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x1
V1
A1
x2
A2
V2
dV (V n )dA (V n )dA
t C .V
Ain
Aout
dV (V n ) dA (V n ) dA
t C .V
Ain
Aout
V
VA x x VA x x
1
2
t
A( x2 x1 )
A VA x x1 VA x x2
VA x x VA x x
1
2
t
t
( x2 x1 )
At the limit when x2 x1 (i.e., when the control volume shrinks to zero) we get:
A
VA
A VA
A Q
0 Or in terms of flowrate
0
t
x
t
x
t
x
Fex
VdV (V n )VdA (V n )VdA
t C.V
Ain
Aout
VV
VA
VdV
( x2 x1 )
t C.V
t
t
t
(V )VdA (V )VdA V
Ain
Aout
A x V 2A x
2
1
w
Fx Vg sin PA x PA x x2 x1 p
dz pe x2 x1
2
1
x
0
gravity
friction
pressure gradient
w2 w1
PA x x1
w(x)
PA x x2
w
dz
x
Plan view showing the pressure forces on the CV, where pe denotes the perimeter.
Vg sin PA x PA x x2 x1 p
2
1
w
dz pe x2 x1
x
VA
( x2 x1 )
V 2A x V 2A x
2
1
t
PA
w
VA
V 2 A
Ag sin
p
dz pe
x
x
t
x
0
A
pe
Hydraulic Radius R
S 0 gRS 0 gRS f
A(t )
S f (t )
pe(t)
0.6
0 .1
From the graph, the error in phase shift is about 10% and the error in
magnitude is about 5%. These errors are small and the quasi-steady
assumption can be used. In fact, the quasi-steady assumption is used all
the time in modeling of surface water flows! Im not aware of any model
that does not employ such assumption.
What would happen should the eddy viscosity reduces to 0.01 m 2 /s. In
this case,
2
( 20) 2
a
12
hr
0.01
2
From the graph, the error in phase shift is about 80% and the error in
magnitude is about 50%. The quasi-steady assumption is a poor one in
this case.
It is noted that
2
a2
1
T
T
w d
1 Tw
Td
which is the ratio of time scale of vertical diffusion to the time scale
(period) of the wave. When the time scale of diffusion is small compared
to the time scale of the wave, the wall shear and the flow field have ample
time to adjust to the flow unsteadiness. Hence, the quasi-steady
assumption is good as long as
1
T
T
a
w d 1.0
Tw
2
Td
a
2
PA
pw
y
0
pw
pdA
pwdz
dz pw z y
pw z 0
dz
x
x A
x 0
x
x
x 0 x
0
y
p
w
g ( y z )
w
y
w
dz p
dz w
dz p
dz g
wdz p x dz
x
x
0
0
0
0
0
A
Since
y
VA
V 2 A
AgS f
x
t
x
Q VA and V 2 A Q 2 / A ,
then
Q
Q / A
y
Ag ( S 0 S f ) gA
t
x
x
0
t
x
(Continuity)
1 Q 1 Q 2
y
g S0 S f 0
A t
A x A
x
(Momentum)
0T
0T
A
V
0
y t
x
t
x
t
x
x
A y
y x
y
V
A
y
V
y
T
A
V
0T
A
VT
0
t
x
x
t
x
x
t
x
t
x
t
x
V
A
V
Q
V
V
Q
Therefor
A
V
Q
V
A
Q
V
t
t
x
x
t
x
t
x
0 (continuity)
V
V
V
DV
V
A
Q
A
V
A
t
x
x
Dt
t
Ag ( S 0 S f ) gA
V
g (S0 S f ) g
x
x
Henc
V
V
A
V
x
t
Method of Characteristics
Recall that the momentum equation is:
1 Q 1 Q 2
y
g S0 S f 0
A t
A x A
x
1 Q Q 2
x 2Q Q g y g S S 0
0
f
A t
A A2
x
A 2 x
1 Q TQ 2 y 2Q Q
y
g
g S0 S f 0
3 x
2 x
A t
x
A
A
y Q
0
t
x
1 Q 2Q Q TQ 2 y
y
2
3
g
g S0 S f 0
A t
A x
A x
x
* Continuity Momentum 0
1 Q 2Q Q
TQ 2 y
y Q
T
2
g 3
g S0 S f 0
A t
A x
A x
t x
Or:
y g
Q 2 y
1 Q
2Q Q
3
A
g S0 S f 0
A t
A x
t T A x
3 A
dt T A
A
Or:
2 A
2Q
g Q2
3 0
A
T A
Q 2 gA Q 2 gA
2
A2 T
A
T
1, 2
Q A gA T
A
dx
dt
g
Q2
2Q
1 A
3
1T 1 A
A
Q
2Q
gA T
A
A
Q
gA T
A
V C
-
dx
dt
2 A
2Q
Q
A
A
gA
V C
T
gA 2Q
T
A
g S0 S f 0,
dt A dt
dy 1 dQ
2T
g S0 S f 0,
dt A dt
1T
dx
V C
dt
dx
along
V C
dt
along
gA S 0 S f 0;
dt
dt
dy dQ
TV C
gA S 0 S f 0;
dt
dt
TV C
V-C
dx
V C
dt
dx
along
V C
dt
along
V+C
dx
V C
dt
V
C
1
C
C Fr 1
dy dQ
T V C
gA S0 S f 0
dt dt
T V C
dx
V C
dt
C Fr 1
dy dQ
gA S0 S f 0
dt dt
T V
C dy dQ gA S 0 S f dt 0.
