9^

1-1c

Prehistoric painters consistently

represented

a n i m a l s in s t r i c t profile, t h e o n l y v i e w s h o w i n g t h e

head,

b o d y , tail, a n d all f o u r legs. But at L a s c a u x , b o t h h o r n s

i n c l u d e d t o give a c o m p l e t e picture of t h e bull.

are

Art in the Stone Age

THE DAWN OF ART
T h e O l d Stone A g e , o r Paleolithic

p e r i o d ( f r o m t h e G r e e k paleo,

" o l d , " a n d lithos,

"stone"), w h i c h began

a r o u n d 4 0 , 0 0 0 B C E , w a s a r g u a b l y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t era i n t h e e n t i r e h i s t o r y o f a r t . I t w a s t h e n t h a t
humans invented the concept o f recording the w o r l d a r o u n d t h e m i n pictures, often painted o n or
c a r v e d i n t o t h e w a l l s o f caves.
T h e o l d e s t a n d b e s t - k n o w n p a i n t e d caves are i n s o u t h e r n F r a n c e a n d n o r t h e r n S p a i n ( M A P 1-1). T h e
m o s t f a m o u s is t h e cave at L a s c a u x . M o r e t h a n 17,000 years ago, p r e h i s t o r i c p a i n t e r s c o v e r e d m a n y o f
t h e w a l l s o f t h e cave w i t h i m a g e s o f a n i m a l s . T h e m a i n c h a m b e r ( F I G . 1-1), n i c k n a m e d t h e H a l l o f t h e
B u l l s , is a n u n u s u a l l y large space a n d easily accessible, b u t m a n y o f t h e p a i n t i n g s at L a s c a u x a n d i n o t h e r
caves are a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o r e a c h . E v e n i n t h e H a l l o f t h e B u l l s , t h e p e o p l e w h o c o n g r e g a t e d
c o u l d o n l y have v i e w e d the paintings i n the

flickering

there

l i g h t o f a p r i m i t i v e l a m p . The representations

of

animals cannot have been merely decorative, b u t w h a t m e a n i n g t h e y carried f o r those w h o made a n d

v i e w e d t h e m r e m a i n s a m y s t e r y . B u l l s a n d h o r s e s , t h e m o s t c o m m o n l y d e p i c t e d species, w e r e n o t d i e t
staples i n t h e O l d S t o n e A g e . W h y , t h e n , d i d t h e p a i n t e r s c h o o s e t o r e p r e s e n t these p a r t i c u l a r a n i m a l s ?
I n t h e absence o f w r i t t e n r e c o r d s , n o o n e w i l l ever k n o w .
A r t h i s t o r i a n s c a n , h o w e v e r , l e a r n a great d e a l a b o u t t h e w o r k i n g m e t h o d s a n d c o n c e p t u a l p r i n ciples o f t h e w o r l d s first artists b y closely s t u d y i n g t h e L a s c a u x p a i n t i n g s a n d o t h e r s l i k e t h e m . T h e
i m m e d i a t e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t a m o d e r n v i e w e r gets o f a r a p i d l y m o v i n g h e r d is a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y false.
T h e " h e r d " consists o f several d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f a n i m a l s o f v a r i o u s sizes m o v i n g i n d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s .
A l s o , t w o f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s t o p i c t u r e m a k i n g are o n display. M a n y o f t h e a n i m a l s are
c o l o r e d s i l h o u e t t e s , w h e r e a s o t h e r s are o u t l i n e d r a w i n g s . These d i f f e r e n c e s i n style a n d t e c h n i q u e s u g gest t h a t d i f f e r e n t p a i n t e r s c r e a t e d t h e i m a g e s at d i f f e r e n t t i m e s , p e r h a p s o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f g e n e r a t i o n s .
Nonetheless, all prehistoric representations

o f a n i m a l s f o r t h o u s a n d s o f years d e p i c t t h e beasts

i n the same w a y : i n strict p r o f i l e , the o n l y v i e w o f a n a n i m a l w h e r e i n the head, body, tail, a n d all f o u r

legs are v i s i b l e . T h e L a s c a u x p a i n t e r s , h o w e v e r , s h o w e d t h e b u l l s ' h o r n s f r o m t h e f r o n t , n o t i n p r o f i l e ,
because t w o h o r n s are p a r t o f t h e c o n c e p t " b u l l . " O n l y m u c h later i n t h e h i s t o r y o f a r t d i d p a i n t e r s bec o m e c o n c e r n e d w i t h h o w t o d e p i c t a n i m a l s a n d p e o p l e f r o m a f i x e d v i e w p o i n t o r d e v e l o p a n interest
i n r e c o r d i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a r o u n d t h e figures. T h e p a i n t i n g s c r e a t e d at t h e d a w n o f a r t are i n m a n y
ways m a r k e d l y different i n k i n d f r o m all that f o l l o w e d .

15

PALEOLITHIC ART

^
200

H u m a n k i n d originated i n A f r i c a i n the very

200
400 mjles
I ,
400 kilometers .

'
Skara Brae

r e m o t e past. F r o m t h a t great c o n t i n e n t also

has c o m e t h e earliest e v i d e n c e o f h u m a n r e c ognition

of pictorial

images

i n the

1-1A)

found

at

Makapansgat

in

ENGLAND

South

Sto n elreriife^jVr:^

A f r i c a . T h e f i r s t e x a m p l e s o f w h a t p e o p l e gener-

I31-1A

Ihey

resembling a face,

BCE

GERMANY

#</"

a l l y c a l l " a r t " are m u c h m o r e r e c e n t , h o w e v e r .

date t o a r o u n d 4 0 , 0 0 0 t o 3 0 , 0 0 0

Sea

IRELAND

e n v i r o n m e n t a t h r e e - m i l l i o n - y e a r - o l d pebble
(FIG.

North

^"^^^IvJ ewgra n ge

natural

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

Pebble

d u r i n g t h e P a l e o l i t h i c p e r i o d . T h i s era was o f

M a k a p a n s g a t , ca.

unparalleled importance i n h u m a n history a n d

3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 BCE.

HohlensWi
i,
^jT
.Stadel
j ^ r ^ ^ ^ d ^ y ^

AUSTRIA

i n t h e h i s t o r y o f a r t . I t w a s d u r i n g t h e O l d Stone A g e t h a t h u m a n s

La Madeleme Lascaux
Laussel." p,u .
La M a g d e l e i n e t , * >
* ., Valtort-,,.

f i r s t c o n s c i o u s l y m a n u f a c t u r e d p i c t o r i a l i m a g e s . T h e w o r k s t h e ear-

Altamira*

hest artists p r o d u c e d are r e m a r k a b l e n o t s i m p l y f o r t h e i r e x i s t e n c e

Brassempouy l^^^,^
iilBj^fl'Audoubert

b u t also f o r t h e i r a s t o n i s h i n g v a r i e t y . T h e y r a n g e f r o m s i m p l e s h e l l
necklaces t o h u m a n a n d a n i m a l f o r m s i n i v o r y , clay, a n d s t o n e t o
life-size mural

( w a l l ) p a i n t i n g s a n d s c u l p t u r e s i n caves. D u r i n g

the Paleolithic p e r i o d , h u m a n k i n d w e n t b e y o n d the

recognition

(literally, the presenting a g a i n i n different a n d sub-

stitute f o r m o f s o m e t h i n g o b s e r v e d ) o f h u m a n s a n d a n i m a l s . T h e

ITALY

SPAIN
1
Mediterranean

of h u m a n and a n i m a l f o r m s i n the natural e n v i r o n m e n t to the

representation

'

Names and boundaries of

present-day nations appear

in b r o w n

>

Sea

MALTA

A'FRtCA

i m m e n s i t y o f t h i s a c h i e v e m e n t c a n n o t be o v e r s t a t e d .
MAP 1-1 Stone Age sites i n Europe.

Africa
S o m e o f t h e earliest p a i n t i n g s y e t d i s c o v e r e d c o m e f r o m A f r i c a ,

HOHLENSTEIN-STADEL O n e o f t h e o l d e s t s c u l p t u r e s ever d i s -

b u t u n l i k e t h e p a i n t i n g s i n E u r o p e a n caves m o s t p e o p l e t h i n k o f as

c o v e r e d is an e x t r a o r d i n a r y i v o r y statuette ( F I G . 1-3), w h i c h m a y

synonymous w i t h Paleolithic art, the oldest A f r i c a n paintings were

date b a c k as f a r as 4 0 , 0 0 0 B C E . F o u n d i n 1939 i n f r a g m e n t s i n s i d e

portable objects.

a cave at H o h l e n s t e i n - S t a d e l i n G e r m a n y , t h e statuette,

carved

f r o m t h e t u s k o f a w o o l l y m a m m o t h , is n e a r l y a f o o t t a l l a t r u l y
1969 a n d 1972, scientists w o r k i n g i n

h u g e i m a g e f o r its era. L o n g t h o u g h t t o have b e e n created a b o u t

t h e A p o l l o 11 C a v e i n N a m i b i a f o u n d seven f r a g m e n t s o f p a i n t e d

3 0 , 0 0 0 years ago, t h e r e c e n t d i s c o v e r y o f h u n d r e d s o f a d d i t i o n a l t i n y

stone p l a q u e s , i n c l u d i n g f o u r o r f i v e r e c o g n i z a b l e i m a g e s o f a n i m a l s .

f r a g m e n t s has p u s h e d t h e date b a c k a b o u t 10,000 years based o n

I n m o s t cases, i n c l u d i n g t h e e x a m p l e i l l u s t r a t e d h e r e ( F I G . 1-2), t h e

radiocarbon

species is u n c e r t a i n , b u t t h e p a i n t e r s a l w a y s r e n d e r e d t h e f o r m s w i t h

( R a d i o c a r b o n d a t i n g is a m e a s u r e o f t h e rate o f d e g e n e r a t i o n o f car-

c a r e a n d i n the i d e n t i c a l w a y (see " H o w t o Represent a n A n i m a l , "

b o n 14 i n o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s . ) T h e statuette t h u s testifies t o a v e r y

APOLLO n

CAVE B e t w e e n

dating

o f t h e b o n e s f o u n d i n t h e same e x c a v a t i o n level.

page 17). O n e p l a q u e d e p i c t s a s t r i p e d beast, p o s s i b l y a zebra. T h e

e a r l y date f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e h u m a n b r a i n , because t h e sub-

a p p r o x i m a t e date o f t h e c h a r c o a l f r o m t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l a y e r c o n -

j e c t o f t h e w o r k is n o t s o m e t h i n g t h e P a l e o l i t h i c s c u l p t o r c o u l d see

t a i n i n g t h e N a m i b i a n p l a q u e s is 2 3 , 0 0 0 B C E .

a n d c o p y b u t s o m e t h i n g t h a t e x i s t e d o n l y i n t h e artist's v i v i d i m a g i n a t i o n . T h e i v o r y f i g u r i n e represents a h u m a n ( w h e t h e r m a l e o r

Europe

f e m a l e c a n n o t be d e t e r m i n e d ) w i t h a f e l i n e ( l i o n ? ) h e a d . C o m p o s i t e

E v e n o l d e r t h a n t h e N a m i b i a n p a i n t e d p l a q u e s are s o m e o f t h e f i r s t

familiar i n the art o f ancient M e s o p o t a m i a and Egypt (compare, for

s c u l p t u r e s a n d p a i n t i n g s o f w e s t e r n E u r o p e ( M A P 1-1), a l t h o u g h

e x a m p l e , F I G S . 2-10 a n d 3 - 1 ) . I n t h o s e c i v i l i z a t i o n s , s u r v i v i n g texts

examples o f s t i l l greater a n t i q u i t y m a y y e t b e f o u n d i n A f r i c a .

u s u a l l y e n a b l e h i s t o r i a n s t o n a m e t h e f i g u r e s a n d describe t h e i r r o l e

creatures w i t h a n i m a l heads a n d h u m a n b o d i e s ( a n d v i c e versa) are

