuming it will be for the water to diffuse. It is reported that hydration stops when the thickness of the layer reaches 25 um(44). Hence, an unhydrated core will be left inside cement grains which have a diameter greater than 50 um. Degree of hydration ‘Age Fig.6.14 Degree of hydration -VS- age of Cement paste. oe ore tree i roe Pos jo ¥Ambient Condition The rate of hydration of Portland cement is affected the ambient temperature, and identical results can not expected from specimens that are subjected to different 1 histories. The rate of hydration increases with rature and this is true only at earlier ages. Ultimately, ver, the same degree of hydration is reached irrespective the curing temperature (Fig. 6.15) (45). & & ry s 3 s = y 2 a 3 8 Re 7 28-90 Log Time, days ¥ig.6.15 Effect of ambient temperature on rate of hydration of Portlant cement (45). Ambient temperature has broadly similar effects on the heats of hydration (46). It is interesting to note that the silicates, when stested in their pure form, dehave differently under the same exposure. Asseen in Fig. 3.16 ambient temperature has negligeable effect on the hydration of C,S at early age (47). In contrast CoS shows a marked difference in its rate of hydration at different temperatures.” 3 3 2Ca0 8409 Ss. 8 8 Degree of hydration, % 8 0 20° 40 60 0 20 40 60 Curing temp, °c Fig.8.16 Effect of temperature on rate of hydration of silicates (w/e = 0.70)(47). 6.5 STRUCTURE OF HYDRATED CEMENT ‘The setting of the fresh cement gives rise to the formation of internal structure (Fig. 6.17). The internal structure, ‘on the other hand, plays a dominant role in determining the strength and other properties of the paste. In fact almost all of the engineering properties of hardened cement paste and concrete depend on the physical structure of the hydration products rather than their chemical composio. Hence it is essential to have a good picture of the internal structure and structure formation of a setting and hardening paste in order to understand its physical and engineering properties. Structure formation of. Portland cement paste begins the first moment cement is brought in contact with water. At the initial stage of mixing of cement with an appropriate quantity of water, the cement grains become dispersed in the liquid. Dispersion is followed by initial hydration and setting which estabildkh a pattern for the subsequent and gradual development of the final structure.- 133 - .5.1 ‘THEORIES ON STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT The wealth of information on structure development of ortland cement, resulting from its interaction with water, indicate. that it is a complex process and, to date, only partially understood. The complexity arises partly from the resence in the cement of several mineral compounds differing from each other both in their chemical coastitution and the oner in which they undergo hydration and partly from the physical nature of their hydration products. With regard to hydration process, there seems to exist a consensus that it js, in the first instance, a reaction of the individual compounds with water. However, it is equally agreed that interractions between them are very important. 4s noted in the previous section, the first contact of ordinary Portland coment with water is characterised by a rapid rise in the heat of reaction indicating an immediate hydration reaction. Within a few minutes the rate of reaction drops to a low level, while the paste retains its plasticity. This is then followed by another cycle leading to a second pick in the yate of heat liberation. It is during this period that hydration reactions, said to be responsble for setting and hardening of the paste, take place (30,48). The explanations given in reference to structure forma- tion which necessarily involves setting and hardening, starting from Le Chatelier's hypothesis of crystallization of hydration products (40) followed by Michaelis' colloid formation (50) are, in general, theoretic in concept. Many regard structure formation as a process of growth and spread of hydration products within the volume of the paste (51,52). Hydration starts at the grain boundaries, and the hydration products, ‘the volume of which is a little over twice the specific volume of the anhydrous cement (see section 6.3.5) grow outward and inward simultaneously occupying space partly at the expense of the grains, and partly at that of the water so that each grain residue becomes encased in gradually increasing hydration products as long as it exists. As hydration proceeds water diffuses