Chapter 2 Notes

Psychologist: A scientist who studies psychology

Psychologys scientific method
o Not what but how
o Step 1: Observing some phenomenon
Why or how something is the way it is (ex. Jinxing something)
Variable: anything that can change
Theory: Broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempt to
explain observations relations between variable
o Step 2: Formulating Hypotheses and Predictions
Hypothesis: an educated guess that derives logically from a theory
Prediction that can be tested related to theory
o Step 3: Testing through empirical research
Collecting and analyzing data
Operational definition: provides an objective description of how a
variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study
Everyone agrees on what a variable means
Kind behaviors may look different to everyone
o Step 4: Drawing Conclusions
Data supporting predictions
o Step 5: Evaluating predictions
Scientists continually evaluate- never ends
Replication: repeating study to get same results
Direct replication: doing study in its original form
Conceptual replication: different methods and samples
o Meta- analysis: statistical procedure that summarizes a large body of
evidence from research literature on a specific topic
Combine findings in literature- stronger than a single study
o Scientific reasoning: transforming info to reach a conclusion
Types of Psychological Research
o Descriptive research: describing some phenomenon on determining its
basic dimension and defining what this thing is, how often it occurs
Observations, survey and interviews, case studies
Case studies: in depth look at a single individual
o The value of descriptive research
Correlational research: relation between 2 variables
Correlational coefficients (r) = degree of relationships between 2
variables strength and direction
Correlation is NOT causation
3rd variable problem- confound
Cross sectional design: variables measured at single point
in time

Value of Correlational research: SAT and ACT

Experimental Research
Experiment: carefully regulated procedure in which the researcher
manipulates 1 or more that are believed to influence some other
variable
Random assignment: group assignment by chance, no preexisting
differences
Independent variable: manipulated experimental factor
Dependent variable: variable that may change outcome
Cautions about experimental research
External validity: degree to which an experimental design actually
reflects the real-world issues it is supposed to address
Internal validity: degree to which changes in dependent variable
due to manipulation of independent
No biases/ logical errors
Experimenter bias: expectation influences outcome
Demand Characteristics: Communicate how experimenter wants
them to behave
Research participant bias
Placebo effect: participators expectation brings outcome
Double bind experiment: No ones ideas/ expectations will
affect
Research Samples and Settings
Mode = most common score
+/- 1.00 closest = strongest correlation
Conducting Ethical Research
Came after WWII, Nazi doctors forced prisoners to participate in
experiments
Balance rights of participants with rights of scientists to ask
important research questions
Researchers must inform participants of all outcomes
Ethics guidelines
Participants should leave study no worse off than before
Institutional review board and American Psychological
Association (APA)
Informed Consent: what participation involves and risks
Retain the right to withdraw from study
Confidentiality: confidential still allows link to participants
through data
Debriefing: patients informed of purpose and methods
Especially when using deception
Deception: cant harm participant, only if necessary must be told
after the experiment