THE STONE A
>

4 0 , 0 0 0 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 BCE

2 0 , 0 0 0 - 9 0 0 0 BCE

Early Paleolithic

Later Paleolithic

Hunter-gatherers create t h e

Painters cover t h e walls a n d

9 0 0 0 - 8 0 0 0 BCE

Mesolithic

8 0 0 0 - 5 0 0 0 BCE

Early Neolithic

In A n a t o l i a a n d M e s o p o t a m i a ,

first sculptures a n d paintings,

c e i l i n g s o f c a v e s at A l t a m i r a

the earliest settled c o m m u n i t i e s

long before t h e invention of

and Lascaux w i t h profile repre-

take shape and agriculture

writing

sentations of a n i m a l s

begins

T h e w o r k s range in scale f r o m

Sculptors carve i m a g e s of nude

towers and fortification walls at

a t La M a g d e l e i n e

Jericho

Sculptors f a s h i o n large-scale
painted plaster h u m a n figures

c a v e at P e c h - M e r l e

at A i n G h a z a l

N e o l i t h i c b u i l d e r s in I r e l a n d a n d
Britain erect megalithic passage
graves a n d henges

T h e s t o n e t e m p l e s of M a l t a
and rectilinear forms

w o m e n on t h e walls of t h e cave

as t h e p a i n t e d h o r s e s i n t h e

incorporate sophisticated curved

o f Willendorf,

ings a n d relief s c u l p t u r e s , s u c h

Later Neolithic

Neolithic builders erect stone

t i n y f i g u r i n e s , s u c h as t h e Venus
t o life-size p a i n t -

5 0 0 0 - 2 3 0 0 BCE

Painters depict coherent

narratives and employ c o m p o s ite v i e w s f o r h u m a n f i g u r e s a t
Catal Hoyuk

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

How to Represent an Animal

m a m m o t h , a n d ibex a r e t h e m o s t c o m m o n . In fact. Paleolithic painters

a n d s c u l p t o r s d e p i c t e d h u m a n s i n f r e q u e n t l y , a n d m e n a l m o s t never.
In e q u a l l y s t a r k c o n t r a s t t o t o d a y ' s w o r l d , t h e r e w a s a l s o a g r e e m e n t
o n t h e best a n s w e r t o t h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n . D u r i n g at least t h e first

Like e v e r y a r t i s t i n e v e r y a g e i n e v e r y m e d i u m , t h e P a l e o l i t h i c p a i n t e r

2 0 , 0 0 0 years of t h e history of art, artists represented virtually every

of t h e a n i m a l p l a q u e (FIG. 1-2) f o u n d i n t h e A p o l l o 11 C a v e i n N a m i b i a

a n i m a l in every painting in t h e s a m e m a n n e r : in strict profile. W h y ?

shall b e m y

T h e p r o f i l e is t h e o n l y v i e w o f a n a n i m a l i n w h i c h t h e h e a d , b o d y ,

s u b j e c t ? How s h a l l I r e p r e s e n t i t ? I n P a l e o l i t h i c a r t , t h e a l m o s t u n i v e r -

tall, a n d all four legs are visible. T h e frontal v i e w conceals m o s t o f t h e

sal a n s w e r t o t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n w a s a n a n i m a l . B i s o n , h o r s e , w o o l l y

body, a n d a t h r e e - q u a r t e r v i e w s h o w s neither t h e f r o n t n o r side fully.

h a d t o a n s w e r two q u e s t i o n s b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g w o r k : What

O n l y t h e p r o f i l e v i e w is c o m p l e t e l y

informative about the animal's

s h a p e , a n d t h a t is w h y S t o n e A g e p a i n t e r s u n i v e r s a l l y c h o s e it.
A very long t i m e passed before artists placed any p r e m i u m o n
"variety" o r "originality" either in subject choice or in representational
manner. These arequite m o d e r n notions inthe history ofart.The aimof
the earliest painters w a s t ocreate a convincing image oftheir subject, a
kind o f pictorial definition o f t h e a n i m a l c a p t u r i n g its very essence, a n d
only the profile view m e t their needs.

1-2 A n i m a l facing left, from the ApoUo 11 Cave, Namibia,

ca. 23,000 B C E . Charcoal o n stone, 5" x 4^". State M u s e u m of
Namibia, Windhoek.
A s in a l m o s t all paintings for t h o u s a n d s o f years, in this very early e x a m p l e
f r o m Africa, t h epainter r e p r e s e n t e d t h ea n i m a l in strict profile s o that t h e
head, body, tail, a n dallfour legs are clearly visible.

1-3 H u m a n with feline (lion?)

speculate o n t h e p u r p o s e a n d f u n c t i o n o f statuettes s u c h as t h e o n e

head, from Hohlenstein-Stadel,

f r o m Hohlenstein-Stadel.
A r t h i s t o r i a n s are c e r t a i n , h o w e v e r , t h a t these s c u l p t u r e s w e r e

Germany, ca. 40,000-35,000 B O B .

Woolly m a m m o t h ivory, 1 1 1 " high.

i m p o r t a n t t o t h o s e w h o c r e a t e d t h e m , because m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n

U l m e r Museum, U l m .

i v o r y figure, e s p e c i a l l y o n e a f o o t t a l l , was a c o m p l i c a t e d process.

First, the h u n t e r o r t h e sculptor h a d to remove the tusk f r o m the

O n e o f t h e v\/orld's o l d e s t p r e s e r v e d
s c u l p t u r e s is t h i s l a r g e i v o r y f i g u r e

t h e s c u l p t o r c u t t h e i v o r y t o t h e d e s i r e d size a n d r u b b e d i t i n t o its

o f a h u m a n w i t h a f e l i n e h e a d . It is
uncertain whether the work depicts a
composite creature or a human wearing an animal

dead a n i m a l b y c u t t i n g i n t o the tusk where it j o i n e d the head. Then

mask.

a p p r o x i m a t e final shape w i t h s a n d s t o n e . F i n a l l y , t h e c a r v e r used a

s h a r p s t o n e b l a d e t o shape t h e b o d y , l i m b s , a n d h e a d , a n d a stone
burin

(a p o i n t e d engraving

t o o l ) t o incise

( s c r a t c h o r engrave) l i n e s

i n t o t h e surfaces, as o n t h e H o h l e n s t e i n - S t a d e l creature's
E x p e r t s e s t i m a t e t h a t t h i s large

figurine

arms.

r e q u i r e d about 400 hours

( a b o u t t w o m o n t h s o f u n i n t e r r u p t e d w o r k i n g days) o f s k i l l e d w o r k .
in religion and mythology. But for
Stone A g e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , n o o n e

WILLENDORF T h e c o m p o s i t e

knows what their makers h a d i n

e x c e p t i o n a l b o t h f o r i t s e a r l y date a n d its subject. T h e vast m a j o r -

m i n d . S o m e scholars i d e n t i f y t h e

i t y o f Stone A g e s c u l p t u r e s d e p i c t e i t h e r a n i m a l s o r h u m a n s . I n t h e

animal-headed

humans

cerers, w h e r e a s

others

them

as

magicians

masks. Similarly, some

ers

have

interpreted

feline-human from

Germany

is

sor-

earliest a r t , h u m a n k i n d consists a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y o f w o m e n as

describe

opposed t o m e n . Paleolithic painters a n d sculptors almost invari-

wearing

a b l y s h o w e d t h e m n u d e , a l t h o u g h h i s t o r i a n s g e n e r a l l y assume t h a t

research-

d u r i n g t h e I c e A g e b o t h w o m e n a n d m e n w o r e g a r m e n t s cover-

as

Paleolithic

representations o f h u m a n - h e a d e d

i n g parts o f t h e i r bodies. W h e n archaeologists

first

encountered

these statuettes o f w o m e n , t h e y d u b b e d t h e m " V e n u s e s " after t h e

a n i m a l s as h u m a n s w e a r i n g a n i -

G r e c o - R o m a n goddess o f b e a u t y a n d l o v e , w h o m later artists u s u -

m a l s k i n s . I n t h e absence o f a n y

a l l y d e p i c t e d n u d e . T h e n i c k n a m e is i n a p p r o p r i a t e a n d m i s l e a d i n g .

contemporaneous

written

expla-

n a t i o n s t h i s was a t i m e before
writing,
and

before

amateurs

historyexperts
alike

can

only

I n d e e d , i t is d o u b t f u l t h a t t h e P a l e o l i t h i c figurines represent deities

o f any k i n d .
O n e o f t h e o l d e s t a n d m o s t f a m o u s P a l e o l i t h i c f e m a l e images is
t h e t i n y l i m e s t o n e figurine o f a w o m a n t h a t l o n g ago b e c a m e k n o w n

0 Every thumbnail illustration has a corresponding full-size Bonus Image and accompanying Bonus Essay online.

17

of t h e W i l l e n d o r f

figurine

suggested o n l y a mass o f c u r l y h a i r or,

as s o m e researchers have a r g u e d , a h a t w o v e n f r o m p l a n t

fibers-

e v i d e n c e f o r t h e a r t o f t e x t i l e m a n u f a c t u r e at a v e r y early date. I n
e i t h e r case, t h e e m p h a s i s is o n f e m a l e a n a t o m y . The breasts o f t h e
W i l l e n d o r f w o m a n are e n o r m o u s , far l a r g e r i n p r o p o r t i o n t h a n t h e
t i n y f o r e a r m s a n d h a n d s r e s t i n g o n t h e m . The carver also t o o k p a in s
to

s c r a t c h i n t o t h e stone t h e o u t l i n e o f t h e p u b i c t r i a n g l e . S c u l p -

t o r s o f t e n o m i t t e d t h i s d e t a i l i n o t h e r e a r l y figurines, l e a d i n g some
scholars t o q u e s t i o n t h e f u n c t i o n o f these figures as f e r t i l i t y images.
W h a t e v e r t h e p u r p o s e o f these statuettes, t h e m a k e r s ' i n t e n t seems
to have b e e n t o r e p r e s e n t n o t a specific w o m a n b u t t h e fe ma le f o r m .
LAUSSEL P r o b a b l y l a t e r i n date t h a n t h e Venus

of Willendorf

is a

f e m a l e figure ( F I G . 1-5) f r o m Laussel i n France. The W i l l e n d o r f a n d

H o h l e n s t e i n - S t a d e l figures are sculptures
sculptures).

in the round

{freestanding

T h e Laussel w o m a n is o n e o f t h e earliest relief

sculp-

tures k n o w n . T h e s c u l p t o r e m p l o y e d a stone chisel t o c u t i n t o the

r e l a t i v e l y flat surface o f a large r o c k i n o r d e r t o create a n i m a g e p r o j e c t i n g f r o m t h e b a c k g r o u n d . T o d a y , t h e Laussel r e l i e f is o n d i s p l a y
i n a m u s e u m , d i v o r c e d f r o m its o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t , a d e t a c h e d piece
o f w h a t o n c e was a m u c h m o r e i m p o s i n g w o r k . W h e n d i s c o v e r e d .

1-4 Nude woman {Venus of Willendorf),

from Willendorf, Austria,

ca. 28,000-25,000 B C E . Limestone, 4\" high. Naturhistorisches

Museum, V i e n n a .
The

a n a t o m i c a l e x a g g e r a t i o n s in t h i s t i n y f i g u r i n e f r o m W i l l e n d o r f a r e t y p i c a l

of P a l e o l i t h i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f w o m e n , w h o s e c h i l d - b e a r i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s
ensured the survival of the species.

as t h e Venus

of Willendorf

(mc.

1-4) after its findspot

(place o f d i s -

c o v e r y ) i n A u s t r i a . Its c l u s t e r o f a l m o s t b a l l - l i k e shapes is u n u s u a l ,
t h e r e s u l t i n p a r t o f t h e s c u l p t o r ' s response t o t h e n a t u r a l shape o f
t h e stone selected f o r c a r v i n g . T h e a n a t o m i c a l e x a g g e r a t i o n has s u g gested t o m a n y o b s e r v e r s t h a t t h i s a n d s i m i l a r statuettes s e r v e d as
f e r t i l i t y i ma g e s . B u t o t h e r P a l e o l i t h i c

figurines

depicting w o m e n

w i t h far m o r e s l e n d e r p r o p o r t i o n s exist, a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f these

images is as elusive as e v e r y t h i n g else a b o u t t h e w o r l d ' s earliest a r t .
Yet t h e p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f f e m a l e o v e r m a l e figures seems t o i n d i cate a p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h w o m e n , w h o s e c h i l d - b e a r i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s
e n s u r e d t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e species.
O n e t h i n g at least is clear: t h e
of

Willendorf

naturalism
and

Venus

sculptor d i d not a i m for

(fidelity to nature) i n

shape

p r o p o r t i o n . A s is t r u e o f m o s t Pal eo-

l i t h i c figures, t h e s c u l p t o r o f t h i s w o m a n
did

n o t c a r v e a n y f a c i a l features. A s i m i -

lar

b u t even smaller i v o r y

in

2008 i n a cave at H o h l e Pels,

Ulm,
or

Germany,

figurine

contemporaneous

found
near
with

p e r h a p s e v e n several t h o u s a n d years

older t h a n the Hohlenstein-Stadel statug ) 1.4/^

|_|g3(j o f a

ette, lacks a n y h e a d at a l l . T h e i v o r y h e a d
1-4A) of a w o m a n f r o m B r a s s e m p o u y ,

woman(?), Brassempouy,

(FIG.

ca. 2 5 , 0 0 0 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 BCE.