inwards through gel Pores, while components of hydrated cement in a state ofsaturated or supersat:. ted direction and precinitat: as in the spaces betwoen the or of contact between the newly Hardening arises as a direct jer c. ‘tion diffuse in the opposite curer layers gradually filling ginct cement grains; thus points formed particles are increased. result of the growth of hydration Products and further increase of points of contact and inter- locking of the new particles Porosity (83). -~ OSH (Short fibres) Cement glains Ca(OH )gCrysta Water CSE gel Ettringate needles Fig. 6.17 Shematic description of the hydration and structure development in cement paste (56).In another theory of setting and development of tructure of the fresh cement paste, the whole colloidal lution is said to precipitate throughout the mass after turation has been reached, with further hydration continu- ing within the formed structure (54). Baikov (55), in a imilar reasoning, postulated that structure development in Portland cement paste involves three stages, first a lution state, second a colloidal stage and third a crystal- isation stage. In his opinion, setting could be uttributed to the formation of gel, but the subsequent process of harden- ing is due to the formation of crystallised products. Improved facilities in the study of the internal structure of cement paste and further understanding of its behaviour under different conditions have led to modern views on structure formation which incorporate Le Chatelier's crystallisation and Michaelis' colloidal approaches. Taylor (52) summarises these as follows: "The initial result of maxing the cement with water is to produce a dispersion; the water/cement ratio needed to produce a paste (0.3-0.7 w/w) is such that the grains of cement are not close packed. Reaction with water quickly produces a surface layer of hydration products on each grain. These occupy space partly at the expense of the grains, and partly at that of the liquid. The particles of the hydration products, at this stage, are largely of colloidal dimensions (10-100 A), but some larger crystals (Ca(0H)y and A15* and S0}” containing phases) may also be formed. The solution quickly becomes saturated with C2* ; oH ; 807; , and alkali cations. With further reaction the coatings of hydration products extend and begin to meet each other, so that a gel in the classical sense is formed in the spaces between the grains. This is the stage of setting. With still further reaction, the particles between the clinker grains become increasing]y densely packed, until the material can equally well be regarded as a mass of particles in contact with each other. Differentiation of the gel also occurs in that it becomes more densely packed in some regions and less so in others, so that pores are formed."A schematic approach to ordinary Portland cement hydration process and development of structure, as described above, is given in Fig. 6.17. 6.5.2 STRUCTURE OF CEMENT PASTE CONSTITUENTS ‘The physical formation of the hydration preducts of Portland cement has been the subject of numerous studies. Electron scanning microscopy, X-ray diffraction, optical microscopy, gas and vapour adsorption and mercury intrusion techniques (57-61) have been used at various times to obtain valuable information on,the morphology of hydration’ products and internal structure of hardened paste. The studies reveal that the principal hydration products consist mainly of calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) of collodiel dimemions (10- 100 2), ‘Thus, when coming in contact with each other, they _ form a gel* extending within the boundaries of the mix, discontinued only by unhydrated cement grains, calcium hydroxide (CH), capillary pores and air voids. Hence, cement paste could be considered as a multiphase system consisting of pores and CSH gel in which the calcium hydroxide, the caJcium sulphosluminate and the unhydrated cement grains are embedded. The morphology of these hydration products is known to be variable. Ettringite particles are described us needle- like crystals (62); the dominant phase in hardened paste, CSH, is amorphous and comprises both minute fibrous particles and even smaller irregular platelets (52,60). The micro- crystalline CH, which ordinarily make the second largest phase of the paste, are hexagonal shaped plates (62): “cols are bodies satisfying the following criteria (52): 1) They are coherent, colloidal disperse systems of at least two componente. 2) They exhibit mechanical properties characteristic of the solid state. 