Gas Chromatography: The Modern Analytical Tool

Mark Barnes

In the used oil analysis lab, gas chromatography is becoming increasingly

important for accurately determining the concentrations of certain
contaminants - particularly fuel and glycol - in used oil samples.
In transformer oil analysis, the technique is used to determine the concentrations of dissolved gases
within the oil sample, which can be used with gas analysis and other methods to evaluate electrical
faults within a transformer or oil insulated electrical components.
Gas chromatography (GC) is one of the most widely used techniques in modern analytical
chemistry. In its basic form, GC is used to separate complex mixtures of different molecules based
on their physical properties, such as polarity and boiling point. It is an ideal tool to analyze gas and
liquid samples containing many hundreds or even thousands of different molecules, allowing the
analyst to identify both the types of molecular species present and their concentrations.

Figure 1. Gas Chromatography is Used to

Deparate Complex Mixtures of Different
Molecules Based on Their Physical Properties.

Molecular Speciation Using GC

Gas chromatography can be divided into two categories, gas-liquid chromatography and gas-solid
chromatography. In both cases, the technique involves the separation of components of a gaseous
sample, using a stationary phase, either a standard liquid in the case of gas-liquid chromatography,
or a standard solid in the case of gas-solid chromatography. Because the overwhelming majority of
test standards used for hydrocarbon analysis rely on gas-liquid chromatography, this article will
focus exclusively on this method, although the same basic principles apply to both methods.
Gas-Liquid Chromatography
In gas-liquid chromatography, it is the interaction between the gaseous sample (the mobile phase)
and a standard liquid (the stationary phase), which causes the separation of different molecular
constituents. The stationary phase is either a polar or nonpolar liquid, which, in the case of capillary
column, coats the inside of the column, or is impregnated onto an inert solid that is then packed into
the GC column.

Figure 2. Gas Chromatography Instrument

A schematic layout of a GC instrument is shown in Figure 2. The basic components are an inert
carrier gas, most commonly helium, nitrogen or hydrogen, a GC column packed or coated with an
appropriate stationary phase, an oven that allows for precise temperature control of the column and
some type of detector capable of detecting the sample as it exits or elutes from the column.
Gas-liquid chromatography works because the molecules in the samples are carried along the
column in the carrier gas, but partition between the gas phase and the liquid phase. Because this
partitioning is critically dependent on the solubility of the sample in the liquid phase, different
molecular species travel along the column and elute at different times. Those molecules that have a
greater solubility in the liquid phase take longer to elute and thus are measured at a longer interval.
Solubility is dependent on the physical and chemical properties of the solute; therefore, separation
between different components of the sample occurs based on molecular properties such as relative
polarity (like ethylene glycol versus base oil) and boiling point (like, fuel versus diesel engine base
oil). For example, using a polar stationary phase, with a mixture of polar and nonpolar compounds
will generally result in longer elution times for the polar compounds, because they will have greater
solubility in the polar stationary phase.
Flame Ionization
There are many methods used to detect molecules as they elute. However, the most commonly
employed method is flame ionization. In flame ionization, the eluting sample is passed through a
hydrogen gas flame and the ion flux measured. As the sample passes through the flame, any
molecules present are ionized, resulting in an increased ion flux. The total increase in ion flux is
proportional to the amount of species present allowing the area under the increasing ion flux peak
to be directly related to the concentration of the eluting species. GC is often also coupled with
Fourier Transformer Infrared (FTIR) or mass spectrometric (MS) detectors.

Applying GC to Used Oil Analysis

Several properties of used oils can be evaluated using GC. These include:
Fuel Dilution in Used Engine Oil (ASTM D3524 and D3525)
The determination of fuel dilution in engine oil samples is of prime importance because it causes a
significant drop in viscosity, resulting in film strength failure at operating temperatures. Because
gasoline and diesel fuel are chemically very similar to the oil itself, fuel dilution is almost impossible
to quantify by conventional wet chemistry tests.
The evaluation of fuel in used engine samples by the GC method is one of the few ASTM (American
Society for Testing and Materials) tests specifically designated for used oil analysis. The
determination of diesel fuel dilution in used oil samples is covered under ASTM D3524, while the