F r a n c e , is a n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n . T h e c a r v e r

18

CHAPTER 1

A r t in t h e Stone A g e

1-5 W o m a n holding a bison horn, from Laussel, France,

ca. 25,000-20,000 B C E . Painted limestone, 1' 6" high. Musee
d'Aquitaine, Bordeaux.
One

of t h e oldest k n o w n relief sculptures d e p i c t s a w o m a n w h o holds a bison

h o r n a n d w h o s e left a r m d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o her belly. Scholars c o n t i n u e t o

debate the meaning of the gesture and the horn.

1-6 T w o bison, reliefs i n the cave at Le Tuc

d'Audoubert, France, ca. 15,000-10,000 B C E .
Clay, right bison 2' ^" long.
Representations of animals are farm o r e c o m m o n ttian
those o f h u m a n s in Paleolithic art. T h e sculptor built
up these clay bison using a stone spatula-like s m o o t h ing tool a n dfingers t o shape t h e details.

b i s o n ( F I G . 1-6) i n c l a y against a large, i r r e g u lar freestanding rock. T h e t w o bison, l i k e t h e

m u c h older painted animal ( F I G .

1-2) f r o m

t h e A p o l l o 11 Cave, are i n s t r i c t p r o f i l e . E a c h
is a b o u t 2 feet l o n g . T h e y are a m o n g t h e l a r g est P a l e o l i t h i c s c u l p t u r e s k n o w n . T h e s c u l p t o r
b r o u g h t t h e clay f r o m elsewhere

i n t h e cave

c o m p l e x a n d used b o t h hands t o f o r m t h e
o v e r a l l shape o f t h e a n i m a l s . T h e n e x t step w a s
t o s m o o t h t h e surfaces w i t h a s p a t u l a - l i k e t o o l .
F i n a l l y , t h e s c u l p t o r u s e d fingers t o shape t h e
eyes, n o s t r i l s , m o u t h s , a n d m a n e s . T h e cracks
i n t h e t w o reliefs r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e d r y i n g p r o cess a n d p r o b a b l y a p p e a r e d w i t h i n days o f t h e
clay s c u l p t u r e s ' c o m p l e t i o n .

the Laussel w o m a n ( w h o is a b o u t l y feet t a l l , m o r e t h a n f o u r t i m e s

LA MADELEINE A s a l r e a d y n o t e d , s c u l p t o r s f a s h i o n e d t h e i v o r y

larger t h a n t h e W i l l e n d o r f statuette) w a s p a r t o f a great s t o n e b l o c k

tusks o f w o o l l y m a m m o t h s i n t o h u m a n ( F I G . 1 - 4 A ) , a n i m a l , a n d

measuring about 140 cubic feet. T h e c a r v e d b l o c k s t o o d i n t h e o p e n

c o m p o s i t e h u m a n - a n i m a l ( F I G . 1-3) f o r m s f r o m v e r y e a r l y t i m e s .

air i n f r o n t o f a Paleolithic r o c k shelter. R o c k shelters were a c o m m o n

Stone A g e carvers also u s e d a n t l e r s as a s c u l p t u r a l m e d i u m . T h e

type o f d w e l l i n g f o r early h u m a n s , a l o n g w i t h h u t s a n d t h e m o u t h s

b i s o n ( F I G . 1-7) f o u n d at L a M a d e l e i n e i n F r a n c e is w h a t r e m a i n s

of caves. T h e Laussel r e h e f is o n e o f m a n y e x a m p l e s o f o p e n - a i r a r t

o f a s p e a r - t h r o w e r c a r v e d f r o m a r e i n d e e r antler. A l t h o u g h o n l y 4

i n t h e O l d Stone A g e . T h e p o p u l a r

i n c h e s l o n g , t h e e n g r a v e d a n t l e r is m o r e d e t a i l e d t h a n t h e t w o m u c h

n o t i o n s that early h u m a n s d w e l l e d

l a r g e r b i s o n at L e T u c d ' A u d o u b e r t . T h e s c u l p t o r u s e d a s h a r p b u r i n

exclusively

t o i n c i s e l i n e s f o r t h e M a d e l e i n e bison's m a n e , h o r n s , eye, ear, n o s -

i n caves a n d t h a t a l l
myste-

t r i l s , m o u t h , t o n g u e , a n d f a c i a l h a i r . E s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g is t h e

r i o u s d a r k caverns are false. Reliefs

engraver's d e c i s i o n t o r e p r e s e n t t h e b i s o n w i t h i t s h e a d t u r n e d a n d

depicting nude w o m e n do, h o w -

l i c k i n g i t s f l a n k . T h e s m a l l size a n d i r r e g u l a r shape o f t h e r e i n d e e r

ever, o c c u r i n s i d e O l d S t o n e A g e

h o r n , r a t h e r t h a n a desire t o r e c o r d a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n e c d o t a l a c t i v i t y .

Paleolithic art comes f r o m

caves. Perhaps t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g
(3 1-5A

Reclining w o m a n ,

La M a g d e l e i n e , c a . 1 2 , 0 0 0 BCE.

is t h e p a i r o f r e c l i n i n g n u d e w o m e n
( F I G . 1-5A) o n t h e w a l l o f a c o r r i d o r
i n a cave at L a M a g d e l e i n e , F r a n c e .

A f t e r chiseling o u t t h e female b o d y a n d i n c i s i n g t h e details w i t h

a sharp b u r i n , t h e Laussel s c u l p t o r a p p l i e d r e d o c h e r , a n a t u r a l l y
colored m i n e r a l , t o t h e b o d y . (Traces o f r e d o c h e r c o l o r a t i o n also
remain o n p a r t s o f t h e Venus
misconceptions,

of Willendorf.)

Contrary to modern

a n c i e n t artists u s u a l l y p a i n t e d s t o n e

sculptures

(compare F I G . 5 - 6 3 A ) . T h e Laussel w o m a n has t h e s a m e b u l b o u s

body as t h e earlier W i l l e n d o r f figurine, w i t h a s i m i l a r e x a g g e r a t i o n
of the breasts, a b d o m e n , a n d h i p s . T h e h e a d is o n c e a g a i n f e a t u r e less, b u t t h e a r m s have t a k e n o n greater i m p o r t a n c e . T h e l e f t a r m
draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e m i d s e c t i o n a n d p u b i c area, a n d t h e r a i s e d
right h a n d h o l d s w h a t m o s t scholars i d e n t i f y as a b i s o n h o r n w i t h 13
incised lines. Scholars c o n t i n u e t o debate t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e h o r n
and its i n c i s i o n s as w e l l as t h e gesture o f t h e l e f t h a n d .
1-7 Bison licking its flank, fragmentary spear-thrower, from
LE TUC D'AUDOUBERT P a l e o l i t h i c s c u l p t o r s s o m e t i m e s

created

reliefs b y b u i l d i n g u p f o r m s o u t o f clay i n s t e a d o f c u t t i n g i n t o s t o n e
blocks o r cave w a l l s . S o m e t i m e

12,000 t o 17,000 years ago i n t h e

L a Madeleine, France, ca. 12,000 B C E . Reindeer horn, 4|" long.

Musee d'Archeologie nationale,

Saint-Germain-en-Laye.

This fragment of a spear-thrower w a s carved from a reindeer antlec The

low-ceilinged c i r c u l a r space at t h e e n d o f a succession o f cave c h a m -

sculptor t u r n e d t h ebison's head a full 1 8 0 degrees t o maintain t h e profile

bers at Le T u c d ' A u d o u b e r t , a m a s t e r s c u l p t o r m o d e l e d a p a i r o f

v i e w a n dincised t h edetails w i t h a s t o n e burin.

Paleolithic A r t

19

PROBLEMS AND S O L U T I O N S
Painting in the Dark
T h e c a v e s o f A l t a m i r a (FIG. 1 - 8 ) ,

L a s c a u x (FIGS. 1-1, 1-9A, a n d

1-10),

a n d o t h e r s i t e s in p r e h i s t o r i c E u r o p e a r e a f e w h u n d r e d t o s e v e r a l t h o u sand feet long. They are o f t e n c h o k e d , s o m e t i m e s a l m o s t

impassably,

b y m i n e r a l d e p o s i t s , s u c h a s s t a l a c t i t e s a n d s t a l a g m i t e s . Far

inside

these caverns, well r e m o v e d f r o m t h e cave m o u t h s early h u m a n s often

chose for habitation, painters s o m e t i m e s m a d e pictures on the
a n d c e i l i n g s . H o w d i d t h e w o r l d ' s f i r s t muralists

walls

paint bison and other

animals on surfaces far f r o m any s o u r c e of natural light? W h a t t o o l s

and materials d i d t h e Paleolithic painters of France a n d Spain use, a n d
how did they make

them?

To i l l u m i n a t e t h e c a v e w a l l s a n d c e i l i n g s w h i l e w o r k i n g , P a l e o l i t h i c
p a i n t e r s lit fires o n c a v e f l o o r s a n d u s e d s t o n e l a m p s filled w i t h m a r r o w o r f a t , w i t h a w i c k , p e r h a p s o f m o s s , as w e l l as s i m p l e t o r c h e s .
For d r a w i n g , t h e y u s e d c h u n k s o f c h a r c o a l a n d r e d a n d y e l l o w o c h e r . For
painting, they ground these s a m e natural materials into powders that
they mixed w i t h w a t e r before applying. Recent analyses of t h e
m e n t s used s h o w t h a t Paleolithic

painters employed

pig-

many different

minerals, a t t e s t i n g t o a technical s o p h i s t i c a t i o n s u r p r i s i n g at so early

a d a t e . L a r g e f l a t s t o n e s s e r v e d a s palettes.

The painters made

brushes

f r o m reeds, bristles, or t w i g s a n d m a y have used a b l o w p i p e of reed or

hollow bone t o spray pigments on out-of-reach surfaces. S o m e caves
have natural ledges o n the rock walls u p o n w h i c h t h e painters c o u l d
have stood in order t o reach t h e u p p e r surfaces of the naturally f o r m e d
c h a m b e r s a n d c o r r i d o r s . O n e g a l l e r y w a l l in t h e L a s c a u x c a v e c o m p l e x
has holes t h a t o n c e

probably anchored

a scaffold made

of

saplings

lashed together.
Despite t h e difficulty of m a k i n g t h e tools and p i g m e n t s , m o d e r n
a t t e m p t s at replicating t h e t e c h n i q u e s
demonstrated that skilled workers

of Paleolithic

could cover

painting have

large surfaces

with

1-8

Bison, detail of a painted ceiling i n the cave at Altamira, Spain,

ca. 13,000-11,000 B C E . Standing bison 5' 2 j " long.