3) Both the dispersed component and the dispersion medium extend themselves continuously throughout the whole system..5.3 INTERNAL SURFACE AREA OF HARDENED PASTE one of the characteristics of cement gel is its high specific surface area, which ascertains its colloidal nature. Values over’600m* per gramme of matured paste have been reported (57). Powers (51) noted that the specific area of the gel is hardly affected by differences in cement compo- sition, see Table 3.9. Mable 6.9 Specific Surface Area of Portland Cement Gel and Hydration Products (51) Cement Specific Surface Area Wo, Cement Composition, wt% e/a) Hydration > Peoducte, él Onty" G8 CS CA CAP 45.0 25.8 13.3 6.7 219 267 48.5 27.9 4.6 12.9 200 240 28.3 57.5 2.2 6.0 227 255 60.6 11.6 10.3 7.8 192 235 210 249 Powers and Brownyard (33) obtained a linear relationship between the degree of hydration of a hardened Portland cement paste and its specific surface area measured by. the chemically combined water (w,) and the amount of adsorbed ménomolecular layer of water vapour (Vm) respectively (Fig. @.18). They thus concluded that the composition of the paste remains the same as hydration proceeds, meaning to say that all compounds “calcium Hydroxide excluded.- 138 - “O07 08.08, 12 3.16 ...20, Yn Fig. 6.18 V,, plotted against combined water w, (33) hydrate at equal fractional rates. This, however, cannot be generalized since, as we have seen earlier, hydration at very early age is selecti 6.5.4 MODELS OF HARDENED PASTE STRUCTURE ‘A number of models (63-64) have been suggested to describe the internal structure of hardened cement paste and, although they differ from one another to some extent, they all agree on its high porosity. This, in fact, is revealed by the amount of water a hardened ordinary Portland cement paste would absorb when immersed in water or exposed to saturation pressure. Permeability of cement paste to water, which depends on factors such as water/cement ratio, degree of hydration, aleo demonstrates that the pore system could be continuous.Powers and Brownyard (33) divided the pores in a cement peste into two distinct groups, gel pores and capillary pores, and concluded that, for normally curred paste, the gel has a characteristic porosity of 28%. The gel pore develops from the growth of irregular particles in a random direction form randomly distributed starting points. Powers and Brownyard estimated the mean size of the gel pores from the hydraulic radius, which is the ratio of pore volume to pore wall surface area, and reported values between 20 to 40 Angstrom units. Istimate of hydraulic radii of the order of 7A, which implies im average pore size of 184, lias been cited by Powers in a later publication (51), The capillary pores, which are the remnants of previously water-filled spaces measure, at times, several hundred microns and their volume which, according to Powers, can be estimated from the physical constants of the coment and cgment mix (51), is closely associated with the Simplified model of ‘paste structure (63). Gel particles are represented as needles or plates; C designates capillary cavities, Ca(OH), crystals, unhydrated cement, and minor hydrates are not represented.particle size distribution of the cement, the original water/ cement ratio and degree of hydration. It increases with larger water/cement ratio and decreases with higher degree of hydration (65). The latter phenomenon is associated with the increase in the concentration of gel which occupies the space within the capillary pores. At relatively high capillary porosity, the capillaries form a continuous interconnected network through the gel, but at normal paste porosity, capil- lary spaces are interconnected only by gel pores and are, accordingly, called capillary cavities. As more gel is produced at higher degree of hydration, more gel pore is formed. However, the net result of capillary pore decrease and gel pore increase is a decrease (33) in the totab. pore volume. Reference to capillary and gel pores, which make two of the main features of Powers modei (Fig.6 .19), wero made from the classification of water held in hardened cement paste on the basis of extensive sorption and desorption studies of its internal structure (33). -Later date experimental evidence taken from surface chemistry considerations, and mechanical behaviour of cement paste, has led Feldman and Sereda (64) Interparticle bond Interlayer Hydrate water CSH sheets Physically adsorbed water Fig. 6.20 Simplified model for Hydrated Portland Coment (64)to revise Power's model. They describe hardened cement paste instead, as a layered structure, with water separating the layers as it enters the structure and leaving a narrower space as it exits (Fig. 6.20). 