New Urbanism the Movement in Context

Author(s): MICHAEL HEBBERT

Source: Built Environment (1978-), Vol. 29, No. 3, New Urbanism (2003), pp. 193-209
Published by: Alexandrine Press
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New

Urbanism

in Context

the Movement
MICHAEL

HEBBERT

The paper sets the New Urbanism into three contexts. A clause-by-clause analysis
the
Charter for New Urbanism places it in the international family of policy responses
of
to the challenge of sustainable development. A comparison with earlier urbanisms positions
this generic new urbanism within the long historical trafficof ideas and ideals in modern town
planning. The paper ends with an assessment of New Urbanism on its home ground, as a
specifically US-based response to the contemporary crisis of the American Dream.

Introduction
Ward's

recent book Planning the

Twentieth-Century City the advanced capitalist
world (2002) is a study of innovation
and
diffusion in planning history. It shows where
Stephen

the

of the

components

modern

land

urban

and how they became

scape
originated
and
familiar.
The narrative has a
widespread
which
paradoxical aspect
happens to provide
a good
New

starting

point

Urbanist

On

the

for an

movement

one

hand

to set

attempt

the

in context.
the

Planning

Twentieth

places

images

freeways

of urban
All

translatable.
planners

festival

woonerven,

and

and

language:

seemed

progress
through

their

market

transcended

the

supporters

last

highly
century,

communicated

through networks of world-wide intellectual

exchange which Pierre-Yves Saunier (2001)
has described

as an Urban

Internationale.

Mutual demonstration and borrowing played

a vital role in widening
the range of pos
the
men
and
women engaged
for
sibility
in the practicalities
of civic improvement
and

environmental

When

protection

at

local

level.

ran up against
planning
private
and
vested political interests
property rights
BUILT ENVIRONMENT

on

the

move
and

aeroplane

in

Pullman

TGV

car,

and

of

ocean

liner,

conferences,

Expos, demonstration
projects and study
visits.
The planning
movement
was linked to
a

of

sense

national
speaks

Century City is a story of internationalism.

The iconography of boulevards, garden cities,
green-belts, pedestrian decks, shopping malls,
tower-blocks,

an appeal to foreign example often proved

its most persuasive
weapon
psychological
(Sutcliffe, 1981, pp. 185-188). So the history of
the town planning movement is one of ideas

urban

reformism

that

reached

frontiers. Saunier
of an 'international
...

movement

(2001,
sphere

embarking

beyond

p. 382)
of the
on

the

difficult but conscious search for an economic

and political world order, increasing
the
social and geographical
division of labour,
pushing forward the logics of rationalization
- a whole set of
and professionalization
of
which
the
phenomena
city seemed to be
both cause and manifestation'. Municipalism
and

internationalism

come

together

on

the

front cover of Stephen Ward's book in the

image of giant gilded male and female statues
welcoming

sea-travellers

to the

monumental

city which the sculptor H. C. Andersen and

planner Ernst Hebrard proposed to be built in
1913 as a symbol of humanitarian solidarity
and a permanent
home for the Olympic
Games.
But

here's

the

ture of Stephen

paradox.

Ward's

The

book

VOL 29 NO 3

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internal

struc

tells another
193

NEW URBANISM

story

His

altogether.

narrative

is

organized

on highly conventional nationalist lines. One

set of chronological
chapters deals with the

'Major Traditions' of France, Germany, the

a
United States and the United Kingdom,
secondary covers 'Other Traditions' including
the Belgian,
Italian,
Swedish,
Spanish,
Australian

Canadian,

and

an

on

emphasis

national

the

of

separateness

frameworks
of law and policy
and the distinctiveness
of the professional
communities who manage city development
within each country's boundaries.
Inter
national

innovation

borrowings

state-bounded
difficult
as he

a series

line

the

different

of

yeast

of routinized,
treads

character

between

Ward

worlds.

shows

as

appear

within

and

the

caricature
accorded

receptions

to innovations within each national political

culture. His 'traditions'
could be arranged
a spectrum

along

collective

to

seriousness,

where

it

can

book

reflection

ends
about

on
the

in the

planning

be

never

new

reach

economic

for

free
and

appearance

States
granted.

for

prospects
the American

as

extends
agreements,

military

power.
the

con

the US city and an ail-American

product
in organization
and method, but is also
deeply informed by international influences,
has an exceptional
awareness
of the global

dimension of planning history, and will itself

be a significant player in the sequel volume
for the twenty-first century. Its practitioners
with the past
pursue a reflective dialogue
of urban

experiments,

ment's organization
homage
194

to

the

and

the

move

and methods pay explicit

Internationale

of

In

century.

drawing

international

parallels,

then

the

consider

domestic

context.

town

as

NU

of the

Outcrop

Postmodern

Stratum

The public realm of a postmodern walkable

is - in Stephen Ward's terms
neighbourhood
- an innovation-diffusion
wave comparable
to those of the garden city, the urban free
way, the green belt, the shopping mall, or
the

waterfront

festival

attraction.

The

New

Urbanism (capitalized)
belongs to an exten
sive family of development
experiments
which question the engrained convention of
design for free-flow vehicle access. They're
'new' in their revisionism
and 'urbanist'
in their postmodern
affinity for compact,
street-based living. Above all, they share an
environmental

discourse
boundaries.