P a l e o l i t h i c p a i n t e r s u s e d s t o n e l a m p s t o p r o v i d e light in t h e d a r k caves. T h e y
m a d e brushes f r o m reeds and twigs or used reed or bone blowpipes to spray
ground ocher pigments onto out-of-reach

i m a g e s in less t h a n a day.

surfaces.

m a y have b e e n t h e p r i m a r y m o t i v a t i o n f o r t h i s s p a c e - s a v i n g d e v i c e .

shadowry f o r m s o f b i s o n ( F I G . 1-8, a d e t a i l o f a m u c h larger p a i n t i n g

W h a t e v e r t h e r e a s o n , i t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h e s c u l p t o r t u r n e d

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 60 feet l o n g ) .

the

n e c k a f u l l 180 degrees t o m a i n t a i n t h e s t r i c t p r o f i l e Stone A g e s c u l p -

Sanz de Sautuola was c e r t a i n the p a i n t i n g s i n his cave dated to

t o r s a n d p a i n t e r s i n s i s t e d o n f o r t h e sake o f c l a r i t y a n d c o m p l e t e n e s s

p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s . Professional archaeologists, however, d o u b t e d the

(see " H o w t o R e p r e s e n t a n A n i m a l , " page

a u t h e n t i c i t y o f these w o r k s , a n d

17).

at the

1880

Congress o n

t o r i c A r c h a e o l o g y i n L i s b o n , t h e y o f f i c i a l l y dismissed the
ALTAMIRA The

w o r k s e x a m i n e d h e r e t h u s far, w h e t h e r p o r t a b l e

o r f i x e d t o r o c k y o u t c r o p p i n g s o r cave w a l l s , are a l l s m a l l , w i t h

p a i n t i n g s as forgeries. B u t b y the close o f the c e n t u r y , explorers h a d

the

d i s c o v e r e d o t h e r caves w i t h p a i n t e d w a l l s p a r t i a l l y covered b y m i n e r a l

1-1).

deposits t h a t w o u l d have t a k e n t h o u s a n d s o f years t o accumulate. This

do

a d d i t i o n a l evidence finally p e r s u a d e d skeptics t h a t the w o r l d ' s oldest

ceil-

p a i n t i n g s w e r e o f an age far m o r e r e m o t e t h a n anyone h a d ever i m a g -

exception o f the p a i n t i n g s i n the Lascairx H a l l o f the Bulls ( F I G .

The Lascaux a n i m a l s d w a r f all t h e o t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d e x a m p l e s , as
the o t h e r " h e r d s " o f p a i n t e d a n i m a l s r o a m i n g t h e w a l l s a n d

PrehisAltamira

ings o f o t h e r caves i n s o u t h e r n F r a n c e a n d n o r t h e r n S p a i n , w h e r e

i n e d . E x a m p l e s o f P a l e o l i t h i c p a i n t i n g n o w have been f o u n d at m o r e

some of the m o s t spectacular examples o f Paleolithic art have been

t h a n 200 sites. Nonetheless, art h i s t o r i a n s still regard p a i n t e d caves as

discovered. A n amateur archaeologist accidentally f o u n d the

first

rare o c c u r r e n c e s because the images i n t h e m , even i f t h e y n u m b e r i n

k n o w n e x a m p l e s o f cave p a i n t i n g s at A l t a m i r a , S p a i n , i n 1879.

Don

the h u n d r e d s , span a p e r i o d o f s o m e 10,000 t o 20,000 years.

M a r c e l i n o Sanz de S a u t u o l a ( 1 8 3 1 - 1 8 8 8 ) was

exploring a cavern

o n his estate w h e r e he h a d p r e v i o u s l y c o l l e c t e d s p e c i m e n s o f f l i n t

The b i s o n at A h a m i r a are

13,000 t o 14,000 years o l d , b u t

p a i n t e r s o f P a l e o l i t h i c S p a i n a p p r o a c h e d the

problem of

the

repre-

a n d c a r v e d b o n e . H i s l i t t l e d a u g h t e r M a r i a was w i t h h i m w h e n t h e y

s e n t i n g an a n i m a l i n essentially t h e same w a y as t h e p a i n t e r o f the

r e a c h e d a c h a m b e r s o m e 85 feet f r o m t h e cave's e n t r a n c e . Because

N a m i b i a n s t o n e p l a q u e ( F I G . 1-2),

i t was d a r k (see " P a i n t i n g i n t h e D a r k , " a b o v e ) a n d t h e c e i l i n g o f t h e

10,000 years earlier. E v e r y o n e o f the A l t a m i r a b i s o n is i n p r o f i l e ,

d e b r i s - f i l l e d c h a m b e r was o n l y a f e w i n c h e s a b o v e t h e father's h e a d ,

w h e t h e r a l i v e a n d s t a n d i n g o r c u r l e d u p o n the g r o u n d p r o b a b l y

t h e c h i l d was t h e first t o n o t i c e , f r o m h e r l o w e r v a n t a g e p o i n t , t h e

d e a d , a l t h o u g h s o m e scholars d i s p u t e t h i s . ( O n e

20

CHAPTER 1

A r t in t h e Stone

Age

who worked in Africa more than

s u g g e s t i o n is t h a t

ART AND S O C I E T Y

In c o n t r a s t , o t h e r e x p e r t s h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e m a g i c a l

Why Is There Art in Paleolithic Caves?

Ever s i n c e t h e d i s c o v e r y

in 1879 of t h e first cave paintings,

purpose

o f t h e p a i n t i n g s a n d r e l i e f s w a s n o t t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e destruction

of bison

and o t h e r species. Instead, t h e y believe t h a t t h e world's first painters

a n d s c u l p t o r s c r e a t e d a n i m a l i m a g e s t o a s s u r e t h e survival
scholars

on w h i c h Paleolithic

ofthe herds

peoples depended for their food supply and for

have w o n d e r e d w h y t h e h u n t e r s o f t h e O l d S t o n e A g e d e c i d e d t o c o v e r

their clothing. A central problem forboth t h ehunting-magic and food-

the surfaces o f d a r k c a v e r n s w i t h a n i m a l i m a g e s s u c h a s t h o s e f o u n d

c r e a t i o n t h e o r i e s is t h a t t h e s t a p l e f o o d s o f O l d S t o n e A g e d i e t s d i d

at L a s c a u x (FIG. T1),

n o t i n c l u d e t h e a n i m a l s m o s t f r e q u e n t l y p o r t r a y e d . For e x a m p l e , faunal

A l t a m i r a (FIG. 1 - 8 ) , a n d P e c h - M e r l e (FIG. 1 - 9 ) .

Researchers h a v e p r o p o s e d v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h a t t h e p a i n t e d

r e m a i n s s h o w t h a t t h e A l t a m i r a n s a t e red deer, n o t bison.

Other

and e n g r a v e d a n i m a l s w e r e m e r e d e c o r a t i o n , b u t t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n c a n -

scholars

system

fact, t h e r e m o t e l o c a t i o n s o f m a n y i m a g e s , a n d i n d i c a t i o n s t h e c a v e s

example, that t h e animals

were u s e d f o r c e n t u r i e s , a r e p r e c i s e l y

h u m a n s revered. Some researchers

w h y many

experts have

gested t h a t p r e h i s t o r i c p e o p l e s a t t r i b u t e d m a g i c a l

sug-

properties t o t h e

images t h e y p a i n t e d a n d s c u l p t e d . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s a r g u m e n t , b y
confining a n i m a l s t o t h e s u r f a c e s o f t h e i r c a v e w a l l s . Paleolithic
munities believed t h e y w e r e b r i n g i n g t h e b e a s t s

belief

o n t h e cave paintings a n d sculptures, suggesting, for

are deities or ancestors

that

Paleolithic

have equated certain species with

m e n a n dothers w i t h w o m e n a n d postulated various meanings for t h e

dots, squares, and other signs a c c o m p a n y i n g s o m e

com-

under their control.

based

have sought t o reconstruct an elaborate

not a c c o u n t f o r t h e i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f m a n y o f t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . I n

Almost
and

all o f these

theories

have been

images.

discredited over

most experts admit that t h e intent of these

time,

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s is

Some s c h o l a r s h a v e e v e n h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t r i t u a l s o r d a n c e s w e r e p e r -

u n k n o w n . In f a c t , a s i n g l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r all P a l e o l i t h i c a n i m a l i m a g e s ,

formed in f r o n t of t h e images a n d t h a t t h e s e rites served t o i m p r o v e

e v e n o n e s s i m i l a r i n s u b j e c t , s t y l e , a n d composition

the l u c k o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s h u n t e r s . O t h e r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e

a r r a n g e d o n t h e s u r f a c e ) , is u n l i k e l y t o a p p l y universally. T h e m e a n i n g

animal r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s m a y h a v e s e r v e d a s t e a c h i n g t o o l s t o i n s t r u c t

of these w o r k s r e m a i n s a n unsolved m y s t e r y a n d a l w a y s will, because

new h u n t e r s a b o u t t h e c h a r a c t e r

of t h e various species they

would

encounter, o r e v e n w e r e t a r g e t s f o r s p e a r s .

before

t h e invention of writing,

( h o w the motifs are

no contemporaneous

explanations

could be recorded.

1-9

Spotted horses and negative

h a n d imprints, w a l l painting i n the

cave at Pech-Merle, France, ca. 2 3 , 0 0 0 22,000 B C E . 11' 2" long.
T h e p u r p o s e a n d m e a n i n g of Paleolithic a r t
are u n k n o w n . S o m e researchers t h i n k the
painted hands near the Pech-Merle

horses

are " s i g n a t u r e s " o f c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s o r

of individual painters.

these b i s o n are g i v i n g b i r t h . ) T o m a i n t a i n t h e p r o f i l e i n t h e l a t t e r

p a i n t e r s o f A l t a m i r a . I n s t e a d , s e v e r a l separate

case, t h e p a i n t e r h a d t o a d o p t a v i e w p o i n t a b o v e t h e a n i m a l , l o o k -

t h e c e d i n g , p e r h a p s p a i n t e d at d i f f e r e n t t i m e s s p a n n i n g g e n e r a t i o n s ,

ing d o w n , rather t h a n t h e v i e w o f a p e r s o n s t a n d i n g o n t h e g r o u n d .

and

images o f bison a d o r n

e a c h is as c o m p l e t e a n d i n f o r m a t i v e as p o s s i b l e .

M o d e r n c r i t i c s o f t e n r e f e r t o t h e A l t a m i r a a n i m a l s as a " g r o u p "
o f b i s o n , b u t t h a t is v e r y l i k e l y a m i s n o m e r . T h e s e v e r a l b i s o n i n

PECH-MERLE

F I G . 1-8 d o n o t s t a n d o n a c o m m o n ground

n e a r l y e x c l u s i v e , r o l e i n t h e caves at A l t a m i r a , L a s c a u x ( F I G . 1-1),

baseline o n w h i c h

figures

line (a p a i n t e d o r c a r v e d

appear to stand i n p a i n t i n g s a n d reliefs),

and

N o one k n o w s w h y animals play a central, indeed a

elsewhere i n Paleolithic E u r o p e

(see

" W h y Is T h e r e

Art in

u n l i k e m a n y o f t h e a n i m a l s at L a s c a u x ( F I G . 1-1), n o r d o t h e y share

P a l e o l i t h i c Caves?" above). T h a t these p a i n t i n g s o f d i f f e r e n t a n i m a l

a c o m m o n o r i e n t a t i o n . They seem almost t o

above viewers'

species d i d h a v e m e a n i n g t o S t o n e A g e p e o p l e s c a n n o t , h o w e v e r , be

heads, l i k e c l o u d s i n t h e sky. A n d t h e p a i n t e r p r o v i d e d a n " a e r i a l

float

d o u b t e d . I n f a c t , s i g n s c o n s i s t i n g o f c h e c k s , d o t s , squares, o r o t h e r

v i e w " o f the dead(?) b i s o n , whereas t h e observer v i e w s t h e others

arrangements

f r o m a p o s i t i o n o n t h e g r o u n d . T h e p a i n t i n g has n o s e t t i n g , n o b a c k -

P a i n t e d h u m a n h a n d s also are c o m m o n . A t P e c h - M e r l e

g r o u n d , n o i n d i c a t i o n o f p l a c e . Where

the

t h e a n i m a l s are o r h o w t h e y

relate t o o n e a n o t h e r , i f at a l l , w a s o f n o c o n c e r n t o t h e P a l e o l i t h i c

hands

o f lines often accompany

accompany

representations

the pictures o f animals.

of

spotted

( F I G . 1-9),

horses.