T V C dy dQ
gA S 0 S f
dt 0.
Since the flow conditions are known at A and B, coupling the above two
characteristics equations gives the flow conditions at P. This is the
essence of the method of Characteristics.
Finite Volume:
The fact the integral relations are valid for smooth as well as
discontinuous flows explain why finite volume techniques became highly
popular recently. Note that the Saint-Venant equations can be re-written
in vector form as follows:
W f (W )
S (W )
t
x
f(W) is the corresponding fluxes and S(W) is the source term (external
force terms); which correspond to
y
W
yV
yV
0
f (W) gy2 S(W )
y V 2 gy(S0 S f )
xi 1
to
xi 1
and
n 1i 1 / 2
n 1i 1 / 2
f (W )
W
dxdt
S (W )dxdt
n i 1 / 2
n i 1 / 2
i 1 / 2
i 1 / 2
n 1
Win 1 Win
where
W n dx
n 1
i 1 / 2 f i 1 / 2 dt
n 1i 1 / 2
S (W )dxdt
n i 1 / 2
x 1
t n 1 i 2
t
1
Fi 1 Fi 1
S (W )dxdt
x
x n x
2
2
t
i 1
2
x x i 1 x i 1
2
, and
Wi n
Wi n 1
i.e., the first term on the right-hand-side of. Possible approaches include:
Riemann solution.
Boltzmann approaches.
Others.
Win 1 Win
x 1
t n 1 i 2
t
1
F 1 Fi 1
S (W )dxdt
x i 2
x n x
2
t
i 1
2
n 1 xi 1
2
t I
1 I t
Win 1 Win x
I
i 0
n 1 xi 1
I t
2
F0 1 FI 1
S (W )dxdt
x i 0 n x
2
2
t
i 1
2
A necessary condition for the stability of MOC is the Courant-FriedricksLewis (CFL) condition:
t * max V c,V c
1 .0
x
Special Forms of
Equations
A Q
0
t
x
V
V
y
V
g (S0 S f ) g
t
x
x
(Continuity)
(Momentum)
0
t
x
t
x
V
V
y
V
g (S0 S f ) g
t
x
x
Let:
1. L be the horizontal length scale. This length defines the horizontal
extent of flow features (e.g., wave length, bore length, length of
the front of a flood wave etc.).
2. H be the vertical length scale (e.g., uniform water depth).
3. U be the velocity scale (e.g., uniform flow velocity).
4. T= L/U be the time scale, which defines the time scale for a fluid
particle to travel a distance equal to the length of the important
feature being studied such as a wave.
Using these scales then,
x*
x
t
t
y
V
; t*
; y*
; V *
L
T
L /U
H
U
0 *
0
L / U t*
L x*
t*
x*
U V* U 2 V*
H y*
V*
g ( S0 S f ) g
L / U t *
L
x*
L x*
2
Sf
U V*
V
H y*
g
V* * gS0 1
L t *
x*
S0
L x*
S f gH y*
V*
V gS L
V* * 0 1
2
x
S
U
U 2 x*
*
*
0
gS0 L
gH
1
1
U2
U 2 F2
If
gS 0 L
U2
gS 0 L H
S L
0 1 , then the first term in the right hand side of the
U 2 H HF 2
above equation is much larger than the fluid acceleration (left hand side).