Internationale,
sustainable

from

They're

transcends
part

of a new

formed by the challenge

of

development.
common

an

which

overseas

is

ground
reading

most

of the

CNU

apparent
charter,

- with
published in book form
commentary
- as CNU (2000). The Charter
of the New

of Planning the Twentieth-Century

clusion
the
New Urbanism
City,
exemplifies both
strands of Stephen Ward's narrative, the par
ticular and the universal. New Urbanism is
a specific cultural response to the crisis of

century

twentieth

historical antecedents, and end by putting the

Charter of the New Urbanism (CNU) into its

The
its

trade

towards

the

its context I'll begin with the contemporary

territorial

of pessimistic

economy

hegemony

Making

United

worldwide

through
its

the

taken

century,

the

is treated with

a note

corporate-consumerist
global

where

Germany,

of space

ordering

consistent

The

from

in the early and middle

planning

of

years

Town

Japanese.

planning history is taken country by country,

with

regional

and

Urbanism

opens

with

for

environmental

the

fundamental

territorial principle that the metropolitan

region should be the unit for planning pur
poses (1). This 'new reality' reflects post-Rio
awareness
of the significance of large-scale
urban

form

performance

2000). A new urbanism

requires a
(Moudon,
2002), and no
where more than in the great American urban
sprawl (Squires, 2002). Thomas Adams's First
Regional Plan of New York and its Environs of
(Ravetz,
new regionalism

1929-31 tackled just a 40 mile radius, 11.5

million people and 400 governments; the New
York Metropolitan Region Study of 1956-60

covered a 60 mile radius, 16 million residents

and 1400 governments
(Wood, 1961); the
recent Third Regional Plan for the New York
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VOL 29 NO 3

- THE MOVEMENT

NEW URBANISM

New Jersey-Connecticut Metropolitan Area (Yaro

and Hiss, 1996) covers a 100 mile radius, 20
million
each

residents

and

realize

the

Charter's
can

resources

2000

be

more

more

to

difficult

'revenues

that

hope
shared

At

governments.

it becomes

enlargement

and

cooperatively

among the municipalities and centers within

regions to avoid destructive competition for
tax

base

and

rational

to promote

of transportation,

recreation,

coordination
services,

public

housing and community institutions' (9).

This may be a forlorn hope in the United
but

States,
growth

record

Europe's

management

better

thanks

to the

been

of territorial

the

within

governance

EU (Jouve and Lefevre, 2002; Brenner, 2003).

relies on
Metropolitan
policy discourse
and

metaphors

to

images

elusive

to

substance

give

and complex spatial relationships

et
al, 1997). The Charter (2) reaches
(Healey
in its ecological
back to Patrick Geddes
of
image
regions as 'finite
metropolitan
derived
with
boundaries
geographical
places
from

The

New

parks and river basins'.

regional
Urbanism
of

conception

explicitly

the

other

containment

the

limit

growth,

tool

costs

to

and

edges,

it uses

devices,
as

environment

urban

the

natural

and

of sprawl,

making

must

in the

'swim

(1995,
'farmland

p. 971).
and

sea

sandcastles,
that

swept

However,
nature

are

away'

idea

that

important

to

CNU's
as

urbanism

them

the metropolis as the garden is to the house'

is close to the heart of the British planning
system (Toft, 1995; Kendle and Forbes, 1996)
and it directly echoes the attempts of Euro
BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Studies,

(Urban

country

Stein

development

used

has

environmental

updated

of

the concept
and

infrastructure

for smart

tool

to sculpt

greensward

NU

patterns.

made

it a

growth.

The matching premise is that containment

will stimulate urban renewal. The UK gov
ernment
even

has

been
the

before
Task

to consolidation

committed
of the

report

Force

set

out

Richard
the

Rogers'

rationale

strategies and devised

them

work:

land

sequential

for

a tool-kit
release

for housing and retailing, proactive urban

capacity studies, and land assembly to un
lock vacant sites (DETR,
1999). For CNU
within
'infill
(4)
existing areas
development
conserves

environmental

economic

resources,

investment and social fabric while reclaiming

and

marginal

abandoned

areas.

Metropolitan

should
develop
strategies to en
over peri
such infill development

regions
courage
pheral expansion'.
Continuing in parallel with the Urban Task
Force (DETR, 1999), the fifth article of the
the oldest
New Urbanist charter addresses
all
idea
of
community-building
planning
and

(Hall

Ward,

be

districts,

1998).

organized
not

as

with

homes

as

scattered

(5), and developed

poverty

protect

(3) the 'necessary and fragile relationship'

Rem
and landscape.
between
metropolis
Koolhaas ridicules this conception of urban
instead of
ism as a nostalgic irrelevance:
obstinately

and

town

be

partnership

and Clarence

and

urban

structure

contemporary

2001). Frederick Law Olmstead

should

unbounded

realm. Through

spatial
belts,

green

the

rejects

an

as

city

- a
non-place
entity
stop-lines,

coastlines,

watersheds,

topography,

farmlands,

tween

to

Perspective

Development

the

to make

status

of core cities, the higher degree of fiscal

redistribution, a wider public acceptance of
spatial planning, and the general loosening or
'rescaling'

redefine

brownfield

somewhat

economic

stronger

Spatial

pean

Urban

of metro-regional

has

IN CONTEXT

extensions
and

neighbourhoods

suburbs

dormitory

with a mix of activities

for a spectrum
concentrated

is not

Urban

of incomes
and

diffused (7). NU urban design

should
poses that communities

so

opportunity

theory pro
be built for
long life and loose fit, reducing the need
travel and allowing
for everyday
people
and their
their circumstances
to change
tenure without being forced to move. To the
derision of US neo-conservatives
(e.g. Kolson,
- or
2001) it sees a public transport system
at

least

some

alternatives

framework

as

the

of

key

transportation

to

liveable

settlement pattern (8).