6.5.5 VOLUME OF PRODUCTS OF HYDRATION On complete hydration, cement combines with 23% of its own weight of water. To illustraté the volume changes let us consider the. hydration of one gramme of cement. Taking the specific gravity of dry cement as 3.15 and that of the hydration products as 2.51 we have the following relationship of the weights And Solid (specific or absolute) volumes: lg cement + 0.23g water —— 1.23g of hydration products The corresponding solid volumes are rygen” coment + 0.23cm? water — 1:23 nyaration products — 0.49em? 0.55cm3 Hence, the solid volume of the resulting hydration products fe smaller than the sum of the specific volumes of the unhydrous cement and water by 0.55-0.49 = 0.006em® or by 0.06/23 = 25% of the volume of the combined water. The resulting hydration product (in this case the gel) has a characteristic porosity of about 28% (66). Hence, the volume of the gel pore (or gel water) is:and the volume of hydrated cement (i.e. solid volume of hydration product + characteristic porosity) is: 0.49 + 0.19 = 0.68 em® Summarizing we have: Weight of dry cement Solid volume of dry coment Weight of combined water Volume of gel pore = Volume of gel water Total water in mix = 0.23 + 0.19 Water/cement ratio by weight Water/coment ratio by volume $-a5 Volume of hydrated cement (gel) = 0.49+0.19 Original volume cement & water = 0.32+0.42 Decrease in volume due hydration = 0.74 - 0.68 Volume of products of hydration of lem® of dry cement 0.06 cm empty a capillary 0.06 cm pores capillary pores 0.19.0m> 0.19 em® gel water 0.23 cm? combined 3 water eee solid products off hydration gel water 0.68 cm? hydrated cement 0 ®hydration 100% hydration Fig.6.21 Diagrammatic Representation of volume changes due to, fydration of Paste with w/c ratio of 0.42.6.5.6 FACTORS AFFECTING PASTE STRUCTURE Among the factors that affect the structure and structure formation of cement paste, fineness of cement plays a role through its effect on the rate and amount of hydration (33). n reaction with water, hydration products deposit on the surface of cement grains and form a dense layer. As hydration proceeds, the thickness of the layer increases, making it more difficult for the water of hydration to reach the internal parts of the grain, especially at later age when hydration is diffusion controlled. It is estimated that hydration stops when the thickness of the layer reaches 254 (67). The size of cement grains in ordinary Portland cement normally ranges from 5 to 55 uM hence, unhydrated core is always left inside grains which have a diameter greater than 50 um Accordingly, ina paste made with coarsely ground cement the phase consist— ing of unhydrated particles could be expected to be dominant. The overall volume of a neat fresh Portland cement paste is determined by the amount of material used in the mix (Fig 6.21). When if sets it acquires its final form and, if properly compacted or mixed in vacuum, its volume is approx- imately equal to the volume of the cement solids, plus the volume of the water initially mixed with the cement (wo). Thus the space originally occupied by the water determines the total porosity. The less water added to a given weight of cement at mixing time, i.e. the less the initial water/ cement ratio, the smaller is the capillary pore volume in the paste for a given degree of hydration. However, the fact that. hydration of cement grains can only proceed in water-filled spaces, and that hydration products occupy ‘2.2 times the specific volume of the anhydrous cement, limits the minimum water/cement ratio to allow complete hydration, If sufficient water is not provided to hydrate the cement grains, then a relatively high quantity of anhydrated cementwill be left over to f111 the structure of the paste. In the opinion of Powers (51), for pastes with water/cement ratio less than 0.38, there is not enough pore volume to accommodate the gel at complete hydration; consequently such pastes do not hydrate completely. On the other hand, if an excessively high water/cement ratio is used, the structure of the dried paste will show a relatively high capillary volume. It ig said that in paste with water/cement ratio above about 0.7 even complete hydration would not produce enough gel to block ali the capillaries. When interconnected, the capillary pores make the hardened cement paste more permeable and hence vulnerable to forst action in cold countries. Hydration initiates at the surface