(The

" s p o t s " a l s o s u r r o u n d t h e h o r s e s a n d m a y n o t b e s p o t s at a l l b u t

Paleolithic A r t

21

stones o r signs.) M o s t o f t h e p a i n t e d h a n d s i n P a l e o h t h i c caves are

Rather, t h e a p p r o a c h is d e s c r i p t i v e o f t h e fact t h a t cattle have t w o

"negative." T h a t is, t h e p a i n t e r p l a c e d o n e h a n d against t h e w a l l a n d

h o r n s . T w o h o r n s are p a r t o f t h e c o n c e p t " b u l l . " I n s t r i c t o p t i c a l -

t h e n b r u s h e d o r b l e w o r spat p i g m e n t a r o u n d i t . O c c a s i o n a l l y , t h e

p e r s p e c t i v e p r o f i l e , o n l y o n e h o r n w o u l d be v i s i b l e , b u t t o p a i n t t h e

p a i n t e r d i p p e d a h a n d i n t h e p i g m e n t a n d t h e n pressed i t against

a n i m a l i n that w a y w o u l d a m o u n t to an incomplete definition o f it.

t h e w a l l , l e a v i n g a " p o s i t i v e " i m p r i n t . These h a n d p r i n t s m u s t have

Paintings

of

c u l t o r c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s or, less l i k e l y , o f i n d i v i d u a l p a i n t e r s .

Lascaux, i n c l u d i n g i n t h e s o - c a l l e d

B u t l i k e so m u c h i n P a l e o l i t h i c a r t , t h e i r m e a n i n g is u n k n o w n .

Axial

Gallery,

representation
pregnant

cave

appear

throughout

The m u r a l p a i n t i n g s at P e c h - M e r l e also f u r n i s h s o m e i n s i g h t

the

animals

served a p u r p o s e . S o m e researchers c o n s i d e r t h e m " s i g n a t u r e s " o f

which

complex
features

of a running,
horse

(FIG.

at
a

pos1-9A)

i n t o t h e reasons P a l e o l i t h i c peoples chose subjects f o r specific places

sibly

i n a cave. O n e o f t h e horses (at t h e r i g h t i n F I G . 1-9) m a y have b e e n

s u r r o u n d e d b y w h a t m a y be a r r o w s

i n s p i r e d b y t h e r o c k f o r m a t i o n i n t h e w a l l surface r e s e m b l i n g a

or traps. But the most p e r p l e x i n g

horse's h e a d a n d n e c k . O l d Stone A g e p a i n t e r s a n d s c u l p t o r s f r e -

p a i n t i n g at L a s c a u x a n d p e r h a p s i n

(3

q u e n t l y a n d s k i l l f u l l y u s e d t h e n a t u r a l l y i r r e g u l a r surfaces o f caves

a l l P a l e o l i t h i c a r t is d e e p i n a w e l l

c a . 1 6 , 0 0 0 - 1 4 , 0 0 0 BCE.

t o h e l p g i v e t h e i l l u s i o n o f real presence t o t h e i r f o r m s , as t h e y d i d at

shaft. I n t h i s m u r a l ( F I G . 1-10), m a n

1-9A

" C h i n e s e horse," Lascaux,

L a M a g d e l e i n e ( F I G . 1 - 5 A ) a n d at A l t a m i r a ( F I G . 1-8), w h e r e m a n y

(as o p p o s e d t o w o m a n ) m a k e s o n e o f h i s earliest appearances i n

o f t h e b i s o n p a i n t i n g s c o v e r b u l g i n g r o c k surfaces. I n fact, a r t h i s t o -

t h e h i s t o r y o f a r t . A t t h e l e f t , a n d m o v i n g t o t h e l e f t , is a r h i n o c e r o s .

r i a n s have o b s e r v e d t h a t b i s o n a n d cattle a p p e a r a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y

B e n e a t h its t a i l are t w o r o w s o f t h r e e d o t s o f u n c e r t a i n significance. A t

o n c o n v e x surfaces, w h e r e a s n e a r l y a l l h o r s e s a n d h a n d s are p a i n t e d

t h e r i g h t is a b i s o n , also f a c i n g l e f t b u t w i t h less realistic p r o p o r t i o n s ,

o n c o n c a v e surfaces. W h a t t h i s s i g n i f i e s has y e t t o b e d e t e r m i n e d .

p r o b a b l y t h e w o r k o f s o m e o n e else. T h e s e c o n d p a i n t e r n o n e t h e less successfully suggested t h e b r i s t l i n g rage o f t h e a n i m a l , w h o s e

LASCAUX P e r h a p s t h e m o s t i m p r e s s i v e c o l l e c t i o n o f P a l e o l i t h i c

b o w e l s are h a n g i n g f r o m i t i n a h e a v y c o i l . B e t w e e n t h e t w o beasts

a n i m a l p a i n t i n g s is i n t h e H a l l o f t h e B u l l s ( F I G . 1-1) at Lascaux. T h e

is a b i r d - f a c e d ( m a s k e d ? ) m a n ( c o m p a r e F I G . 1-3) w i t h o u t s t r e t c h e d

large c h a m b e r , a w a y f r o m t h e cave e n t r a n c e a n d m y s t e r i o u s l y d a r k ,

a r m s a n d h a n d s h a v i n g o n l y f o u r fingers. The p a i n t e r d e p i c t e d t h e

has g o o d acoustics, a n d w o u l d h a v e p r o v i d e d a n excellent s e t t i n g

m a n w i t h f a r less care a n d d e t a i l t h a n e i t h e r a n i m a l , b u t m a d e t h e

f o r t h e k i n d s o f r i t u a l s m a n y a r c h a e o l o g i s t s a s s u m e t o o k place i n

h u n t e r ' s g e n d e r e x p l i c i t b y t h e p r o m i n e n t p e n i s . T h e p o s i t i o n o f the

f r o n t o f the p a i n t i n g s . O n e n o t e w o r t h y aspect o f t h e L a s c a u x m u r a l s

m a n is a m b i g u o u s . Is he w o u n d e d o r d e a d o r m e r e l y t i l t e d b a c k a n d

is t h a t t h e y e x h i b i t , side b y side, t h e t w o basic a p p r o a c h e s t o d r a w -

u n h a r m e d ? D o t h e staff(?) w i t h t h e b i r d o n t o p a n d t h e spear b e l o n g

i n g and p a i n t i n g f o u n d repeatedly i n the h i s t o r y o f artsilhouettes

t o h i m ? Is i t he o r t h e r h i n o c e r o s t h a t g r a v e l y w o u n d e d t h e b i s o n

a n d o u t l i n e s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t d i f f e r e n t p a i n t e r s c r e a t e d these p i c -

o r n e i t h e r ? W h i c h a n i m a l , i f either, has k n o c k e d t h e m a n d o w n , i f

tures, p r o b a b l y at d i f f e r e n t t i m e s . T h e L a s c a u x b u l l s also s h o w a

i n d e e d he is o n t h e g r o u n d ? A r e these t h r e e images related at all?

convention o f representing h o r n s i n w h a t art historians call

twisted

M o d e r n v i e w e r s c a n be sure o f n o t h i n g , b u t i f t h e p a i n t e r s p l a c e d

because v i e w e r s see t h e heads i n

t h e figures b e s i d e each o t h e r t o t e l l a story, t h i s is evidence f o r the

profile but the h o r n s f r o m the front. Thus, the painter's approach

creation o f complex narrative compositions involving humans and

is n o t s t r i c t l y o r c o n s i s t e n t l y o p t i c a l (seen f r o m a fbced v i e w p o i n t ) .

a n i m a l s at a m u c h e a r l i e r date t h a n a n y o n e h a d i m a g i n e d o n l y a f e w

perspective,

o r a composite

view,

1-10 Rhinoceros, wounded

man, and disemboweled
bison, painting i n the well of
the cave at Lascaux, France,
ca. 16,000-14,000 B C E . Bison
3' 4 5" long.
If t h e s e p a i n t i n g s o f t w o a n i m a l s
and a bird-faced ( m a s k e d ? ) m a n
d e e p in a Lascaux w e l l s h a f t d e p i c t
a hunting scene, they constitute
the earliest example of narrative art
ever discovered.

22

CHAPTER 1

A r t in t h e S t o n e A g e

generations ago. Yet i t is i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r t h a t e v e n i f t h e

a n i m a l s are later t h a n t h o s e at Lascaux, t h e i r a d v a n c e d stylistic fea-

painter(s) i n t e n d e d t o t e l l a s t o r y , v e r y f e w p e o p l e w o u l d have b e e n

tures c a n be m o r e easily e x p l a i n e d . I n fact, recent investigations i n the

able t o " r e a d " i t . T h e m u r a l , i n a deep shaft, is v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o r e a c h

cave a n d at n e i g h b o r i n g sites seem c o n c l u s i v e l y t o s u p p o r t the later

and c o u l d have b e e n v i e w e d o n l y i n

date. T h e d i s p u t e e x e m p l i f i e s t h e f r u s t r a t i o n a n d t h e e x c i t e m e n t o f

flickering

lamplight. Like all

s t u d y i n g t h e a r t o f a n age so r e m o t e t h a t a l m o s t n o t h i n g r e m a i n s a n d

Paleolithic a r t , t h e scene i n t h e L a s c a u x w e l l shaft is a p u z z l e .

a l m o s t e v e r y n e w find causes a r t h i s t o r i a n s t o reevaluate w h a t t h e y

CHAUVET CAVE O n e o f t h e m o s t s p e c t a c u l a r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

finds

had previously taken for granted.

o f the past c e n t u r y poses a p r o b l e m o f a d i f f e r e n t k i n d . I n D e c e m b e r

1994, a F r e n c h t e a m l e d b y J e a n - M a r i e C h a u v e t d i s c o v e r e d Paleol i t h i c m u r a l p a i n t i n g s ( F I G . 1-11) i n a cave at V a l l o n - P o n t - d ' A r c . T o
d e t e r m i n e t h e date o f t h e C h a u v e t Cave p a i n t i n g s , F r e n c h scientists

NEOLITHIC ART

used r a d i o c a r b o n d a t i n g o f t h e c h a r c o a l i n t h e b l a c k p i g m e n t s . T h e

A r o u n d 9 0 0 0 B C E , t h e ice t h a t c o v e r e d m u c h o f n o r t h e r n E u r o p e

tests revealed t h a t t h e m u r a l p a i n t i n g s d a t e d b e t w e e n 30,000 a n d

d u r i n g t h e P a l e o l i t h i c p e r i o d m e l t e d as t h e c l i m a t e w a r m e d . T h e

28,000 B C E a n d w e r e t h o u s a n d s o f years o l d e r t h a n a n y p r e v i o u s l y

sea l e v e l rose m o r e t h a n 300 feet, s e p a r a t i n g E n g l a n d f r o m c o n t i -

discovered.

nental Europe, a n d Spain f r o m A f r i c a . The reindeer migrated n o r t h ,

This u n e x p e c t e d l y e a r l y date i m m e d i a t e l y f o r c e d scholars

to

a n d t h e w o o l l y m a m m o t h d i s a p p e a r e d . T h e P a l e o l i t h i c gave w a y t o

reevaluate t h e s c h e m e o f " s t y l i s t i c d e v e l o p m e n t " f r o m s i m p l e t o

a t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r i o d , u s u a l l y c a l l e d t h e Mesolithic

m o r e c o m p l e x f o r m s t h a t h i s t o r i a n s o f Stone A g e a r t h a d a c c e p t e d

A g e ) , a n d t h e n , f o r several t h o u s a n d years at d i f f e r e n t t i m e s i n d i f -

for decades. I n t h e C h a u v e t Cave, i n c o n t r a s t t o L a s c a u x ( F I G .

f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e g l o b e , a great n e w age, t h e Neolithic

1-1),

( M i d d l e Stone
( N e w Stone

the painters d e p i c t e d the h o r n s o f t h e a u r o c h s ( e x t i n c t l o n g - h o r n e d

Age), d a w n e d . " H u m a n beings began to domesticate plants a n d a n i -

w i l d oxen) naturalistically, one b e h i n d the other, n o t i n the t w i s t e d

m a l s a n d t o settle i n fixed abodes. T h e i r f o o d s u p p l y assured, m a n y

perspective n o r m a l l y u s e d i n P a l e o l i t h i c a r t . M o r e o v e r , t h e t w o r h i -

groups changed f r o m hunters to herders to farmers and

noceroses at t h e l o w e r r i g h t o f F I G . 1-11 appear t o a t t a c k e a c h o t h e r ,

t o w n s p e o p l e . W a n d e r i n g hunters settled d o w n t o organized c o m -

suggesting t h a t t h e p a i n t e r i n t e n d e d a n a r r a t i v e , a n o t h e r

m u n i t y l i v i n g i n v i l l a g e s s u r r o u n d e d b y c u l t i v a t e d fields.