the regional frame
established
Having
to fill out
the
Charter
work,
proceeds

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195

NEW URBANISM

the

town

in

plan

familiar

postmodern

It seeks

detail.

identifiable
districts and
that are compact,
(10)
neighbourhoods
socially and functionally mixed (11,13),
and pedestrian friendly (12). Shops, schools
and public buildings should be embedded in
not isolated in single-use
neighbourhoods,
zones (15). For a benchmark of everyday
convenience

CNU

twentieth-century
walk

and

new

conceptual

has

revived

norms

of

quarter-mile
tools

the
the

and
radius,
- Transit

early

the

young.

streets

should

be

to

instruments

postmodern

urbanism

and urban space, and

that

can

effectively

shape it.
The third section of the Charter develops
the ground-rules
for the design of street,
block and building. At this scale NU clearly
shows its origins in the wider discourse of
-

reacting

the

against

and object-fetishism of the modern

solipsism
architectural

architecture with the city (Ellin, 1996). Here

too the Charter sets out principles
that
have such currency in design guides and
policy frameworks that they are in danger
of seeming less revolutionary than they are:

Oriented

networks

designed

reduce

policy

invented

the Ped-Shed

Interconnected

on

5-minute

- for the nodes

Development,
of activity and density along the stops of a
public transport corridor (14,15).
'Many
activities of daily living should occur within
to
walking distance, allowing independence
those who do not drive, especially the elderly
and

physicality of building

of

encourage

the

studio,

task

primary

of urban

reconnect

and

architecture

design is the physical definition of

landscape
streets

to

aspiring

and

public

as

spaces

of shared

places

use (19); architectural style matters less than

the linkage of building to its urban context
(20); the configuration of joined-up building

the number and length of

walking,
automobile trips, and conserve energy' (12).
As in Britain (ODPM, 2002), this revival of the
walkable neighbourhood
concept involves a

of safety and pedestrian security (21,23);

highway design is not just about wheeled

new

vehicles

role

for

urban

greenspace.

Instead

merely filling the gaps left between

curves
trees

and

development

become

part

of

pods,
a

highway

plants

structure

of

of

and
parks,

'from tot lots and village greens to ballfields

and

community

gardens',

with

plucked

from

linear

land

scaping to define and connect different neigh

bourhoods and districts (18).
So far, the NU's principles of good practice
could

have

been

any

current

- if the
policy source
European Union were
ever to frame an Urban Policy, this is how
it would
read (CEC,
17 of
1990). Clause
the Charter goes at a less familiar tangent
when

it says that 'the economic health and

harmonious
evolution
of neighbourhoods,
districts and corridors can be improved
through graphic urban design codes that serve
as predictable guides for change'. NU's use of

codes, explained below, is inimitable, but you

only need substitute 'master plan', 'design
guidance' or 'local development framework'
for graphic code to rejoin the main-stream
of contemporary practice in its focus on the
196

into

and

streets

on

takes

it

move,

a robust

view

through environmental
best

is the

best

must

guarantee

the

respect

and the form of public space (22).

pedestrian
NU

the

squares

ensured

by

that

crime

design
streets

creating

prevention

- CPTED
that

are

- is

used

and enjoyed, so feel as though they belong to

everyone (figure 1).
A consistent
theme of social inclusion
policy

in contemporary
matters.

design

have

been

planning
reputational
intelligent

Europe

Social

and

exacerbated
and
practices
damage
design

can

is that

gender

urban

exclusion

by

segregationist
and
by physical
to the public realm:
reverse

these

trends

(CEC, 1990; Worpole and Greenhalgh, 1999;

and Marechal,
Roberts, 2000; Schoonbrodt
In
NU
discourse
the
2000).
remaking of the
realm
a
task of 'civic art'
(10,25) is
public
(Kunstler, 1996, p. 57). CNU
to the heart of contemporary

is again close
practice in the
emphasis it puts on the power of place and
the urbanist's duties to geography and history.
Architecture and landscape
design should
grow from local climate, topography,
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history

VOL 29 NO 3

NEW URBANISM

1.

Figure
Zyberk.

New

Urbanism

(Drawing

and

and building
give

their

weather
and

a clear

time (26).
of

redevelopment

sense

New
realm.
Harbor
Street,
Jersey, Duany
public
Liberty
All Rights Reserved)
B. Morrissey
MRAIC,
(c) 1999 Michael

should

of location,
and

cities

should respect the typomorphological

pre
in building patterns and
cedents embodied
site boundaries (6). The continuity and evo
lution of urban society are affirmed through
constructive conservation of historic buildings,
districts and landscapes
(27). In the face of
and mass
standardized
solutions
supply
consumer

the

demand,

new

urbanism

sides

memory,

and

shared

space.