of cement grains and proceeds in originally water-filled spaces, at the same time the hydration products have a larger volume than the original cement. Consequently, the total porosity decreases while gel content, gel pores and specific surface of the cement paste increase a5 hydration progresses with curing time, Hydration proceeds only at an internal relative hummidity of 80 percent (33) and since on hydration ordinary Portland cement combines with 23 percent of its own weight of water, sufficient water should be provided to fulfill both functions, This could be achieved not only by selecting a proper water/ cement ratio, but also preventing excessive evaporation of mixing water especially in the case of pastes with low water/ cement ratio. 6.6 TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT In the last few sections it is made clear that Portland cement is nothing else but a mixture of different chemical compounds which more or less keep their own characteristic:‘Table 6.10 - Properties of the major constituents of Portland Cement ——— Tricaleium Dicalcium Tetracalcium aluminuferite Compounds Silicate Silicate Tricalcium Alumnae (elite) (lite) (Belite) Approx. Chemical 36q0.840,(C8) 2Ca9-5i07 (CS) 3Ca0.A1203(C9A) 4C_0.Fe703-A1203 Composition Rate of Rydration Rapid (hours) Slow (days) ‘Instantaneous Very rapid (minutes) Heat of Bydration Medium (5003/8) Low (2503/3) Very high (8503/g) Medium (4203/8) Strength development Rapid (days) Slow (weeks) Very rapid (one day) Very rapid (one day) - svt - Ultimate Strength High:thus N/mm? Probably high: Low_ few N/m? low: few N/m? thus N/mm? Characteristic Unstable in water Imparts to the cement Remarks constituent of - sensitive to sulphate ite characteristics Portland Cements attack grey colourIt follows that the properties of the cement will be influenced by the dominant properties of the individual compounds (Table 6.10). For instance, hydration at early age will be governed by that of CA and CS whereas strength development and gain by the silicates etc-. By varying the percentage of the compounds, one can obtain Portland cements of different characteristics. Infact, this is achieved in practice by selecting mixtures (percentages) of the raw materials from which Portland cement is manufactured. In many parts of the world, different types of Portland cement are manufactured for different uses: The main types can be classified as shown in Table 3.11. The approximate Table 6.11 Main Types of Portland dement ss European Description A.S.T.M, Description Ordinary Portland ‘Type I Modified Cement Type II Rapid Hardening Portland Type III Extra Rapid Hardening Portland - Low Heat Portland ‘Type IV Sulphate Resisting Portland ‘Type V Portland ... Pozzolana ‘Type IP White Portland fe Portland Blast ~ furna: Type IS _——— oxide contents of the raw materials and the compound compositions of the different Portland cements are given in Table 6.12. ¢ible 6.12 Typical Composition of the Different Types of Portland Cement. pha Daslanacion Potential Composition, wt % Cement ASTM C150 cs 6S CA CAF Ordinary ‘Type T 25 8 Modified Type II 12 Rapid Hardening Type IIT Low-Heat ‘Type IV Sulphate resisting . Type V As seen from Table 6.12, rapid-hardening cement, for instance, has an increased content of alite at the expense of that of the belite. This is obtained form raw materials, wich in lime. Specifications for rapid-hardening cement also eall for finer grinding than other types of cement. BS 12(3) 50) Compressive strength, N/mm? Days years Age (log scale) ¥ig.6.22 Effect of type of cement on concrete strength (68).calls for a minimum specific surface area of 925m”/ke (3250 em?/g) as compared with 225m“/kg for ordinary cement, this is in order to increase the rate of hydration of the cement and thereby increase the rate of strength development. Although the rates vary, there is negligesble difference in the ultimate strength of the cements of different types (Fig. 6.22). Rapid hardening cement is richer in C8; hence ite heat of hydration is greater than that of ordinary cement. The finer grinding algo increases the rate of heat evolution which results from an increased rate of hydration (Fig. 6.23). » a 3 $ a g 3 g 3 i 3 2 % 3 2 i imcey ae gos) i 6: Q oe ee Days months Years Age (log scale) s Fig. 6.23 Heat Evolution in concrete made of different types of Portland Cement (35).As seen in Table 6.12 low-heat cement has lower percentages (gS and CgA, the two compounds that release relatively bigh at of hydration. Such type of cement is produced from raw terials low in lime and alumina. Because