corresponding test for gasoline is ASTM D3525. In both cases, calibration mixtures of known
dilution factors are used to calibrate the GC instrument, prior to running the test sample.
While other physical tests such as changes in viscosity, FTIR and reduced flash point are all used
to determine the presence of fuel in a lubricating oil; GC offers a more precise and reliable means of
determining fuel dilution. This is particularly true for changes in viscosity, which can be offset by
soot loading, and FTIR, which at best is capable of detecting fuel dilution only when it reaches two
percent due to new oil reference mismatches and variable aromatic content in diesel and gasoline
fuels.
Ethylene Glycol in Used Engine Oil
Just like fuel dilution, ASTM D4291 covers the use of GC to detect trace amounts of ethylene glycol
due to coolant leaks; another method specifically developed for used oil analysis. In the case of
ethylene glycol, the method works by first extracting the glycol using water (because ethylene glycol
is a polar molecule, it is easily extracted using water) and injecting it into a calibrated GC column.

Figure 3. Typical Chromatogram

Fuel and ethylene glycol content can be quantified from the gas chromatogram by determining the
expected response of the GC to different concentration of fuel or glycol, using standard calibration
mixtures to create a calibration curve (Figure 3). From this curve, the area under the fuel or glycol
peak in the gas chromatogram from the unknown sample can be converted to a percent by volume,
allowing precise quantification of the fuel or glycol content.
Thermal Cracking of Heat Transfer Fluids
For heat transfer fluids and radiological samples (those that have been exposed to gammaradiation) one of the major areas of concern is the possibility of cracking due to either extreme
temperatures in the case of heat transfer fluids, or the effects of the radiation for nuclear samples.
Cracking is a process by which base oil hydrocarbon molecules are broken into smaller fragments.
Thermal cracking of heat transfer fluids has traditionally been determined by direct distillation.
Under this method, the sample is slowly heated and the boiling point range of the sample
determined. Because cracking results in smaller hydrocarbon molecules, the boiling point range for
severely cracked oil will be significantly lower than the new oil.

GC offers a simpler, more convenient means of determining a reduction in boiling point range. In
this method, the GC instrument is used in the temperature programmable mode. In this mode, the
sample is slowly heated by increasing the temperature linearly over time. As the temperature rises,
the boiling point range of the sample can be determined by ...

... measuring the sample as it elutes, often using a flame ionization source, as a function of the
temperature. This method, which is commonly used in petroleum research and QA labs, is often
referred to as a simulated distillation. The simulated distillation of a petroleum oil, appropriate to
determining cracking of used oil sample is covered under ASTM D2887.

Dissolved Compressor Process Gases

For gas compressors, there is often a need to determine the amount of dissolved process gas
present in an oil sample. In this instance, GC can be used in an analogous way to dissolved gas
analysis on transformer oil samples, to determine the presence and concentration of these gases.
Detecting Unknown Contaminants
While the use of GC to detect known contaminants such as fuel and ethylene glycol works because
the contaminant has a known elution time, under carefully controlled column conditions. Often,
there is a need to determine the presence of an unknown contaminant, which may be producing an
unusual color or a strange odor. Under these circumstances, GC can often be used to separate
different molecular species in the oil sample, prior to further analysis.
While the GC serves to reduce the number of different molecular species present, through
molecular speciation by replacing the flame ionization detector with another analytical instrument
such as an FTIR instrument or a mass spectrometer, the exact nature of any unknown contaminant
can often be determined. In the case of FTIR, the technique is identical to the infrared analysis of
bulk oil samples.
In the case of MS (mass spectrometry), the eluting species are introduced direct from the GC
column into the MS instrument. A mass spectrometer works by atomizing and ionizing the sample
into its constituent elements, or molecular fragments of the parent molecule using a high-energy
source, commonly a high-energy electron beam. The ions are then separated by the MS based on
the ratio their mass-charge (m/z) ratio. (MS will be discussed in a later issue of Practicing Oil
Analysis magazine.)
While GC may not be appropriate for every sample, when accurate concentrations of a known
contaminant such as fuel, glycol or dissolved gases are required, or theres a need to diagnose a
specific problem such as thermal or radiological cracking or the identity of an unknown contaminant,
GC is an effective, versatile, indispensable and under-utilized used oil analysis tool.