CNU can't be dismissed as mere Disney

Its pub
fication of American home-building.
bulletin
conferences
and
boards,
lications,
the
of
issues
range
surrounding
projects span
sustainable development,
from bioregional
BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Plater

architecture.

to environmental
movement

is

the

source

The

New

of

some

of the sharpest innovation in today's inter

national traffic of planning ideas. Its mixed
use projects, pedestrian-friendly boulevards,
strategies for failed shopping centres, design
charrettes, community workshops, and place
making codes are in fact part of the modern
manifestation

of

Saunier's

'international

- the
global movement
sphere of the urban'
for sustainable

development.

on

of the Atlantic appeals

to the
Architecture
of
Aldo
Rossi's
of the
principles
local
collective
distinctiveness,
City (1982)

both

ism

Urbanist

The development
towns

IN CONTEXT

the

practice (24). Buildings

occupants

and

affirms

Watercolour

- THE MOVEMENT

New Urbanism
New

implies

historical

and Planning
old.

context

NU
and

History

is highly
open

to

aware

of

encounter

with earlier urbanisms, beginning with the

heroic elaboration
of a general theory of
Ildefons
'urbanization'
Cerda, designer
by
of the Barcelona Extension Plan. Cerda did
not use the word urbanism as such, but his

VOL 29 NO 3

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197

NEW URBANISM

a town with
height, and equipping
sanitary, civic and cultural infrastructure
(Vacher, 2002). Joyant's treatise is one of

comprehensive,
empirically-based
theory
of built form, infrastructure and circulation
- Teon'a General de la Urbanization
(1867)

and

was

the

most

ambitious

town

modern

precursor

of

1967;
(Benevolo,
planning
Sutcliffe, 1980). At the turn of the twentieth
century

in

experiments

infrastructure

layout (figure 2) coincided

that

discovery

an

urban

and

with the political

community

could

act

as a reflective, self-conscious
entity, capable
- with the
right legal framework in place
- of
taking a hand in its own process of
physical transformation, a breakthrough the
English called 'town planning', the Germans
'town building'
(Stadtebau) and the French

'urbanism' (Urbanisme, 1999; Ward, 2002).

Traite
Edouard
two-volume
Joyant's
manual
d'Urbanisme
(1923) is a complete
which begins
with the
of townbuilding
in
dimensions
of every major boulevard
France, and goes on to explain the formation
of par
of street blocks and the technique
celling land, controlling

Figure
(Source:
198

2.

Berlin

Figure

building

City Architect's
1185, Hegemann

alignment

early twentieth-century
and Peets,
1922, p. 282).

cluster

setting

of
out

in

texts

twentieth-century

early
a more

or

less

comprehensive

for the
fashion the corpus of knowledge
technical discipline of urbanism as it would
be practised until the middle years of the
Der Stadtebau
Joseph Stiibben's
century
(1907), Raymond Unwin's Town Planning in
Practice: an introduction to the art of designing
Lewis's
cities and suburbs (1909), Nelson
The Planning of the Modern City (1916), John
Nolen's
City Planning: papers presenting the
essential elements of a city plan (1916), Werner
and

Hegemann

Elbert

scores

(1922).
milieux

of promoters

the United

scheme

In
-

American

Peets'

very different
Unwin
as
Raymond
working
private architect-reformer, Joseph Stubben at
the apex of a powerful German municipality
(Koln), John Nolen as itinerant consultant to
Vitruvius

their

and

civic

States, Edouard

of unified

street

bodies

facades

for Neukoelln.

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across

Joyant as senior

VOL 29 NO 3

- THE MOVEMENT

NEW URBANISM

colonial
of

Morocco

common

we

could

put

new

in
engineer
- these

the

French

professional
call

in

old

infrastructure

century

to

boulevards

facilities

the

and

of

conventional

municipal

and

business

services,

within

setting

of streets,

architectonic

blocks, squares, vistas, villas, parks, formality,

picturesqueness.

Le Corbusier launches his great polemical

attack on all of this in his book Urbanisme of
1925. He rejects the assumption of continuity
in urban design and derides the corridor
- the

street

- as

rue-fissure

unwholesome

of twentieth-century

unworthy

and

man.

Under

his tutelage the International

of
Congress
a
Modern
Architecture
becomes
(CIAM)
machine
influential
movement
for
globally
an
(Gold,
1997). Initially
age urbanism
of
for
the
visual
liberation
avant-garde project
architecture from urban tissue, this Urbanism
II soon
of the

evolves
city

as

an

into

entire

a mechanism

planning

of functional

vegetation,
and

cadre.

professional

leadership
architects
within

system

parcels,

its

Instead

envisaged
by
find themselves

space, developers
land

- has

where

creative

marginalized

engineers

and accountants

planners

administer

structure

build the
consents

development
apparatus
though
by conventional

This
gaps.
is highly effective
measures of urban

convenience

mutant

and

landscapers

fill in

Corbusier,

- it
produces

the

towns

with

horrible properties and environments full of

'mistakes' (Alexander, 1979, p.165).
Even before the functionalist
city had
BUILT ENVIRONMENT

of

beginning

had

postwar

heightened

awareness

of people's

Giedion

and

refocus

(Van

of the

the

of the

younger
of

significance

attachment

to

particular

places and local identities. Urbanism III took

shape when Aldo Van Eyck, Jacob Bakema,
Louis Kahn, Georges
Shadrach
Candilis,
Woods
and Alison
and Peter Smithson
launched
Team
broke away from CIAM,
and
reaffirmed
the
claim
on
10,
designer's
the
from
emphasis
city planning. Shifting
function to human association and quality of
the everyday habitat, they took their models
of urbanity from the dense, picturesque,
intimate environments of the casbah and the
slum, the Italian hill-town, the Cornish fishing
village. The first Urban Design Conference
at Harvard in 1956, organized by Siegfried