"first"

finally

to

i n either p a i n t i n g o r s c u l p t u r e . I f t h e p a i n t i n g s are t w i c e as o l d as

T h e basis f o r t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f t h e Stone A g e i n t o

those o f Lascaux a n d A l t a m i r a ( F I G . 1-8) a n d a l m o s t 10,000 years

t h r e e p e r i o d s is t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s t o n e i m p l e m e n t s . H o w e v e r , a

earlier t h a n t h e P e c h - M e r l e m u r a l s ( F I G . 1-9), t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t

d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f d i s t i n c t i o n c a n be m a d e b e t w e e n a n age o f f o o d

Paleolithic a r t " e v o l v e d " f r o m s i m p l e t o m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d r e p r e -

g a t h e r i n g a n d a n age o f f o o d p r o d u c t i o n . I n t h i s s c h e m e , t h e Paleo-

sentations is w r o n g .

l i t h i c p e r i o d c o r r e s p o n d s r o u g h l y t o t h e age o f f o o d g a t h e r i n g .

Because t h e C h a u v e t p a i n t i n g s r e q u i r e a r e t h i n k i n g o f c o n v e n tional assumptions a b o u t P a l e o l i t h i c a r t , t h e F r e n c h team's

findings

I n t e n s i f i e d f o o d g a t h e r i n g a n d t h e t a m i n g o f t h e d o g are t h e h a l l marks o f the Mesolithic p e r i o d . I n the N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d , agriculture

i m m e d i a t e l y became t h e subject o f intense controversy. S o m e archae-

a n d l i v e s t o c k b e c a m e h u m a n k i n d ' s m a j o r f o o d sources. T h e t r a n s i -

ologists have contested the early d a t i n g o f t h e C h a u v e t p a i n t i n g s o n

t i o n t o t h e N e o l i t h i c w a s n o t h i n g less t h a n a r e v o l u t i o n . I t o c c u r r e d

the g r o u n d s t h a t t h e tested samples w e r e c o n t a m i n a t e d . I f t h e C h a u v e t

first i n A n a t o l i a a n d M e s o p o t a m i a .

r> ,

1-11 Aurochs, horses, and

rhinoceroses, wall painting in
the Chauvet Cave, Vallon-Pontd'Arc, France, ca. 30,000-28,000
o r c a . 15,000-13,000 B C E . Right
rhinoceros 3' 4" long.
The

date of the Chauvet Cave

paintings

is t h e s u b j e c t o f m u c h c o n t r o v e r s y . I f t h e
murals are t h e oldest paintings k n o w n ,
they exhibit surprisingly advanced fea-

11%

-:

t u r e s , s u c h as o v e r l a p p i n g a n i m a l h o r n s .

Neolithic A r t

23

Anatolia and Mesopotamia

The r e m a i n s o f t h e oldest k n o w n s e t t l e d c o m m u n i t i e s l i e i n t h e
grassy f o o t h i l l s o f t h e A n t i l e b a n o n , T a u r u s , a n d Z a g r o s

moun-

t a i n s i n p r e s e n t - d a y T u r k e y , Syria, I r a q , a n d I r a n ( M A P 1-2).

These

Black

r e g i o n s p r o v i d e d t h e necessary p r e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

TURKEY

o f a g r i c u l t u r e . Species o f n a t i v e p l a n t s , s u c h as w i l d w h e a t a n d b a r ley, w e r e p l e n t i f u l , as w e r e h e r d s o f a n i m a l s (goats, sheep, a n d p i g s )

t h a t c o u l d be d o m e s t i c a t e d . S u f f i c i e n t r a i n o c c u r r e d f o r t h e r a i s i n g

Sea

ANATOLIA
\,

rfoyijk

Gobekli

.Tepe

xS^'

IRAN

o f c r o p s . W h e n v i l l a g e f a r m i n g l i f e w a s w e l l d e v e l o p e d , s o m e settlers, a t t r a c t e d b y t h e greater f e r t i l i t y o f t h e s o i l a n d p e r h a p s also b y

SYIA

t h e n e e d t o find m o r e l a n d f o r t h e i r r a p i d l y g r o w i n g p o p u l a t i o n s ,
m o v e d i n t o t h e v a l l e y s a n d deltas o f t h e T i g r i s a n d E u p h r a t e s R i v e r s .

Mediterranean

Sea

I n a d d i t i o n t o s y s t e m a t i c a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e n e w v i l l a g e societies

ANTILEBANON
.^MOUNTAINS
A m Ghazal

of the N e o l i t h i c Age o r i g i n a t e d weaving, m e t a l w o r k i n g , pottery, a n d

^
N a m e s and boundanes of

c o u n t i n g a n d r e c o r d i n g w i t h clay t o k e n s . These i n n o v a t i o n s s p r e a d

present-day nations appear

w i t h r e m a r k a b l e speed t h r o u g h o u t A n a t o l i a ( r o u g h l y e q u i v a l e n t t o

in b r o w n

present-day T u r k e y ) a n d M e s o p o t a m i a ( p r i m a r i l y present-day Syria

150
300 miles
- SSS"
0
150 500 kilometers

a n d I r a q ) . S e t t l e d f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t i e s s u c h as J a r m o i n I r a q a n d
Qatal H o y i i k i n s o u t h e r n A n a t o l i a date t o t h e m i d - s e v e n t h m i l l e n n i u m B C E . T h e r e m a r k a b l e f o r t i f i e d t o w n o f Jericho, b e f o r e w h o s e

MAP 1-2

NeoUthic sites i n Anatolia and Mesopotamia.

w a l l s t h e b i b l i c a l Joshua a p p e a r e d t h o u s a n d s o f years later, is e v e n

older. A r c h a e o l o g i s t s are c o n s t a n t l y u n c o v e r i n g s u r p r i s e s , a n d t h e
e x p l o r a t i o n o f n e w sites e a c h year is c o m p e l l i n g t h e m t o revise t h e i r

ley w i t h a n u n f a i l i n g s p r i n g , was t h e site o f a s m a l l v i l l a g e as early

views about the emergence of Neolithic soci-

as t h e n i n t h m i l l e n n i u m B C E . T h i s v i l l a g e u n d e r w e n t spectacular

ety. E s p e c i a l l y n o t e w o r t h y are t h e o n g o i n g
e x c a v a t i o n s at G o b e k l i T e p e i n s o u t h e a s t ern

Turkey, where G e r m a n

archaeologists

have u n c o v e r e d t h e r e m a i n s o f w h a t appear
t o be t h e w o r l d ' s o l d e s t stone t e m p l e s , d a t i n g a r o u n d 9 0 0 0 B C E , w i t h a n i m a l reliefs o n
T - s h a p e d p i l l a r s ( F I G . I - I I A ) . O f t h o s e sites
k n o w n f o r s o m e t i m e , Jericho, A i n G h a z a l ,
and

(^atal H o y i i k t o g e t h e r p r o b a b l y o f f e r

the most representative p i c t u r e o f the r a p i d

(3 l - I I A G o b e k l i T e p e ,
c a . 9 0 0 0 BCE.

and exciting t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f h u m a n society a n d o f art d u r i n g the N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d .

d e v e l o p m e n t a r o u n d 8000 B C E , w h e n t h e i n h a b i t a n t s established
a n e w N e o l i t h i c s e t t l e m e n t ( F I G . 1-12)

c o v e r i n g a b o u t 10 acres. Its

m u d - b r i c k houses sat o n r o u n d o r o v a l stone f o u n d a t i o n s a n d h a d

roofs o f branches covered w i t h earth.
As

Jericho's w e a l t h g r e w , t h e n e e d

f o r p r o t e c t i o n against

m a r a u d i n g n o m a d s r e s u l t e d i n t h e first k n o w n p e r m a n e n t stone
f o r t i f i c a t i o n s . B y 7500 B C E , a w i d e r o c k - c u t d i t c h a n d a 5 - f o o t - t h i c k
w a l l s u r r o u n d e d t h e t o w n , w h i c h p r o b a b l y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n exceedi n g 2,000. Set i n t o t h e c i r c u i t w a l l , w h i c h has b e e n p r e s e r v e d t o a
h e i g h t o f a l m o s t 13 feet, was a 3 0 - f o o t - t a l l c i r c u l a r t o w e r ( F I G . 1-12,
bottom

center)

m o r t a r {dry

c o n s t r u c t e d o f r o u g h l y s h a p e d stones l a i d w i t h o u t

masonry).

A l m o s t 33 feet i n d i a m e t e r at t h e base, the

t o w e r has a n i n n e r s t a i r w a y l e a d i n g t o its s u m m i t . N o t e n o u g h o f
JERICHO B y 7000 B C E , a g r i c u l t u r e was w e l l established f r o m A n a -

t h e site has b e e n excavated t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h i s t o w e r was

t o l i a t o a n c i e n t Palestine a n d I r a n . Its a d v a n c e d state b y t h i s date

s o l i t a r y o r o n e o f several s i m i l a r t o w e r s f o r m i n g a c o m p l e t e defense

a l o n g d e v e l o p m e n t . I n d e e d , t h e v e r y existence o f

s y s t e m . I n e i t h e r case, a stone s t r u c t u r e as large as t h e Jericho t o w e r

a m a j o r s e t t l e m e n t s u c h as J e r i c h o gives s t r o n g s u p p o r t t o t h i s

was a t r e m e n d o u s technological achievement a n d a testimony to the

a s s u m p t i o n . Jericho, s i t u a t e d o n a p l a t e a u i n t h e J o r d a n R i v e r V a l -

N e o l i t h i c builders' ability to organize a significant workforce.

presupposes

24

CHAPTER 1

A r t in t h e Stone A g e

1-14 H u m a n figure,
from A i n Gliazal, Jordan, ca. 6750-6250 B C E .
Plaster, painted and
inlaid with bitumen,
3' 51" high. Musee du
Louvre, Paris.
T h e dozens of large
painted plaster statuettes
(some with t w o heads and
w i t h details a d d e d in paint
or inlaid w i t h

bitumen)

f o u n d at A i n Ghazal are
the earliest large-scale
sculptures known.

1-13 H u m a n slcuU with restored features, from Jericho, ca. 72006700 B C E . Features modeled in plaster, painted, and inlaid with
A m m a n . O c c u p i e d f r o m a r o u n d 7 2 0 0 t o 5 0 0 0 B C E , t h e site f e a t u r e d

seashells. Life-size. Archaeological Museum, A m m a n .

The Neolithic farmers of Jericho r e m o v e d t h e skulls of their dead before burial,
m o d e l e d t h e m w i t h plaster, a n d inlaid t h e eyes t o c r e a t e lifelike " p o r t r a i t s " o f
their ancestors, w h o m they m a y have w o r s h i p e d .

houses o f i r r e g u l a r l y s h a p e d stones w i t h p l a s t e r e d floors a n d w a l l s

p a i n t e d r e d . T h e m o s t s t r i k i n g finds, h o w e v e r , are t w o caches c o n t a i n i n g t h r e e d o z e n p l a s t e r statuettes ( F I G . 1-14) a n d busts, s o m e
w i t h t w o heads, d a t a b l e t o ca. 6 5 0 0 B C E . T h e s c u l p t u r e s , w h i c h
a p p e a r t o have b e e n r i t u a l l y b u r i e d , are w h i t e plaster b u i l t u p o v e r

S o m e t i m e a r o u n d 7000 B C E , Jericho's i n h a b i t a n t s a b a n d o n e d
their f o r t i f i e d site, b u t n e w settlers a r r i v e d i n t h e early seventh m i l lennium

a n d established

a farming community of

rectangular

m u d - b r i c k houses o n stone f o u n d a t i o n s w i t h plastered a n d p a i n t e d

floors a n d walls. Several o f t h e excavated b u f l d i n g s c o n t a i n e d s t a t u ettes o f a n i m a l s a n d w o m e n a n d seem t o have served as shrines. T h e
n e w viUagers b u r i e d t h e i r d e a d b e n e a t h t h e floors o f t h e i r houses w i t h
the c r a n i u m s detached f r o m t h e i r skeletons a n d t h e i r features r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n plaster. Subtiy m o d e l e d w i t h i n l a i d seashells f o r eyes a n d

a c o r e o f reeds a n d t w i n e , w i t h b l a c k b i t u m e n , a t a r l i k e substance,
f o r t h e p u p i l s o f t h e eyes. S o m e o f t h e figures have p a i n t e d c l o t h ing. O n l y rarely d i d the sculptors indicate the gender o f the

figures.