References

1. Reygaerts, Anne (2002). Transformer Oil Analysis. Practicing Oil Analysis magazine.
2. ASTM D3524-90. Standard Test Method for Diesel Fuel Diluent in Used Diesel Engine Oils
By Gas Chromatography - (Reapproved in 1999).

3. ASTM D3525-93. Standard Test Method for Gasoline Diluent in Used Gasoline Engine Oils
By Gas Chromatography - (Reapproved in 1997).

4. ASTM D4291-93. Standard Test Method for Trace Ethylene Glycol in Used Engine Oil
(Reapproved in 1998).

5. ASTM D2887-99. Standard Test Method for Boiling Range of Petroleum Fractions by Gas
Chromatography.
Further Reading
Oil Analysis 101: Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, Practicing Oil Analysis magazine,
March-April, 2002.

Transformer Oil Analysis - An Essential Part of a Cost-Efficient

Maintenance Program
Anne Reygaerts, Laborelec

It is well known that regular oil analysis is useful in monitoring the condition of engines, turbines and
other oil lubricated equipment. The same can be said for transformer oils used to insulate many
transformers and other electrical distribution equipment. The analysis of insulating oils provides
information about the oil, but also enables the detection of other possible problems, including
contact arcing, aging insulating paper and other latent faults and is an indispensable part of a costefficient electrical maintenance program.

Ensuring Transformer Reliability

Transformer maintenance has evolved over the past 20 years from a necessary item of expenditure
to a strategic tool in the management of electrical transmission and distribution networks. Extreme
reliability is demanded of electric power distribution, and even though the failure risk of a
transformer and other oil-filled electrical equipment is small, when failures occur, they inevitably
lead to high repair costs, long downtime and possible safety risks. Moreover, transformers are too
expensive to replace regularly and must be properly maintained to maximize their life expectancy.
By accurately monitoring the condition of the oil, suddenly occurring faults can be discovered in time
and outages can potentially be avoided. Furthermore, an efficient approach to maintenance can be
adopted and the optimum intervals determined for replacement. Some of the checks are relatively
simple: the operation of the gas relays, the operation of the on-load tap-changer, checks on oil
leaks, etc. However, breakdown of one of the most crucial elements, the oil paper insulating
system, can only reliably be detected by routine oil analysis.

The Information Gold Mine

By measuring the physical and chemical properties of oil, in addition to the concentrations of certain
dissolved gases, a number of problem conditions associated with either the oil or the transformer
can be determined. The following are some common tests performed on electrical insulating oils.
Moisture Content
One of the most important functions of a transformer oil is to provide electrical insulation. Any
increase in moisture content can reduce the insulating properties of the oil, which may result in
dielectric breakdown. This is of particular importance with fluctuating temperatures because, as the
transformer cools down, any dissolved water will become free, resulting in poor insulating power
and fluid degradation. In addition, many transformers contain cellulose-based paper used as
insulation in the windings. Again, excessive moisture content can result in the breakdown of this
paper insulation with a resultant loss in performance.
Acid Number
Just like industrial oils, transformer oils are oxidized under the influence of excessive temperature
and oxygen, particularly in the presence of small metal particles which act as catalysts, resulting in
an increase in Acid Number, due to the formation of carboxylic acids. Further reaction can result in
sludge and varnish deposits. In the worst-case scenario, the oil canals become blocked and the
transformer is not cooled well, which further exacerbates oil breakdown. Furthermore, an increase
in the acidity has a damaging effect on the cellulose paper.
Oil degradation also produces charged by-products, such as acids and hydroperoxides, which tend
to reduce the insulating properties of the oil. An increase in Acid Number often goes hand-in-hand
with a decrease in dielectric strength and increased moisture content as shown in Figure 1.