of its relatively low C38 content; low-hear cement velopes strength slowly. However, its ultimate strength may higher than that of rapid hardening or even ordinary cement. is is due to the influence of the initial internal structure the ulfimate development of strength: the more slowly the ternal structural framework is established the denser the gel the higher the ultimate strength. Low heat cement has an improved resistance to sulphates ause of its reduced C,A content which is the compound most sensitive to sulphate attack. In fact, low-heat cement has very similar properties to those of sulphate resisting cement (Type V) which is produced specifically for use in concretes which will more likely be exposed to sulphate containing water or chemicals (See Table 6.13). Sulphate resisting Portland cement, i.e. of low C3A content, can be produced by clinrer a mixture of raw material with a low A1,04/Fe,03 ratio (a ratio of one or lesTable 6.13 Uses of The Various Types of Portland Cement “Cement Type Ur Ordinary (Type 1) For general concrete construction where special properties are not required, Modified, (Type 11) For general concrete construction exposed to moderate sulphate action or where it is Hequired that the heat of hydration be somewhat lower than for normal cement. sepid Hardening (Type III) For use when rapid hardening is required. ‘Low-tiéat (type TV) For use where it is required that the heat of hydration be a practicable ninimam, ; Sulphate-Resisting For use where a high resistance to the (Type V) action of sulphate is required, Whate Portland For use in architectural concrete or where a pastel colour paint finish ie required such as in tropical. countries. It is also used in making highway lane, stainless mortar, stucco & building blocks. Port land-Pozzolana For use specially in mass construction (Type IP) because of low rate of heat development resulting from law hydration. 6.7 TESTS ON THE PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT Standards such as ES.C.D5.201.73(1), ES.C.D8.490.73(69), specify requirements for the composition and manufacture of Portland cement, and methods of sampling, testing for chemical composition and physical requirements. The standards are specified: 1) 4m recognition of the fact that Portland cement is industrially manufactured from naturally occuring raw materials and hence its mineral composition could vary depending on the proportions of the raw materials, their mineral composition: and the methods applied in the manufacturing process, and2) 4m order to detect inferior products that deviate from the Standards. 6.7.1 CHEMICAL TESTS Chemical tests are normally conducted by the manufacturer on regular basis in order to check on the quality of the product. hey may also be conducted in résearch laboratories in order to determine the compound composition of a cement used in a particular research. Otherwise they are of little importance to the ordinary consumer. The results of chemical tests are reported interis of oxides which are used to calculate the compound composition by Bogue method (12). The four major oxides - calcium oxide (C,0) Silicon dioxide ($,0,) aluminium oxides (A103) and ferric oxide (Fe903) are important in this respect. It is also import- ant to know the amounts of free lime (free calcium oxide), sulphur trioxide (S05), and magnesium oxide because .of their adverse effects on soundness. The percentages of sodium and potasium-(N#,0K,0) oxides play also importance incase the cement is used in concrete with alkali reactive aggregates. Ethiopian Standard ES.C.D6.201 sets quality requirements of Portland cement as follows: 2) Lime Saturation Factor. The lime saturation factor (L.S.F.) shall not be less than 0.66 or more than 1.02 when calculated by the following formula: C,0 - 0.7(80,) bascy debic at botxiaegs ot nveSto fiat t a (6.11) 2.8(8,05) + 1.2(A1304) + 0.65(Feo03) A lime saturation factor within the given limits indicates that the proportion of the raw materials was satisfactory and did not lead to, especially, excess of lime beyond that- 154 - The compressive strength of concrete and mortar cubes when tested according to section 7 or 8 of ES.C.D8.490 has _owttl to conform to the following: den in - Ordinary Portland cement (concrete or mortar cubes) Sig: 3 days (7241 hour) : not less than 8N/mm? (80kgf/cm”) 9.) 7 days (16842 hours) : not less than 14N/mm” (140kg£/cm?) ~ Rapid hardening Portland cement (concrete cubes) 3 days (7241 hour) : not less than 12N/am? (120kg£/cm”) 7 days (16942 hours) : not less than 17N/mm” (170kgf/em?) = Rapid hardenirtg Portland cement (nortar cubes) 1 day (26+ Y,hour) + not less than 12N/m” (120kg£/em”) 3 days (72+1 hour) : not less than 21N/am?