W h a t e v e r t h e i r p u r p o s e , b y t h e i r size (as m u c h as 3 feet t a l l ) a n d

s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n i q u e , t h e A i n G h a z a l statuettes a n d busts t o w e r
over Paleolithic

figurines

s u c h as t h e t i n y Venus

of

Willendorf

( F I G . 1-4) a n d e v e n t h e f o o t - t a l l H o h l e n s t e i n - S t a d e l i v o r y statuette
( F I G . 1-3). T h e y m a r k t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e l o n g h i s t o r y o f largescale s c u l p t u r e i n M e s o p o t a m i a .

p a i n t e d hair, t h e appearance o f these r e c o n s t r u c t e d heads is s t r i k i n g l y

lifelike. O n e h e a d ( F I G . 1-13) features a p a i n t e d m u s t a c h e ,

distin-

g u i s h i n g i t f r o m t h e others. T h e Jericho skulls c o n s t i t u t e t h e w o r l d ' s

CATAL HOYUK D u r i n g t h e past h a l f c e n t u r y , archaeologists

also

have m a d e r e m a r k a b l e discoveries i n Turkey, n o t o n l y at G o b e k U Tepe

earliest k n o w n " p o r t r a i t gallery," b u t t h e artists' i n t e n t i o n was cer-

( F I G . 1-1 1 A ) b u t also at H a c i l a r a n d

t a i n l y n o t p o r t r a i t u r e i n t h e m o d e r n sense. T h e plastered skulls m u s t

e s p e c i a l l y (Jatal H o y i i k ( F I G . 1-14A),

have served a r i t u a l i s t i c p u r p o s e . T h e c o m m u n i t y o f several h u n d r e d

t h e site o f a

N e o l i t h i c f a r m e r s w h o o c c u p i e d Jericho at t h i s t i m e h o n o r e d a n d

culture

perhaps w o r s h i p e d t h e i r ancestors as intercessors b e t w e e n t h e l i v i n g

p l a i n between 6500 a n d 5700 B C E .

on

the

flourishing

Neolithic

central Anatolian

a n d the w o r l d b e y o n d . T h e y m a y have b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e d e a d c o u l d

A l t h o u g h a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y was

exert p o w e r over the l i v i n g a n d t h a t t h e y h a d t o offer sacrifices t o t h e i r

w e l l established, h u n t i n g c o n t i n u e d

ancestors t o receive favorable t r e a t m e n t . These skulls w e r e p r o b a b l y

to play an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n the

the focus o f rites i n h o n o r o f t h o s e ancestors.

early N e o l i t h i c e c o n o m y

of

QaXal

H o y i i k . The i m p o r t a n c e o f h u n t i n g

(3

1-14A

Restored v i e w of Catal

H o y u k , c a . 6 0 0 0 - 5 9 0 0 BCE.

AIN GHAZAL A s e c o n d i m p o r t a n t N e o l i t h i c s e t t l e m e n t i n a n c i e n t

as a f o o d s o u r c e is r e f l e c t e d i n t h e w a U p a i n t i n g s o f t h e site's o l d e r

Palestine was A i n G h a z a l , near t h e m o d e r n J o r d a n i a n c a p i t a l o f

d e c o r a t e d r o o m s , w h e r e h u n t i n g scenes p r e d o m i n a t e . I n style a n d

Neolithic A r t

25

v e r s a l l y chose t h e p r o f i l e v i e w f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f a n i m a l s

(see

" H o w t o R e p r e s e n t a n A n i m a l , " page 17). O n l y t h e side v i e w o f t h e

h u m a n h e a d s h o w s a l l its shapes clearly. H o w e v e r , at (^atal H o y i i k
t h e p a i n t e r p r e s e n t e d t h e t o r s o s f r o m t h e f r o n t a g a i n , the m o s t
i n f o r m a t i v e v i e w p o i n t w h e r e a s t h e p r o f i l e v i e w was t h e choice f o r
t h e legs a n d a r m s . T h i s c o m p o s i t e v i e w o f t h e h u m a n b o d y is h i g h l y
artificialthe h u m a n body cannot

make

a n a b r u p t 90-degree

s h i f t at t h e h i p s b u t i t w e l l describes w h a t a h u m a n b o d y is, as
o p p o s e d t o h o w i t appears f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r v i e w p o i n t . The t e c h n i q u e o f p a i n t i n g also c h a n g e d d r a m a t i c a l l y f r o m t h e P a l e o l i t h i c t o
t h e N e o l i t h i c A g e . T h e Q a t a l H o y i i k p a i n t e r s u s e d brushes t o a p p l y
t h e i r p i g m e n t s t o a b a c k g r o u n d o f d r y w h i t e plaster. The c a r e f u l
p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e w a l l surface is i n s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t t o t h e d i r e c t
a p p l i c a t i o n o f p i g m e n t t o t h e i r r e g u l a r l y s h a p e d w a l l s a n d ceilings
o f O l d Stone A g e caves.
M o r e r e m a r k a b l e s t i l l is a p a i n t i n g ( F I G . 1-16) i n o n e o f the o l d e r
1-15 Deer hunt, detail of a wall painting from level I I I , (Jatal Hoyiik,
Turkey, ca. 5750 B C E . M u s e u m of Anatolian Civilization, A n k a r a .

r o o m s at Qatal H o y i i k . A r t h i s t o r i a n s generally have acclaimed t h i s

m u r a l as t h e w o r l d ' s first landscape

(a p i c t u r e o f a n a t u r a l setting i n

its o w n r i g h t , w i t h o u t a n y n a r r a t i v e c o n t e n t ) . A s such, i t r e m a i n e d

This Neolithic painter d e p i c t e d h u m a n figures as a c o m p o s i t e of frontal a n d

u n i q u e f o r t h o u s a n d s o f years. A c c o r d i n g t o r a d i o c a r b o n analysis, the

profile views, t h e m o s t descriptive picture of t h e s h a p e of t h e h u m a n

p a i n t i n g dates t o a r o u n d 6150 B C E . Scholars i n t e r p r e t t h e f o r e g r o u n d

body.

This f o r m a t w o u l d b e c o m e t h e rule for millennia.

as a t o w n w i t h r e c t a n g u l a r houses neatly l a i d o u t i n r o w s , p r o b a b l y
r e p r e s e n t i n g (^atal H o y i i k i t s e l f B e h i n d t h e t o w n appears a m o u n t a i n
w i t h t w o peaks. M a n y archaeologists t h i n k t h e d o t s a n d fines issuing

c o n c e p t , h o w e v e r , t h e d e e r h u n t m u r a l ( F I G . 1-15) at (^atal H o y u k is

f r o m t h e h i g h e r o f t h e t w o cones represent a v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n , a n d

worlds apart f r o m the w a l l paintings the hunters o f the Paleolithic

have suggested t h a t t h e m o u n t a i n is t h e 1 0 , 6 0 0 - f o o t - h i g h H a s a n D a g ,

p e r i o d p r o d u c e d . P e r h a p s w h a t is m o s t s t r i k i n g l y n e w a h o u t t h e

t h e o n l y t w i n - p e a k e d v o l c a n o i n c e n t r a l A n a t o l i a , w h i c h is w i t h i n

Q a t a l H o y i i k p a i n t i n g a n d s i m i l a r N e o l i t h i c e x a m p l e s is t h e r e g u l a r

v i e w o f <^atal H o y i i k . T h e c o n j e c t u r e d v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s h o w n i n the

appearance o f t h e h u m a n

figurenot

o n l y s i n g l y b u t also i n large,

c o h e r e n t g r o u p s w i t h a w i d e v a r i e t y o f poses, subjects, a n d s e t t i n g s .
A s n o t e d earlier, h u m a n s r a r e l y figured i n P a l e o l i t h i c cave p a i n t i n g s ,
a n d p i c t o r i a l n a r r a t i v e s are a l m o s t u n k n o w n . E v e n t h e " h u n t i n g

m u r a l does n o t necessarily d e p i c t a specific h i s t o r i c a l event. Rather,

t h e landscape m a y represent a r e c u r r i n g p h e n o m e n o n . I n either case,
it is t h e earhest p r e s e r v e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f nature w i t h o u t either
humans or animals.

scene" ( F I G . 1-10) i n t h e w e l l at L a s c a u x
is d o u b t f u l as a n a r r a t i v e . I n c o n t r a s t ,
h u m a n themes a n d concerns a n d a c t i o n
scenes w i t h h u m a n s d o m i n a t i n g a n i m a l s are c e n t r a l subjects o f N e o l i t h i c
paintings.
I n t h e (^atal H o y i i k h u n t , t h e g r o u p
o f h u n t e r s a n d i t is, i n d e e d , a n o r g a n i z e d h u n t i n g p a r t y , n o t a series

of

i n d i v i d u a l figuresis a r h y t h m i c r e p e t i t i o n o f basic shapes, b u t t h e p a i n t e r t o o k

care t o d i s t i n g u i s h i m p o r t a n t d e s c r i p t i v e
details ( b o w s , a r r o w s , a n d

garments),

a n d t h e heads have clearly d e f i n e d noses,

mouths, chins, and hair. The N e o l i t h i c
p a i n t e r p l a c e d a l l t h e heads i n p r o f i l e f o r
t h e same reason P a l e o l i t h i c p a i n t e r s u n i -

1-16 Landscape with volcanic eruption(?), wall painting i n situ {top) and
watercolor copy (bottom), from level V I I ,
(J^atal Hoyuk, Turkey, ca. 6150 B C E .
O n e of the oldest mural paintings f r o m
Catal HoyiJk m a y represent t h e s e t t l e m e n t
d u r i n g a v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n . It is t h e f i r s t k n o w n
landscapea painting of nature w i t h o u t either
h u m a n s or animals.

26

CHAPTER 1

A r t in t h e S t o n e A g e

9^

Europe

page 95, a n d F I G . 4 - 1 8 ) . A t N e w g r a n g e , t h e h u g e m e g a l i t h s f o r m i n g

In Europe, w h e r e P a l e o l i t h i c p a i n t i n g s a n d s c u l p t u r e s a b o u n d , n o

w e i g h t w i t h o u t m o r t a r , each stone c o u n t e r i n g the t h r u s t o f n e i g h -

evidence exists f o r c o m p a r a b l y d e v e l o p e d e a r l y N e o l i t h i c t o w n s .

b o r i n g stones. D e c o r a t i n g s o m e o f t h e m e g a l i t h s are i n c i s e d spirals

However, i n succeeding m i l l e n n i a , p e r h a p s as e a r l y as 4 0 0 0 B C E , t h e

a n d o t h e r m o t i f s ( n o t v i s i b l e i n F I G . 1-17). A special feature o f t h e

local p o p u l a t i o n s o f several E u r o p e a n r e g i o n s c o n s t r u c t e d i m p o s i n g

N e w g r a n g e t o m b is t h a t at t h e w i n t e r solstice, t h e s u n i l l u m i n a t e s

monuments e m p l o y i n g massive r o u g h - c u t stones. T h e v e r y d i m e n -

t h e passageway a n d t h e b u r i a l c h a m b e r .

t h e v a u l t e d passage a n d t h e d o m e are h e l d i n place b y t h e i r o w n

sions o f the stones, s o m e as h i g h as 17 feet a n d w e i g h i n g as m u c h

as 50 tons, have p r o m p t e d h i s t o r i a n s t o c a l l t h e m megaliths

(great

HAGAR QIM

By the end o f the f o u r t h m i l l e n n i u m B C E . Neolithic

stones) a n d t o designate N e o l i t h i c a r c h i t e c t u r e e m p l o y i n g t h e m as

civilization h a d spread to the m o s t remote parts o f Europe, i n c l u d -

megalithic.

i n g , i n t h e far n o r t h , Skara Brae

NEWGRANGE O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p r e s s i v e m e g a l i t h i c m o n u m e n t s

and, i n the far south, M a l t a . The

in Europe is also o n e o f t h e oldest. T h e m e g a l i t h i c t o m b at N e w g r a n g e

in Ireland, n o r t h o f D u b l i n , m a y d a t e t o as e a r l y as 3200 B C E a n d
is one o f the oldest f u n e r a r y m o n u m e n t s i n E u r o p e . I t takes t h e
f o r m o f a passage

^ r a v e t h a t is, a t o m b w i t h a l o n g s t o n e c o r r i -

dor leading t o a b u r i a l c h a m b e r ( F I G . 1-17) b e n e a t h a great

tumulus

(earthen b u r i a l m o u n d ) . S o m e m o u n d s c o n t a i n m o r e t h a n o n e passage grave. S i m i l a r graves have b e e n f o u n d also i n E n g l a n d , F r a n c e ,

Spain, a n d S c a n d i n a v i a . A l l attest t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f h o n o r i n g
the dead i n N e o l i t h i c society. T h e N e w g r a n g e t u m u l u s is 280

feet

( F I G . 1-17A) i n t h e O r k n e y I s l a n d s ,
megalithic

temple

( F I G . 1-18)

o f H a g a r Q i m is o n e
constructed

on

Malta

3200 a n d 2500 B C E . The

of

many

between
Maltese

builders erected t h e i r temples b y

p i l i n g carefully cut stone blocks
i n courses

13

1-17A

H o u s e 1, Sl<ara B r a e ,

c a . 3 1 0 0 - 2 5 0 0 BCE.