Dielectric Strength
The dielectric strength (ASTM D300-00) of a transformer oil is defined as the maximum voltage that
can be applied across the fluid without electrical breakdown. Because transformer oils are designed
to provide electrical insulation under high electrical fields, any significant reduction in the dielectric
strength may indicate that the oil is no longer capable of performing this vital function. Some of the
things that can result in a reduction in dielectric strength include polar contaminants, such as water,
oil degradation by-products and cellulose paper breakdown.
Power Factor
The power factor (ASTM D924) of an insulating oil is the ratio of true power to apparent power. In a
transformer, a high power factor is an indication of significant power loss in the insulating oil, usually
as a result of polar contaminants such as water, oxidized oil and cellulose paper degradation.
Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
Dissolved gas analysis (often referred to as DGA), is used to determine the concentrations of
certain gases in the oil such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen,
methane, ethane, ethylene and acetylene (ASTM D3612). The concentrations and relative ratios of
these gases can be used to diagnose certain operational problems with the transformer, which may
or may not be associated with a change in a physical or chemical property of the insulating oil.
For example, high levels of carbon monoxide relative to the other gases may indicate thermal
breakdown of cellulose paper, while high hydrogen, in conjunction with methane may indicate a
corona discharge within the transformer. Some of the more common key gas analysis fault
conditions can be seen in Figure 2.
Furans
Furan derivatives are a measure of the degradation of cellulose paper. When the paper ages, its
degree of polymerization reduces, so its mechanical strength decreases. The degree of
polymerization can only be determined directly by taking a sample of paper, a very complex
operation and almost never performed in practice. However, the degree of polymerization of the
paper can be directly related to the concentration of furan derivatives in the oil. Furan derivates are
formed as a direct result of the breakdown of the polymeric structure of cellulose paper. The content
of furan derivatives is relatively easy to measure in the oil, using HPLC and is thus a way of
measuring the aging of the paper.
Just like machinery oil analysis, electrical insulating oil analysis can play a vital role in preventing
unscheduled outages in electrical transmission and distribution equipment by determining the
condition of the equipment itself, and other vital components including the condition of the oil and
the cellulose paper insulation. For all critical oil-filled electrical equipment, including transformers,
circuit breakers and voltage regulators, regular, routine oil analysis should be the cornerstone of
any PM program.

Proper Transformer Sampling (ASTM D923)

Just like machinery oil analysis, the ability of insulating oil analysis to provide an early warning sign
of a problem condition is dependent on the quality of the oil sample that is sent to the lab. A
sampling point on any equipment should be identified and clearly labeled for the technician. As with
sampling locations in other types of equipment, the same location should be used each time a
sample is collected to ensure representative conditions are tested. This point should be located in a
place where a live oil sample can be collected rather then in an area where the oil is static.

Fluids with specific gravity greater then 1.0, such as askarels, should be sampled from the top
because free water will float. For fluids with a specific gravity less than 1.0, such as mineral-based
transformer oils, synthetic fluids and silicone oils, the sample should be taken from the bottom since
water will tend to drop to the bottom in these fluids.

There are a number of environmental variables, such as temperature, precipitation, etc., to consider
before collecting a sample. The ideal situation for collecting a sample from an electrical apparatus is
95F (35C) or higher, zero percent humidity and no wind. Cold conditions, or conditions when
relative humidity is in excess of 70 percent, should be avoided, as this will increase moisture in the
sample. Collecting a sample during windy conditions is also not recommended because dust and
debris enter the clean sample easily and disrupt accurate particle counts. If sampling the oils is
unavoidable when the outside temperatures are at or below 32F (0C), it should not be tested for
water content or any properties that are affected by water such as dielectric breakdown voltage.
For dissolved gas analysis, an elaborate procedure must be followed, including the use of a glass
syringe; with strict adherence to sampling protocol to ensure that the concentration of dissolved
gases is not influenced in any way by sampling procedure. This procedure is described in detail in
ASTM D3613.