In addition, if
gS 0 L
U2
S0 L
HF 2
S L
0 1, then the first term in the right
H
F2
1
hand side of the momentum equation (gravity and friction) are much
larger than the pressure gradient (surface slope). When both of these
conditions are satisfied, the flow equations become:
y Vy
0
t
x
g (S0 S f ) 0
The wave governed by the above model is called kinematic wave and
k
gS 0 L
U
S0 L
HF 2
So L
Therefore, the kinematic wave number is justified when the vertical drop
of the fluid S 0 L , due to the slope of the channel when it travels a length
L, is significantly larger than the water depth.
Wolshier and Liggett (1967) showed that the KW model applicable
as long as k > 20.
Daluz Vieira (1983) showed that the KW is applicable as long as
US 0
US
171 and 10% when T 0 83 , where
H
H
US 0
171 . Therefore, for case 1, we have:
H
US 0
H
3
171 T 171
171
59 days .
H
US 0
0.0001 1
For case 2,
T
US 0
H
0.25
171 T 171
171
0.95 hour .
H
US 0
0.01 1.25
where m= 1/2 for the case of the Chezy relation and m= 2/3 for the case
of the Manning equation. For the dynamic wave, the frictional slope and
discharge are:
V
V
y
y 1 V
V
V
g (S0 S f ) g
S f S0
V
t
x
x
x g t
x
Q CAR m S 0f .5 CAR m S 0
y 1 V
V
V
x g t
x
Note that for a given depth and velocity, the discharge can acquire
different values depending on the slope of the water surface and the local
fluid acceleration, which explains why the rating curve for the DW is
loop and not a single curve. For the kinematic wave, the frictional slope
and discharge are:
( S 0 S f ) 0 S f S 0 Q CAR m S 0f .5 CAR m
QDW
QKW
CAR m S 0
y 1 V
V
V
x g t
x
CAR m S 0
S0
y 1 V
V
V
x g t
x
1
S0
0
t
x
g (S0 S f ) 0
Or:
y Vy y Vy y
dy
0
0 along
t
x
t
x
dt
dx
dt
Recall that:
dx Vy
V
V y
dt y
y
q
y
Q CAR m S 0 V Cy m S 0
dV
mCy m 1 S 0
dy
dV
y mCy m 1 S 0 mV
dy
dx
dV
C
V y
V mV (m 1)V
dt
dy
y
0
t
x
g (S0 S f ) 0
Or:
A Q A Q A
dA
0
0 along
t
x
t A x
dt
dx
dt
dx Q
V
V A
dt
A
A
VA
A
0
0 along
t
x Q t
x
t
A x
dt
dx
V
V A
dt
A
V+C
Dynamic wave moving
downstream
(dynamic
forerunner)
Note, the dynamic wave moving downstream will lead the kinematic
wave as long as:
3
1
dx
dx
V V gy V gy F 2
dt
dt
2
2
KW
DW
The condition that F < 2 is satisfied in most natural rivers. Therefore, the
(C C 0 )
dt
dt
F0
The right hand side is negative when the Froude number is less than 2,
which shows that the forerunner dynamic wave will attenuate. Similarly,
the secondary dynamic wave which moves upstream will also attenuate.
V-C<<V+C when F<2
V-C
V+C
V+C
1
AR 2 / 3
n
S0
1
Byy 2 / 3
n
nQ
B S
0
S0 y
3/ 5
3/ 5
0.035 * 140
1
61
100
0.87 m
Therefo
Q
140
2.63m / s
A 61 * 0.87
gy 2.63
gy 2.63
For 95% accuracy, the condition derived by Ponce and Simons (1977) is
T
US 0
171 . Therefore, the required time scale is:
H
US 0
H
0.87
171 T 171
171
1.6hr .
H
US 0
0.01 2.63
0.0472t m 3 / s
Q( x 0, t )
for t 3600 s.
0.0472(6480 t ) m / s
dx
V 5
V A
V
dt
A 3
Q ( x, t ) Q( x 0, t t 0 ) 0 along
dx
5
Vdt
3
to
5
x-0 V(t t o )
3
Q ( x, t ) Q( x 0, t t 0 ) along
and Q( L, t ) Q ( L, t0
L
) Q ( x 0, t t 0 )
5
V
3
Rec
all that:
Q
1
AR 2 / 3
n
S0
1
Byy 2 / 3
n
nQ
B S
0
S0 y
3/ 5
3/5
0.035 * Q
1
61
100
Q
Q
Q
0.36Q 2 / 5
A 61 * y 61 * 0.045Q 3 / 5
0.045Q 3 / 5
Theref
0.6(0.0472t ) 2 / 5 0.18t 2 / 5
5
5
C KW V 0.36Q 2 / 5
3
3
0.18(6480 t ) 2 / 5
for t 3600 s.
for 3600 t 6480 s.