(210kg£ fem) In order to determine the fineness, setting time, sound~ ness and strength of Portland cement Ethiopian Standard ES.C.D5.201 (1) recommends the air-permeability, the vicat, | Le Chatelier and cube strength methods respectively. Hence these and other preliminary tests will be discussed next. 6.7.2.1 DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY The specific gravity of cement is not determined for its own sake, but it is useful in determining other properties such as’ the fineness of the cement. The specific gravity of Portland cement is a dimension less number, defined as the ratio of the mass of cement to the mass of an equal volume of water at 4°C. It is determined by the conventional method of displacement of a liquid filled in a container. The standard Le Chatelier flask conforming to the dimensions shown in Fig. 6.24 is used,The flask is filled, between, the zero and one,,mi.mark, ther water free parafin or kerosine, having.a relative ity of not less than 0.73 at 15,6°C. .It.4s then ,inmersed, ‘A constant temperature. water bath maintained at about xqom ature long enough so as to avoid variations. greater. than Cin tne temperature of the liquid in the flask., The Capacity of bulk approx. 250 mt Hig.6.24 Le Chatelier Flask.first rea@ing is recorded after the flask has been immersed in the water bath. A weighed quantity of Portland cement (about 65¢) 48 then introduced'in small increaments at the same temperature as the liquid, care being taken to avoid splashing tind"adherence of the cement to the inside of the flask above the liquid. After all the cement has been introduced, » stopper ie fitted and the flask rolled gently in an inclined position until no further air bubbles rise to the surface of the liquid. The final reading is taken after the flask is reimmersed in the water bath and when constant temperature is attained, The difference between the rist and final readings represents the volume of liquid displaced by the’ mass of cement used in the test. The specific gravity of the cement is then obtained from the formula: Specific gravity = sues of cement in prams (6.12) displaced .volume in cm 6.7.2.2 DETERMINATION OF FINENESS Different methods of determining the fineness of Portland cement are given by various standards. ASTMC 184 (70) covers the determination of the fineness of hydraulic cement by means of the N.100.(150m) and N.200 (75m) sieves. The method specified by ASTM C115 (11) uses the Wagner turbidimeter. This method covers the determination of thé fineness of Portland cement as represented by a calculated measure of specific surface, expressed as square centimeters of total surface area per grammeof cement.Dimensions in millimeres “3 $d = 25.40 + 0.03 Sure saaiat L Pr 2 Eee Bra ‘ ; i Plunger i299 a g Bove suse 5 ; 7 - A airecire peices 3 i aie cut : Fig. 6.25 Air permeability apparatus with manometer and flowmeter.Ethiopian Standard ES.C.D8.490 recommends the use of the air-permeability apparatus, (Fig. 3.25) first developed by lea and Nurse (72), for determining the specific surface area of cement. The air-permeability method is based on the fact that the resistance offered to gas flow by a bed of powder compacted to'a known volume and porosity, depends on the specific surface area of the powder. The measurement of specific surface by the air-permeability apparatus consists of the following operations: 1) Weighing out the required amount of cement which, when compacted, will form a bed of porosity 0.475. The weight required varies with the density of the cement (see section 3.7.2.1 for the determination of density) and is given in Table 6.14. Table 6.14 - Mass of Cement required to form a bed 10mm deep x 25.4am diameter, porosity 0.475 (69) 2) Introducing the sample into the permeability cell with the filter paper on top of the perforated plate, forming the bed by compacting it with the plunger C(Fig. 6.25) and con- necting up the apparatus. 