Using Dissolved Gas Analysis to Detect Active Faults in

Oil-Insulated Electrical Equipment
Lance R. Lewand, Doble Engineering Company

The analysis of gases from petroleum products has been performed for decades
using gas chromatography. However, this technique was not applied specifically to
transformer mineral oil until the late 1960s/early 1970s and is now commonly called
dissolved gas-in-oil analysis (DGA). Some of the early developers of the technique
were Dr. James Morgan of Morgan Schaffer Systems, Canada, and researchers J.E.
Dind, R. Daust and J. Regis from the Canadian utility Hydro-Quebec.1
Because the technique was so successful and provided a wealth of diagnostic information to detect
incipient faults, other laboratories such as Doble Engineering in Massachusetts began utilizing the
technique shortly thereafter. DGA has now become a standard in the utility industry throughout the
world and is considered to be the most important oil test for insulating liquids in electrical apparatus.
More importantly, an oil sample can be taken at anytime from most equipment without having to
take it out of service, allowing a window inside the electrical apparatus that helps with diagnosing
and trouble-shooting potential problems.
Insulating fluid analysis is performed using an array of physical, chemical and electrical tests.
Physical tests include analysis for interfacial tension, pour point, relative density, viscosity, color and
others. Tests such as water content, neutralization number, oxidation inhibitor and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) are considered chemical tests. Electrical tests consist of analyses for dielectric
breakdown voltage and power factor. There are many other tests that can be performed but these
are the main ones executed on a routine basis. Most tests performed in North America are based
on ASTM test methods. In Europe and other parts of the world, similar test methods come under the
auspices of the International Electrotechnical Committee TC10.
Because oil and solid insulation degrade with service in electric apparatus, periodic sampling and
testing are necessary to ensure that deterioration is detected before it becomes excessive. The rate
at which the insulating materials degrade depends on several factors, such as the type of oil
preservation system (amount of oxygen present), operating temperature, water content of the
insulation, and the amounts and types of contaminants. The frequency at which testing is conducted
varies with the test, importance of the equipment, whether an incipient-fault condition is known to be
present or a problem exists, and when a family of transformers has been identified as having a
history of problems.
The tests mentioned above provide information on the oil quality itself but fail to provide in-depth
diagnostic information on the operating condition or health of the electric apparatus. In addition,
because most transformers in the United States are considered to be sealed systems (equipped
with preservation systems that retard the ingress of moisture and oxygen), oil degradation can
occur quite slowly over many years. Many of the transformers in the United States that have been
in-service for more than 30 years still contain oil that is in good condition. There is one test
however, also performed on the insulating oil of the transformer, which provides a means for
diagnosing the operating condition of the electrical apparatus, namely DGA.

Dissolved Gas-in-Oil Analysis

Dissolved gas-in-oil analysis, performed in accordance with ASTM D3612 or IEC 60567, is by far
the most frequently requested diagnostic test and the single most important test performed on
transformer oil. As the insulating materials of an electrical apparatus, such as a transformer, break
down from excessive thermal or electrical stress, gaseous byproducts form. The byproducts are
characteristic of the type of incipient-fault condition, the materials involved and the severity of the
condition. Indeed, it is the ability to detect such a variety of problems that makes this test such a