(stacked h o r i z o n t a l r o w s ) . To construct the doorways

at H a g a r Q i m , t h e b u i l d e r s e m p l o y e d t h e post-and-lintel

system

i n diameter a n d 44 feet t a l l . Its passageway is 62 feet l o n g , a n d i t

and the p r i m i t i v e dome o v e r t h e m a i n c h a m b e r are e a r l y e x a m p l e s
of corbeled

vaulting

(see " C o r b e l e d A r c h e s , V a u l t s , a n d

Domes,"

1-17 Corbeled dome of the main chamber i n the passage grave,

1-18 Aerial view of the ruins of Hagar Q i m (looking east), Malta,

Newgrange, Ireland, ca. 3200-2500 B C E .

ca. 3200-2500 B C E .

T h e N e w g r a n g e p a s s a g e g r a v e is a n e a r l y e x a m p l e o f c o r b e l e d v a u l t i n g . T h e

T h e 5,000-year-old stone t e m p l e at Hagar Q i m on t h e r e m o t e island of M a l t a

huge stones (megaliths) of the d o m e of t h e m a i n burial c h a m b e r b e n e a t h t h e

is r e m a r k a b l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d f o r i t s d a t e , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e w a y t h e N e o l i t h i c

t u m u l u s are held in place by their o w n w e i g h t .

builders incorporated both rectilinear and curved forms.

Neolithic A r t

27

1-19

Post-and-lintel

STONEHENGE The m o s t f a m o u s m e g a l i t h i c m o n u m e n t i n E u r o p e

construction (John

is S t o n e h e n g e ( F I G . 1-20) o n t h e S a l i s b u r y P l a i n i n s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d .

Surge).

A henge is a n a r r a n g e m e n t o f m e g a l i t h i c stones i n a circle, o f t e n surr o u n d e d b y a d i t c h . T h e t y p e is a l m o s t exclusively l i m i t e d t o B r i t a i n .

The simplest and oldest

S t o n e h e n g e is a c o m p l e x o f r o u g h - c u t sarsen (a f o r m o f sandstone)

m e t h o d of spanning a

stones a n d s m a l l e r " b l u e s t o n e s "

p a s s a g e w a y is t o s e t

(various volcanic rocks) built i n

several stages over h u n d r e d s o f years. T h e final h e n g e consists o f

up t w o upright blocks

c o n c e n t r i c p o s t - a n d - l i n t e l circles. H u g e sarsen m e g a l i t h s f o r m the

(posts), which support a

o u t e r r i n g , w h i c h is a l m o s t 100 feet i n d i a m e t e r . ( N o t e h o w t h e y

horizontal beam (lintel),

a t e c h n i q u e u s e d in b o t h

d w a r f t h e v i s i t o r s t o t h e site i n F I G . 1-20.) I n s i d e is a r i n g o f b l u e -

prehistoric Europe and

stones, a n d t h i s r i n g , i n t u r n , encircles a h o r s e s h o e ( o p e n e n d f a c i n g
east) o f trilithons

Egypt.

(three-stone

constructions)five lintel-topped

p a i r s o f t h e largest sarsens, each w e i g h i n g 45 t o 50 tons. S t a n d i n g

a p a r t a n d t o t h e east ( o u t s i d e t h e a e r i a l v i e w i n F I G . 1-20)

is t h e

" h e e l stone," w h i c h , f o r a p e r s o n l o o k i n g o u t w a r d f r o m t h e center

o f t h e c o m p l e x , w o u l d have m a r k e d t h e p o i n t w h e r e the s u n rose
at t h e s u m m e r solstice. Stonehenge, p e r h a p s o r i g i n a l l y a f u n e r a r y
( F I G . 1-19) i n w h i c h t w o u p r i g h t stones (posts) s u p p o r t a h o r i z o n t a l
b l o c k {lintel

o r beam).

The layout o f this a n d other N e o l i t h i c Maltese

t e m p l e s is especially n o t e w o r t h y f o r t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f r e c t i l i n e a r
a n d c u r v e d f o r m s , i n c l u d i n g m u l t i p l e apses ( s e m i c i r c u l a r recesses).
I n s i d e t h e H a g a r Q i m t e m p l e , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s f o u n d altars ( h e n c e t h e

site w h e r e N e o l i t h i c peoples c r e m a t e d t h e i r d e a d , seems i n its latest p h a s e t o have b e e n a k i n d o f a s t r o n o m i c a l o b s e r v a t o r y a n d a

r e m a r k a b l y a c c u r a t e solar calendar. A c c o r d i n g t o a recent t h e o r y , i t
also s e r v e d as a c e n t e r o f h e a l i n g t h a t a t t r a c t e d t h e sick a n d d y i n g
f r o m t h r o u g h o u t the region.

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e as a r e l i g i o u s s h r i n e ) a n d several s t o n e

W h a t e v e r r o l e t h e y p l a y e d i n society, t h e m e g a l i t h i c t o m b s ,

statues o f headless n u d e w o m e n o n e s t a n d i n g , t h e o t h e r s seated.

t e m p l e s , houses, a n d henges o f E u r o p e are e n d u r i n g testaments t o

T h e level o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l a n d s c u l p t u r a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n seen o n t h i s

t h e r a p i d l y d e v e l o p i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l p o w e r s o f N e o l i t h i c h u m a n s as

i s o l a t e d i s l a n d at so e a r l y a date is e x t r a o r d i n a r y .

w e l l as t o t h e i r c a p a c i t y f o r h e r o i c p h y s i c a l e f f o r t .

1-20 A e r i a l v i e w o f Stonehenge ( l o o k i n g n o r t h w e s t ) , SaUsbury P l a i n , W i U s h i r e , E n g l a n d , ca. 2550-1600 B C E .

Circle 97' i n d i a m e t e r ; t r i l i t h o n s 24' h i g h .
S t o n e h e n g e ' s c i r c l e s o f t r i l i t h o n s p r o b a b l y f u n c t i o n e d as an a s t r o n o m i c a l o b s e r v a t o r y a n d s o l a r c a l e n d a r . T h e s u n rises
over its "heel s t o n e " at t h e s u m m e r solstice. S o m e of t h e m e g a l i t h s w e i g h 5 0 tons.

28

CHAPTER 1

A r t in t h e S t o n e A g e

ART IN T H E S T O N E A G E
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) Art ca. 40,000-9000 BCE

The first sculptures and p a i n t i n g s a n t e d a t e t h e i n v e n t i o n of w r i t i n g by t e n s of t h o u s a n d s o f years.

Paleolithic h u m a n s ' decision t o represent t h e w o r l d a r o u n d t h e m i n i t i a t e d a n i n t e l l e c t u a l r e v o l u t i o n o f
enormous

consequences.

No one k n o w s w h y h u m a n s began t o paint a n d carve i m a g e s or w h a t role t h o s e i m a g e s played in t h e

lives o f P a l e o l i t h i c p e o p l e s . W o m e n w e r e f a r m o r e c o m m o n s u b j e c t s t h a n m e n , b u t a n i m a l s , n o t h u m a n s ,
d o m i n a t e Paleolithic art. S o m e scholars believe t h a t Stone A g e h u n t e r s p e r f o r m e d rituals in f r o n t of t h e
a n i m a l i m a g e s , w h i c h a i d e d t h e m i n k i l l i n g t h e i r p r e y . In c o n t r a s t , o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s t h i n k t h e p u r p o s e o f
the images was to ensure the fertility of t h e species on w h i c h h u m a n s d e p e n d e d for f o o d and c l o t h i n g .

T h e w o r k s c r e a t e d r a n g e i n s i z e f r o m t i n y p o r t a b l e f i g u r i n e s , s u c h a s t h e s o - c a l l e d Venus

of Willendorf,

to

N u d e w o m a n ( V e n u s of

Willendorf),

c a . 2 8 , 0 0 0 - 2 5 , 0 0 0 BCE

large, s o m e t i m e s over-life-size, c a r v e d a n d p a i n t e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of a n i m a l s , as in t h e c a v e s o f Lascaux,

Pech-Merle, A l t a m i r a , a n d e l s e w h e r e in s o u t h e r n France a n d n o r t h e r n Spain.

T h e e a r l i e s t k n o w n s c u l p t u r e s d a t e t o 4 0 , 0 0 0 t o 3 0 , 0 0 0 BCE. T h e o l d e s t p a i n t i n g s m a y b e i n t h e

Chauvet

C a v e a t V a l l o n - P o n t - d ' A r c , b u t t h e e a r l y d a t i n g o f c a . 3 0 , 0 0 0 - 2 8 , 0 0 0 BCE i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l .

Paleolithic a r t i s t s r e g u l a r l y d e p i c t e d a n i m a l s in p r o f i l e in o r d e r t o p r e s e n t a c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e of e a c h
beast, i n c l u d i n g its h e a d , b o d y , t a i l , a n d all f o u r legs. T h i s f o r m a t p e r s i s t e d f o r m i l l e n n i a .

Horses and hands,

Pech-Merle,

c a . 2 3 , 0 0 0 - 2 2 , 0 0 0 BCE

Neolithic (New Stone Age) Art ca. 8000-2300 BCE

A r o u n d 9 0 0 0 BCE, t h e i c e t h a t h a d c o v e r e d m u c h o f n o r t h e r n E u r o p e f o r m i l l e n n i a r e c e d e d . A f t e r a
t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r i o d , t h e N e o l i t h i c A g e b e g a n in A n a t o l i a a n d M e s o p o t a m i a .

The N e o l i t h i c A g e r e v o l u t i o n i z e d h u m a n life w i t h t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a g r i c u l t u r e a n d t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e
first s e t t l e d c o m m u n i t i e s , s u c h as t h a t a t C a t a l H o y u k in A n a t o l i a , w h e r e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a v e u n c o v e r e d
an e x t e n s i v e t o w n w i t h n u m e r o u s s h r i n e s .

S o m e N e o l i t h i c t o w n s f o r e x a m p l e , J e r i c h o in t h e J o r d a n River V a l l e y a l s o h a d f o r t i f i e d s t o n e c i r c u i t
walls.

In a r t , t h e N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d b r o u g h t t h e b i r t h o f l a r g e - s c a l e s c u l p t u r e , n o t a b l y t h e p a i n t e d p l a s t e r f i g u r i n e s
f r o m A i n Ghazal a n d t h e r e s t o r e d life-size skulls f r o m Jericho.

H u m a n figure, A i n Ghazal,
c a . 6 7 5 0 - 6 2 5 0 BCE

In p a i n t i n g , c o h e r e n t n a r r a t i v e s b e c a m e c o m m o n , a n d a r t i s t s b e g a n t o r e p r e s e n t h u m a n f i g u r e s a s
composites of frontal and profile v i e w s a n o t h e r f o r m u l a t h a t w o u l d r e m a i n universal for a very l o n g
time.

Neolithic technology spread gradually f r o m Anatolia and M e s o p o t a m i a t oEurope, w h e r e it c o n t i n u e d

longer in r e m o t e p l a c e s f o r e x a m p l e , S t o n e h e n g e in E n g l a n d .

Stonehenge, Salisbury

Plain,

c a . 2 5 5 0 - 1 6 0 0 BCE