3) Adjusting the rate of air flow until the flowmeter shows a difference in level of 300- 500mm, and reading the difference in level, hy, of the manometer across the bed and of thedifference in level, hy, of the flowmeter across the capillary. These observations are repeated to ensure that steady conditions tre obtained, as determined by a constant value of hy/hg- 4) Caleulting the spacific surface (s) which is given by (6.18) (6.138) (6.14) porosity-and equals: 0.475 ie the area in cm” is the depth of the cement bed in cm. ie the density of cement in g/cm? and is the flowmeter constant For an apparatus made to the specifed dimensions in which L is lom and A is 5.066 for a diameter of 2:54cm: = 19.65 ‘ x P fe (6.15) A simplified variation of the method of Lea and Nurse is the one discribed in ASTM Standard C204 (73). In this method a definite quantity of air is drawn through a prepared bed of cement of definite porosity at a steadily dimenishing rate, and not at constant rate as in the method described above The appratus,called the Blaine air-permeability apparatus, is shown in Fig. 6.26. The test procedure is as follows:Value or clamp ar 3 4 ‘| ° Te I a 3 i } ia § S 8 g 8 8 a S a) Manometer Conpling to fit bottom of cell Glass tube 9mm 0.D. 30-1 mm holes distributed, © Fig. 6.26 Blaine air-premeability apparatus for determining the specific surface are of cements (from ASTM (204). Flat 3 mm wide Length 1541 Clearance ——__—____ Oa between plunger - and cell not more than O.lmm =~ Cell - 09T ~ Bed of cement Perforated bras dise Coupling to fii top of manometer b) Details of Cell and plunger) The manometer is filled with a nonvolatile, nonhygroscopic liquid of low viscocity and density, or (a light grade of neral oi1) to the level marked 4 in Fig. 6.26). A cement bed 15 mm thick is prepared in the cell as shown Fig. 4.26(b). The weight of the cement used is such that bed of cement will have a porosity of 0.53+0.005 when ted in the specified manner. ) The cell is attached to the top of the manometer tube. ) Air is then evacuated from the manometer through the side ube until the liquid reaches the top mark (level 1). }) The air valve is closed and the liquid let to fall as ir flows through the bed. ) The time, T, the liguid takes to fall from level 2 to 3 is measured by means of a stopwatch. 1) The specific surface area of the cement is calculated trom s« xf 2 (6.18) vhere k is the constant of the apparatus. It is determined by calibration using standard sample of cement. 6.7.2.3. DETERMINATION OF NORMAL CONSISTANCE In order to test cement for its setting time and ntial to determine the correct amount of mater needed to make neat pastes of satisfactory workability. The determination of the correct amount of water is also Tequired for the reason that the rate of hydration and setting are affected by the water/cement ratio.‘The normal consistence, the initial and final setting times are determined, almost universaly (ES.C.D8.490, BS 12, ASTM C191) with the Vicat apparatus which measures the resistance of a paste to the penetration of a plunger or needle as the case may be under a total load of 300g (Fig. 6,23). The procedure specified in Ethiopian Standard ES.C.D8.490 for determining the quantity of water required to produce a paste of normal (standard) consistence is as follows: 1) A 500g samle of cement with a measured quantity of clean water is thouroughly mixed within 3 minutes by means of a trowel. 2) The cement paste is then filled into the Vicat mould (E) and centrally placed on a plate under the rod (B).~ The temperature of the cement and water and that of the test room during gauging and filling the moulds should be 17.7 to 23.3% ae 3) Immediately after filling the mould, the plunger (G) is lowered gently: and brought in’ contact with ‘the ‘surface of the paste and quickly released. Thirty seconds after releasing the plunger, the penetration is recorded. The paste is of! normal (standard) consistence’ when the rod settles 10+ lum below the! original surface. 4) The test is repeated with fresh ‘trial pastes with varying percentage of water until normal consistence is obtained. 5) The amount of water reauired for normal consistence ‘ts: expressed as a percentage by weight of the dry cement water ~ Toight or mater (8) x 100 (8.2%), The usual range of water/cement ratio for normal consistence is between 26 and 33 percent.Nigure 6.27 “Vicat apparatus for determining the standard consistence and setting time of cement. The.Vicast appratus consists of a frame (D) besring a movable rod (8) vith at one end che cap (A) and at the other, one of the following, which are removable. (1) the needle (c) for determining the initial setting time. (2) the needle (F) for determining the final setting time or (3) the plunger (G) for determining the standard consistence. Construction of needie. The needles (C) and (F) shall be of hardened and tempered steel. There should be about 6 um clearance between the bottom end of the needle, when it is raised and the top edge of the ring sold to enable the would to be located in position without damage to the needle.