CIAM

domain

Le

and

clearances

power

zones

own

Urbanism

momentum,

the physical settings of everyday life, and the

theory

and residential neighbourhoods,

joined and
articulated by the curving geometry of free
flow highway
(Bardet, 1949;
engineering
Giedion, 1941; Lynch, 1981, pp. 88-95). By
the mid-century
this model had became
that each urban
so well institutionalized
- circulation,
element
habitation,
work,
recreation

urban

modernists'

alongside

health

full

II generated another dialectical

antithesis.
felt professionally
Architects
duped
by
the emerging division of labour. Wartime
destruction

utilities,

modern

masses,

to

a twentieth

traffic

landscapes

for

welfare

which
was

of public

motor

carry

pedestrians,

bottles

its

developed

spoke

language
I. Its aim

Urbanism

wine

protectorate

urbanists

early

IN CONTEXT

the

Jose Luis

Sert, attempted
momentum

internationalist
Team

around

10's

agenda

for urbanism

Institute, 2002). Kevin

technique and terminology

Alen

provided
new specialism

(Lynch,
This

Lynch
for the
1960; Banerjee and

was

a strange

Southworth,

1994).

of urbanism

in which a fascination

layout

found

and

human

physical

megastructures
pocket

to

of

parks

dynamics

expression
and

under

pedestrian
the

lee

of

phase

with the

the

street

in multi-level
decks
of office

or

in

towers

(Buchanan, 1964; Anderson, 1978). The best

Shadrach Woods could hope for, in The Man
in the Street: a Polemic on Urbanism (1975), were
street-like

for pedestrianism
opportunities
and face-to-face encounter within a world of
free-flow highway engineering and widely
spaced superblocks.
context for
The immediate
international
IV - is provided
NU - Urbanism
by the
who
that
it
was
after
all
grasped
generation
be
in
a
Their
to
modern
rue-fissure.
possible
urbanism
against

originated in grassroots activism

in Paris, New York,
the bulldozer

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199

NEW URBANISM

Toronto,

Brussels,

1996).

What began

against
a

mixed

street:

(Ellin,

in community

struggle

modernization

planned

considered

Barcelona

Berlin,

defence

of

the

thing,

real

became

the

conventional
not

the

ersatz

urbanism
of Team 10 (Broadbent,
1990;
Powell
2000). Using the powerful black
and-white simplicity of figure-ground maps,
Aldo Rossi and Colin Rowe taught architects
to

and

architecture'

'forget

learn

to love

the

spaces formed by the outer walls of buildings

(Caragonne, 1995). Intellectuals found words
to

the

express

public

realm to political
economic

creativity,

of

contributions

the

urban

and

erotic

(Lefebvre, 1991; Berman, 1982;

possibility
Sennett, 1996). Jane Jacobs and W. H. Whyte
made a distinctively American contribution
in their micro
to this new
urbanism
observations
in 'streets

and

of layout
that

and

work',

human

behaviour

at the

macro

scale,

their prophetic recognition that as the city

lost industrial and commercial functions for
which it was no longer competitive it would
reassert
people

its

ancient

come

role

together

as

the

face

to

face,

human

congress being 'the city's true export' (Whyte,

1988, p. 341). A planning theory based upon
the

shared

public

realm

of central

equally fitting for the emerging

postmodern
life-styles (Brooks,
for rising

concern

over

places

Cartesian

urban

space,

was

pattern of
2000) and

COz-induced

change (Calthorpe, 1993, pp. 9-11).

As it reinvented
the historical

climate

type

of

urban

postmodern

kind patronized by Prince Charles interested

only a small coterie of designers networked

through organizations such as the Movement

for the Reconstruction of the European City,
Vision for Europe, and the New Architecture
Group (Culot and Krier, 1978; Tagliaventi
and O'Connor,
1992; Ellin, 1996). The issue
most

European

urbanists

has

not

been

to replicate historical architecture style but

to respect the collective memory embodied
in the layout of streets and spaces
and
200

is

Urbanism'

its

guages
a direct

debt

for

urban

create
to the

in

step

history. It has

planning
respect

wary
that

of every

awareness

twentieth-century

the

sprawl.

pattern

lan

It also

owes

achievements

regulatory

of the US urban design movement (Shirvani,

1981; Punter, 1999). From Team 10 it learns
the pleasures and the limitations of a merely
visual

awareness

of

and

townscape

urban

space. It takes inspiration from Le Corbusier's

and
example of charismatic salesmanship,
aims

to

for

replicate

urbanism

postmodern

the organizational
that CIAM
leadership
its
manifesto
and
provided through
meetings
an

entire

modernist

of

generation

urbanists.
Above all, the New Urbanism is fascinated
by the early twentieth-century phase of de
- Urbanism
I - when urban
sign history
growth

and

renewal

design

strategies

systems

of streets
of

techniques

with history took many

ism's engagement
forms. Pastiche classical revivalism
of the

for

p. 12; Kunstler, 1993, p. 253).