The
L
)
5
V
3
) 0.0472 t
0.18t 2 / 5
0.18t 2 / 5
L
L
Q (0, t0 t
) 0.0472 6480 t
2/5
2/5
0.18(6480 t )
0.18(6480 t )
Q(0, t 0 t
Note that:
t 3600
t t0
4750
0.18t
2/5
L
5
V
3
for t 0 3600 s.
for 3600 t 0 6480 s.
3600
4750
0.18(3600) 2 / 5
4597s
L
;
) 0.0472 t
t 4597 s.
0.18t 2 / 5
0.18t 2 / 5
L
L
; t 4597 s
Q(0, t 0 t
) 0.0472 6480 t
0.18(6480 t ) 2 / 5
0.18t 2 / 5
Q(0, t0 t
Q ( L, t )
L
138m 3 / s
Q ( L,50 min) 0.0472 t
2/5
0.18t
Additional Processes
Lateral Inflow:
channels etc. Let q denote the lateral inflow. The continuity equation
needs to be adjusted by adding a flux term to account for q. In addition,
the lateral inflow adds momentum along the x proportional to qVq x . If
x2
x1
V1
A1
A2
V2
q and S 0 S f
t
x
Or:
A Q A Q A
dA
q
q along
t
x
t A x
dt
dx
dt
dx Q
V
V A
dt
A
A
VA
A
In terms of flow:
A Q A Q Q
Q Q Q Q
q
t
x Q t
x
t
A x
A
dQ Q
dx
V
q along
V A
dt
A
dt
A
Weak
form
of
the
Dynamic
Wave
0
t
x
gy 2
yV 2
2
yV
gy ( S 0 S f )
t
x
These equations are valid when both y and V are continuous. Therefore,
these equations and the models based on them are invalid when applied to
shocks waves (jumps & bores). However, the integral form of these
equations (also called weak form) is valid at shock waves! Consider, the
bore shown below.
x2
x2
x2
y
y
y Vy
dx
dx
Vy
Vy
t x
t
t dx q2 q1
2
1
x1
x1
x1
yV 2 gy
x2
x2
2
yV
dx gy ( S 0 S f ) dx
t
x
x1
x1
x2
yV
gy 2
gy 2
dx yV 2
yV 2
gy ( S 0 S f ) dx
t
2
2
x1
x1
2
1
f
dx
t
x1
f
dx
t
x1
x2
f
dx
t
x
dx
dx
dx2
dx
x
x2
f ( x1 ) 1
f ( x )
f dx f ( x )
f dx f ( x 2 )
t x
dt
dt
t x
dt
dt
1
dx
dx
dx
dx
x
x2
x2
f ( x )
f dx f ( x )
f dx f ( x )
f dx f ( x )
t x
dt
t x
dt
t x
dt
dt
1
But,
dx
dx
and are both equal to the speed of the bore C. Thus,
dt
dt
x2
f
x2
dx
f dx C f ( x ) f ( x )
t
t
x
x1
1
y
x2
dx
ydx C y ( x ) y ( x )
t
t x
x1
1
x2
yV
x2
dx
yV dx C y ( x )V ( x ) y ( x )V ( x )
t
t
x
x1
1
y
x2
dx
ydx C y ( x ) y ( x ) q2 q1
2
1
t
t x
x1
1
x2
x2
2
2
yV
2 gy
2 gy
t dx yV 2 yV 2 gy ( S0 S f ) dx
2
1 x1
x1
2
x2
gy 2
2 gy
yV 2
yV dx C y ( x )V ( x ) y ( x )V ( x ) yV
t x
2
2
1
2
1
x2
gy (S 0 S f ) dx
x1
At the limit x1 x2
x2
y
x2
dx
ydx C y ( x ) y ( x ) q2 q1
2
1
t
t
x
x1
1
C y ( x2 ) y ( x1 ) q2 q1
x2
x2
yV
gy 2
gy 2
2
2
t dx yV 2 yV 2 gy ( S0 S f ) dx
2
1 x1
x1
x2
gy 2
gy 2
2
yV 2
yV dx C y ( x )V ( x ) y ( x )V ( x ) yV
t x
2
2
1
2
1
x2
gy (S 0 S f ) dx
Or:
x1
gy 2
gy 2
C y ( x2 )V ( x2 ) y ( x1 )V ( x1 ) yV 2
yV 2
0
2
2
2
1
C y2 y1 q2 q1
2
2
2
(shock) relations which were derived in the last chapter!