powerful tool for detecting incipient-fault conditions and for root-cause investigations
after failures have occurred. Dissolved gases are detectable in low concentrations
(ppm level), which usually permit early intervention before failure of the electrical
apparatus occurs, and allow for planned maintenance.
The DGA technique involves extracting or stripping the gases from the oil and
injecting them into a gas chromatograph (GC). Detection of gas concentrations
usually involves the use of a flame ionization detector (FID) and a thermal
conductivity detector (TCD). Most systems also employ a methanizer, which converts
any carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide present into methane so that it can be burned and
detected on the FID, a very sensitive sensor.
Removing the gas from the oil is one of the more difficult and critical portions of the procedure. The
original method, now ASTM D3612A, required that the oil be subjected to a high vacuum in an
elaborate glass-sealed system to remove most of the gas from the oil. The gas was then collected
and measured in a graduated tube by breaking the vacuum with a mercury piston. The gas was
removed from the graduated column through a septum with a gas-tight syringe and immediately
injected into a GC. In the present modern day laboratory, however, mercury is not a favorite
material of chemists. For this reason, two additional extraction techniques have been developed to
eliminate mercury.
ASTM D3612B is called the direct injection technique. In this method, the stripping of gases from
the oil and the gas analysis takes place inside the GC. Originally developed in the mid-1980s for
this application, the process involves injecting the oil into a sample loop in the GC. When the GC
run is initiated, the sample loop transfers the oil through a series of valves into a stripper column.
The stripper column is composed of metal spheres in one end in which the oil overlays the surface
of the spheres to increase the surface area. Carrier gas is passed over the spheres and extracts
dissolved gases from the oil, which then pass through a series of columns and on through the
detectors. The oil is back-flushed and purged from the system before the next sample is introduced.
The newest method, ASTM D3612C, was approved about a year ago and is called the headspace
method. Headspace technology was used for DGA analysis for almost a decade. However, it was
never developed into a robust, reliable standard method until several years ago when Jocelyn
Jalbert of Hydro-Quebec developed a headspace method using a Hewlett Packard (now Agilent
Technologies) instrument.2 The technique involves injecting an exact volume of oil into a purged
and pressurized headspace vial. The gas in the oil is then allowed to develop an equilibrium with
the vial headspace under shaking and heating conditions. After a predetermined sample extraction
time, the autosampler removes a portion of the gas from the vial headspace and injects it into the
GC. The advantage of this method is that it can be automated and reduces the risk of operator error
from excessive handling of the sample during preparation and injection.
Of course, each method has its advantages and disadvantages. Method A (ASTM D3612A) is by far
the longest-standing technique and is still widely used today and offers accurate, reliable sample
preparation if followed rigorously. However, the alternative methods, which are more easily
automated, are gaining acceptance as they are shown to be reliable. None of the extraction
techniques completely removes all the gases from the oil. This is due to the solubility coefficient of
each gas, which must be accounted for in the final concentration determination. Laboratories must
also work with commercial suppliers ...

... to develop gas and gas-in-oil standards or they must prepare standards themselves, because
these are not currently available from national standardization bodies such as the NIST.
Repeatability and accuracy are also of the utmost importance as small changes, even several
ppm in some cases, can mean the difference between an active incipient fault condition that
requires immediate attention or one that is stable and requires no attention.

Just like with industrial oil analysis, good sampling practice is important for obtaining accurate DGA
data. Key gases such as hydrogen and carbon monoxide could easily be lost from a sample
because of their low solubilities in oil. In order to minimize the loss of gases, ASTM D3613 requires
samples to be taken using gas-tight glass syringes or metal bulbs; these are available from several
suppliers or from commercial transformer oil analysis labs.

Gases Detected and Their Relevance

Typical gases generated from mineral oil/ cellulose (paper and pressboard) insulated transformers
include:
Hydrogen, H2
Methane, CH4
Ethane, C2H6
Ethylene, C2H4
Acetylene, C2H2
Carbon Monoxide, CO
Carbon Dioxide, CO2
Additionally, oxygen and nitrogen are always present, their concentrations vary with the type of
preservation system used on the transformer. Also, gases such as propane, butane, butene and
others can be formed as well, but their use for diagnostic purposes is not widespread. The
concentration of the different gases provides information about the type of incipient-fault condition
present as well as the severity. For example, four broad categories of fault conditions have been
described and characterized in Table 13.