Perhaps the newest thing about the 'New

for

where

place

covery of typologies, genetic codes, pattern

languages (figure 3): the constitutive rules of
the traditional environment (Calthorpe, 1993,

immense,

cultural

pluralism,

growth,

'character'
1995). The
(Moudon,
building
NU approach
to history is different again.
Alex
Strongly influenced
by Christopher
ander's philosophy
of design, its focus is
not on morphological
continuity but on dis

were
that
and

through

managed
used

conventional

spaces,

shaped

through

active

alignment,

frontage,

parcellation, height control and public land

and
scaping. In the 1980s Andres Duany
Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk were travelling with
Robert

Davies

suburbs
and

to

small

of Florida,

set-back

and

towns

and

measuring

re-excavating

interwar

their plots
the

master

1988).
plans of their promoters (Langdon,
To stimulate
lost skills of place-making
American Vitruvius by Werner Hegemann
and Elbert Peets
and Raymond
(1922)
Unwin's

Town Planning in Practice (1909)

were reissued
by Princeton Architectural
Press in 1988 and 1994 respectively (figures
4 and 5). Rizzoli are about to publish The
New Civic Art - Elements of Town Planning,
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VOL 29 NO 3

NEW URBANISM

- THE MOVEMENT

IN CONTEXT

Figure

3.

archetypal

of an
Example
Alexandrine

from The Timeless

pattern,
(Source:
Way of Building.
Alexander,
1979, p. 190, by
kind permission
of Oxford
Press)

University

an updated
on

American

Vitruvius

masterwork

Hegemann's

and

patterned
edited

by

Duany and Robert Alminana. Allan

Jacobs and Michael South worth have revived
the technique - dormant for fiftyyears (figure
the relationship
between
6) - of analyzing
Andres

frontage

and

thoroughfare

through

street

and specifications
cross-sections
(Jacobs,
and Ben-Joseph, 1997). NU
Southworth
1993;
has breathed new life into the most mixed of
all street types, the boulevard
(Jacobs et al.,
I have
The
of
Urbanism
2002).
techniques
been codified and brought up to date to
workable

contemporary
pattern
for something akin to the early
languages
modern street block, the railway suburb, the
garden city (Steuteville, 2001; Gindroz, 2003;

provide

RPA, 1997; WAPC, 1997).

CNU's historical reflexivity is easily mis
BUILT ENVIRONMENT

understood,

particularly

when

urban

neo-trad

to coincide with the senti

layout happens
mentalist branding and marketing of com
Like their European
mercial home-builders.
and Australian counterparts, NU designers
are

looking

for

formulae

contemporary
modern

accommodate

and

living

is based

comparison

on

with

the

working.

old environ

The interest in hundred-year

ments

that

observation

standard-modern

that

in

develop

ment types - they perform tolerably well for

the

motorist

in

motion

and

much

better

for

the two-legged majority. NU homage to plan

of
ning history is driven by considerations
ensure
The
same
considerations
practicality.
that NU ideology, for all its internationalism
is
as giver and taker of design
ideas,
American through and through.

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201

NEW URBANISM

NU

as

American

Dream

former

American
urbanists
their agenda
pursue
in a far less hospitable
policy environment
than

The

counterparts.

European

oil,

and real estate nexus is politically

highways
entrenched,

is

government

and

fragmented

mobility is high. While the sprawl industry

can appeal to gut values in American culture,
smart-growthers are liable to find themselves
branded as busy-body latte drinkers, elitist
Volvo drivers, brie cheese eating blowhards,
in a word, un-American
(Hirschhorn, 2003).
If brie, Volvo and latte are terms of derision,
modern

urbanists

are

not

going

to

look

to

Europe for inspiration as Bernard Rudofsky

(1969) and Edmund Bacon (1967) once did.
CNU opinion-formers
like Harvey Gantt,

Figures
space

4 and
with

housing

and

and

202

Carolina,

American

Dream.

Americans

do

of the New
movement's
sites.

The

Small

attend

the

numbers
annual

of

non

Congresses

Urbanism

and contribute to the

flourishing e-bulletins and web

movement

has

taken

succesful

root

in Canada
outreach

and Australia and has a developing

in Latin America,
particularly
through the University of Miami. But the
energy of New Urbanism is overwhelmingly
focused on the United States. Some Canadians
who signed the Charter in 1996 drifted away
when they found that they were outsiders in
the ideological
struggle for urbanism south
of the

49th

encouraged

parallel.
to go

European
and

found

members
a 'separate

were
and

enclosure.
Peets'

designs
business

for
units

Wyomissing,
Pennsylvania.
(Source:
1185,
Figure
and Peets, 1922,
Hegemann

pp. 282-83)

North

of Milwaukee
Mayor John Norquist
define their task in terms of rekindling the

5. Suburban

urban

Hegemann
NU-admired

of Charlotte,

mayor

and

at

'I.
eirrm...
AM'
HECMANN
AN!)PfPT*
MHmLNC
ARCHITECTJ
MtCTiAllLBWKfE
1NOVYOMIX5IV&.
UNDiCAPfc
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VOL 29 NO 3

NEW URBANISM

Council

equal'

for

policy

and

Australians

and

lot

or

size

of CNU's

environment.
can

in

terms

environmental

Canadians

debate
of

in

Urbanism

European

April 2003.
The focus reflects the exigencies
domestic

- THE MOVEMENT

street

width
cost

convenience,
but

impact,

on

its

home

has to define
ground the New Urbanism
itself within a discourse of patriotism. Fifty
years on from Korean War demobilization,
the

gas-guzzler

suburban

parked

home

in

remains

front
an

of
icon

the
of

new
the

American

Way and pillar of the national

For the time being, the George
administration
will at all costs
keep petrol flowing cheaper than water and
economy.
W. Bush

BUSINESS

protect

IN CONTEXT

Americans

the

from

uncomfortable

realities of oil import dependency

warming.

Car

and global
freedom

freedom,

equals

equals car. The ideological

challenge to NU
is somehow
to reconfigure this American
Dream into a more sustainable vision with as
good a patriotic claim. Three aspects provide
a basis for this imaginative task - the idea of
conservation, the ideal of citizenship, and the
habit of pragmatism.
First

conservation.

CNU

appeals

to

discourse
about the
specifically American
stewardship of nature. Henry David Thoreau
is spuriously
claimed by neo-conservative
libertarians
as patron of the American's
right to settle in the wilderness. His ideal of

STRTS

1. A 68 fKT STREET IS JUST

ADEQUATE foe LOCALTRAFFICIN A
BUSY TOVN. IT PERMITS A 16 FT.
SIDfVALU on {ACM SIOE AMD 36
FT. PAVEMENTFOR TVO PARKING
AND TVO MCV1NG LANES.
2.
A STREET OF TITTY TEET
OR LESS IS INADEQUATE roB. A
BUSINESS STREET. IT PERMITS
ONLY Olit MOVING LANE.
TO PERMIT OBLIQUE.
3.
PARkINO THE 68 -TEET STREET
HAS TO BE INCREASED TO 86
FEET in VIDTO.
4. A STREET FOB
LOCAL AND TOCOUGH
TRAFFIC SHOULD -HAVE
AT LEAST IO^ FEET
OF VIOT+).
5. OBLIQUE PARK
ING CAMBE PROVIDED
TO ADVANTAGE
BETVEEN THE LOCAL
AMD TOE THKXJSH
TRAFFICLANES
IF VIDTH IS IN
CREASED TO
WO FEFT.

6. Profile
Figure
Streets'.
(Source:

of 'Business
Adams,1934,

p. 149).
BUILT ENVIRONMENT

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203

NEW URBANISM

and

harmony
taken

with

coexistence

as the

text

nature

for

arguing

reforestation

wilderness

to be

1920s

of America

the Regional Planning Association

was

is better

In the

for sustainability.

and

protection

harnessed

to metropolitan

decentralization and rural electrification, ideas

Franklin
partially taken up in President
Roosevelt's

New

hensive

river

Deal

basin

initiatives

for compre
and

development

revived

movement

in

green

postwar

years it brought fresh attempts to put land

scape

and

protection

urban

manage

growth

ment in the same frame (Whyte, 1958) though

the main legislative outcome, the Environ
mental Protection Agency, did nothing for
urban

sprawl.

Growth

Forty

movement

on the Thoreau
vironmental

the

on

years
made

has

Smart

a fresh

claim

legacy, dramatizing

cost

of

and

producing

diversity,
2002).

obesity

inequality

the

conservation

homestead

in a natural

landscape.

- an

urban

world

of 'streets

Blake

God's Own
are

really streets', a public realm that expresses

American citizenship. James Howard Kunstler's
Geography of Nowhere (1993) begins with
boyhood memories of summer camp trips to
Lebanon, New Hampshire, a traditional small
town

England

with

a two-acre

square,

streets and front porches with

glowing and the sights and sounds

tree-lined

lamps
of family life within. Like Lewis Mumford
in Cultures of Cities (1938) Kunstler finds his
Home from Nowhere (1996) in a specifically

American

neo-Jeffersonian
setting, a
within
reestablished
the
polity
decentralized
His
contemporary
metropolis.
American Dream evokes the civic world of
democratic

204

and

of

makes

streets

a place

perhaps
of them, which

in the

rising
may

as
run

into open desert on the reverse

bearing.
those Western
streets the false fronts of the
Along
their gable
wooden
masked
ends
to
buildings
a true street facade,
for urban
provide
reaching
The architectural
in the vastness.
scale, for a shape
builders
was a good
instinct
of their anonymous
their
and right one, as it was when
they provided
with

streets
the

resonant

posts.

The iconography
not

confined

to

shaded

boardwalks

of buildings,
1969, p. 80)
(Scully,

porches

of US

that

the

and the panhandle

of one

Vincent

does

Peter

and

from

courthouse

alerted

(Squires,

sketched it out in his 1964 polemic

New

of two

crossing

the
emptiness,
the culmination

tradition

begin to bite, the nation will need some other

prototype of the good life than the individual

]unkyard

the

main

argument

towns

Texas,

by

wooden

Street USA

of Main

America.

small-town

Scully

over

on

supported

is

What

to the indigenous
was

urbanism

not

the

board

of the mid-West but his reading of

Jane Jacobs (1961). Death and Life of Great
American Cities is arguably the intellectual
climax of the idea of Main Street and - with
walks

the

works

Marshal

of

fellow

Zukin

and

offer

a truly

modernist

Richard

Berman,

humanists

Sennett, and the

academic

contemporary

When

little

to Oklahoma

the en

taining suburban lifestyles (Calthorpe, 1993;

Benfield, 1999). Only gasoline so cheap it seems
inexhaustible
allows Americans
to go on
on
air pol
the
costs
of
sprawl
discounting
habitat
water
lution,
supply,
protection, bio
and

in the

where

Dakotas

Architecture

American

Scully's

Urbanism,

endlessly

belt towns (Weaver, 1984, pp. 57-75). When the

conservation

Vincent

of Sharon
generation
- it continues
to
Hayden

Dolores
American

and

civic

programme

for the city as W. H. Whyte's 'river of life', a

space of pluralism and possibility. This is the
New

Urbanists'

dream

too

(Graz

and

Mintz,

1998; Norquist, 1998).