Electrical discharges or inadequate cooling of the paper insulation cause it to overheat, generating
carbon oxide gases. Examination of the relative composition or ratios of gases present can provide
further refinement of the diagnosis. This typically involves using either Rogers ratio or Dornenberg
ratios.
The severity of an incipient-fault condition is ascertained by the total amount of combustible gases
present (CO, H2, C2H2, C2H4, C2H6, CH4) and their rate of generation. Generally, transformers will
retain a large portion of the gases generated and therefore produce a cumulative history of the
insulating materials degradation. This is an important tool for detecting and trending incipient
problems. However, it also means that care is needed in interpreting values for a first-time analysis
on service-aged transformers (more than several years old), which could contain residual gases
from previous events.
Some gas generation is expected from normal aging of the transformer insulation. Therefore it is
important to differentiate between normal and excessive gassing rates. Normal aging or gas
generation varies with transformer design, loading and type of insulating materials. Routinely,
general gassing rates for all transformers are used to define abnormal behavior. Specific
information for a family of transformers can be used when sufficient dissolved gas-in-oil data are
available.
Acetylene is considered to be the most significant gas generated. An enormous amount of energy is
required to produce acetylene, which is formed from the breakdown of oil at temperatures in excess
of 700C. Excessively high overheating of the oil will produce the gas in low concentrations;
however, higher concentrations are typically symptomatic of sustained arcing, a more serious
operational issue that can cause a transformer failure if left unchecked.
DGA is used not only as a diagnostic tool but also to stem apparatus failure. Failure of a large
power transformer not only results in the loss of very expensive equipment (costs can exceed one
million U.S. dollars) but it can cause significant collateral damage as well. Revenue losses due to
customers outages may be the least worrisome consequence of a failure. Replacement of that
transformer can take up to a year if the failure is not catastrophic and can result in tremendous
revenue losses and fines. If the failure is catastrophic, then additional loses could be realized, such
as adjacent transformers, environmental problems from the release of oil, which could be as much
as 20,000 gallons, and the resulting fire that must be contained and smothered, all of which are a
utilitys worst nightmare. In order to avoid such a failure, the sample frequency of most large power
transformers is between one and three years. However, sampling frequencies will increase as an
incipient fault is detected and monitored. Often times sampling frequencies are dictated by
insurance requirements, which often stipulate that annual transformer oil analysis must be
conducted to ensure continued coverage.
The following examples are extreme but serve to illustrate how the dissolved gas-in-oil test can be
used to highlight active problems.

EXAMPLE 14
The utility suspected that the magnetic shunt pads attached to the inside of this transformer tank
had come loose and were either touching the core (layered steel structure around which the copper
winding is installed) or were coming very close. The result was intermittent unintentional core
grounding and stray flux causing localized overheating of the oil.

EXAMPLE 25 It was suspected that a single line to ground through-fault caused the failure of this
transformer. The fault was of enough energy to destroy one of the windings. Acetylene was a
predominant gas possibly indicating that arcing may have occurred. The acetyleneto-ethylene ratio
indicated the problem could be either high temperature overheating of the oil, arcing or both. The
problem was likely in the winding because it involved cellulosic materials, as witnessed by the
comparatively high carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide concentrations.

EXAMPLE 35 A technician noticed that this transformer was enveloped in a cloud of steam
during a rainstorm. This prompted an investigation where it was found that the temperature indicator
pegged. It was estimated that the temperature in the unit had been greater than 200C. It was
discovered also that the unit became highly overloaded during some switching functions due to
current imbalances in the three phases. The condition probably existed on and off for two years. An
internal investigation found the cellulosic paper used as an insulant was brittle and crumbly. Again,
the key gas indicators for this condition were carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
Oil testing is an important part of a utilitys electric apparatus condition assessment. As these cases
illustrate, dissolved gas-in-oil analysis is the most important diagnostic test for detecting a wide
range of problems.
References

1. Dind, J.E., Daoust, R., Regis, J. and Morgan, J., (1971). Analysis of Gases Dissolved in
2.
3.
4.
5.

Transformer Oils, Progress Report. Minutes of the Thirty-Eighth Annual International

Conference of Doble Clients. Sec. 6-1101.
Jalbert, J., Gilbert, R. and Brillante, S., (1995). Dissolved Gas Analysis of Transformer
Insulating Oils by Headspace/Capillary Gas Chromatography. Hewlett Packard Application
Note. pp. 228-310.
Griffin, P.J., (1998). Criteria for the Interpretation of Data for Dissolved Gases in Oil from
Transformers (A Review). ASTM Special Technical Publication 998.
Lewand, L.R. and Griffin, P.J., (2000). The Effective Use of Laboratory Analysis of
Insulating Oil as a Maintenance Tool. Proceedings of the Sixty-Seventh Annual
International Conference of Doble Clients. Sec. 5-8.
Griffin, P. J. and Lewand, L.R., (1995). A Practical Guide for Evaluating the Condition of
Cellulosic Insulation in Transformers. Proceedings of the Sixty-Second Annual International
Conference of Doble Clients. Sec. 5-6.