Finally, the CNU reworking of the Ameri
can Dream
shows
the hallmarks
of the
national tradition of pragmatism - a culture
of trust in empirical experiment and prac
tical knowledge.
Given the extreme decen
tralization of control over building activity,
NU must work the grassroots, winning the
confidence of mayors and fire-chiefs, devel
opers and voters. In the tradition of US design
control,

precise

and

non-arbitrary

regulatory

solutions

are required that comply with the

and
14th constitutional amendments
5th
1st,
(Punter, 1999, p. 30). In contrast to Britain,
where innovative thinking about urban de
sign has been disseminated
paternalistically
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VOL 29 NO 3

NEW URBANISM

from

ministers

prince,

of

- THE MOVEMENT

their

state,

and their
advisers,
knighted or ennobled
central commissions
and agencies, CNU is
a

campaigning

on

organization

the

stump.

Travelling, speaking, persuading, its activists

resemble Ebenezer Howard's original garden
city campaigners, and like Howard they rely
on

the

of

power

demonstration.

practical

Instead
of deploring
low-density
single
use 'pod'
NU studies
the
development,
which

pattern-languages

have

proved

so

extraordinarily powerful and calculates how

to shift them. It is intensely focused on the
levers

and

handles

of zoning

codes,

mortgage

lending rules, highway design manuals. In

his blueprint for the Next American Metropolis,
Peter Calthorpe deliberately sets criteria for
walkable
and coherent
without
layouts
(1993,
pictures, renderings or perspectives
p. 12). Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater
Zyberk have moved away from architectural
which offer - in
blueprint to codebooks
almost mechanistic fashion - sets of matching
rules for private development
and public
tailored
for
different
situations
realm,
along
the

spectrum

or

transect

from

urbanity

to

rurality. Hostile codes and zoning ordinances

destroyed the public realm: the same tools
can build it up again (figure 7).

IN CONTEXT

The emphasis
on rules is disconcerting,
to
architectural
but
creatives,
especially
even

Andres

Duany's

have

opponents

to

admit how effectively he has 'grabbed traffic

engineers, politicans and developers
by the
collar and convinced
them to act on ideas
better than those they had' (HDM,
1997,
p. 1). The point is made well by Elizabeth
Plater-Zyberk in her standard letter to CNU
enquirers:
of New

Proponents
elements

are

Urbanism

also

know

how

to

elected
developers,
who can turn such

One
travels

them
build

and

regions

in clear

officials

detail.

They
of citizens,
business
leaders

and
into

reality.

famous

down

streets,

coalitions

visions

of Duany's
up

physical

create

and

healthy
neighbourhoods
and they can describe

what

good
successful

know

to

required

the

tricks

on

is

country

to

his
take

the local zoning code and dump it in a

Another is
basket, to applause.
waste-paper
to show a slide of an electrical socket block
as

a metaphor

builders

for

the

alternative

available

power-source
and

to

landowners

as

and

viable

governments,
soon

as

they

tire

of sprawl and decide to plug in to a better

set of rules. The reward for this pragmatism
has been rapid and widespread
momentum
of demonstrable
projects, on a scale to rival

KingFarmTownCenter
Safeway i Otherbuildings

7.

Figure
growth
around
retail
Town

NU-inspired
of urban
tissue
a free-standing
at King Farm

box

Gallas

Center, by Torti
and Partners
and

CHK.

(Source:

New

Urban

News, 2001, 6(5), p. 12, by

kind

Gallas
BUILT ENVIRONMENT

of Torti
permission
& Partners)

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205

NEW URBANISM

any

twentieth-century

immerses himself in the study of Spanish,

in the hope of
history and Catholicism
becoming able to rewrite Don Quixote word
for word (Loomis, 1999; Borges, 1970). Yet
the analogy isn't quite right. New Urbanism
is not trying to conjure up the good old days.

innovation

planning

(figure 8). In other words, this new American

Dream

is no

dream.

Conclusion
I began
that

with

the

Stephen

twenty-first

Ward's

It is

foreboding

will

century

be

marked

by aggressive
global extension of a funda
US
mentally anti-urban (and anti-planning)
corporate culture (2002, p. 407). This is the
context that gives the CNU its force and
variant of post
urgency. The American
modern

shares

urbanism

of movements

elsewhere

many
for

of the

spatial

Its

attempt
for the

pattern-languages
suburbs

and

outer

parts

to invent
cores,

middle

zones,
cities

is

heroic - Robert Fishman

extraordinarily
of
compares it to the quixotic undertaking
Pierre

Menard,

the

Borges

character

that

as

any

of the

reform

the twentieth-century

shaped

city. Its mission is simply to write a better

text for the urban world of the twenty-first
than

century
have

ready

the

one

and

Wal-Mart

Exxon

for us.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

workable

of compact

future-oriented

values

strategy,

ecological regionalism, sustainable develop

but it
ment, and liveable neighbourhoods,
wraps them in an entirely distinctive brand of
pragmatism.

as

movements

the
with
gratefully
acknowledges,
from Michael
feedback
disclaimers,
Morrissey,
Saunders
and
the
Melissa
Marshall,
Stephen

The

author

usual

Commission
of the Royal
support
bition
of 1851, and the hospitality
in Community
Building
Program
of Miami

School

for the

of the
and

Exhi

Knight

University

of Architecture.

who

fflfliigii

Figure
Michael
206

8. Liberty
New
Harbor,
B. Morrissey
MRAIC,

Jersey City, Duany

All Rights Reserved)

Plater-Zyberk.

(Drawing

and

Watercolour

(c) 1999

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

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VOL 29 NO 3

NEW URBANISM

- THE MOVEMENT

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