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Dimensional similitude
Physical models
p = f (Q, , D, )
(
)
2 2
3
D
D
Rayleighs method
In each dimensionally homogeneous equation the exponent of every
dimension on one side of the equation must be equal to the sum of
the exponents of the corresponding dimension on the other side.
In a problem if there are n parameters (1 dependent and n-1
independent) and m primary dimensions (e.g. M, L, T) we can write
m equations for n-1 unknown exponents.
m exponents can be determined with the remaining n-1-m
exponents of arbitrary values
A general function can be constructed with m independent variables
of known exponents and n-1-m dimensionless arguments with
unknown exponents
Experiments can be used to determine the unknown functions
5
[L]
[T ]
[L]
b
= 2 [L]
[T ]
a
Q
= k = const
1/ 2 5 / 2
g H
Q = C d 2 tan g1/ 2 H 5 / 2
15
[L]
[T ]
[M ]
3
[L ]
[L] 3=a+b+c-d-3e
[T] -1=-2a-d
[M] 0=d+e
a=(1+e)/2; d=-e, b=5/2+3/2e-c
or
[L ]
b
c [M ]
= k 2 [L ] [L ]
[L][T ]
[T ]
a
B
Q = kg1/ 2 H 5 / 2
H
g 1 / 2 H 3 / 2
B g 1 / 2 H 3 / 2
Q
= f ,
1/ 2 5 / 2
g H
(1)
Buckinghams theorem
In a problem if there are n parameters and m primary dimensions
(e.g. M, L, T) the equation relating the parameters can be expressed
in terms of n-m dimensionless groups denoted by 1, 2, .. n-m,
i.e.
1 = (2, 3, . n-m)
The terms can be determined by the method of repeating
variables which consists of the following 8 steps.
Step 1.
List all the variables involved in the
problem.
Step 2.
Express each of the variables in terms
of basic dimensions.
Step 3.
Determine the number of terms.
Step 4.
Step 5.
Step 6.
Step 7.
[M ]0 [L]0 [T ]0 = [M ]
[L][T ]
[M ]
3
[L ]
g 2 B 3
2 =
2
[L ]
2 [L]d
[T ]
c
[L] 0=-a-3b+c+d
[T] 0=a+2c
[M] 0=a+b
So
g H
1 = 2c 2c g c H 3c =
2
2
5gQ3
3 =
5
g H
=
2
g2 B3 g 2 H 3
5gQ3
=
,
5
2
2
(2)
10
Compounding
The solutions obtained by different methods to the problem of flow
over vee-notches are not all identical (cf. eq. (1) and (2)).
The reason is that the solutions are partial rather than complete and
a whole family of correct solutions is available.
Any parameter in a functional, dimensionless equation can be
multiplied by any constant or raised to any power without destroying
the validity of the equation.
New parameter can be obtained by multiplying two parameters each
raised to different powers.
The process is called compounding.
For example, the first term in eq. (2) can be obtained by the terms in
eq. (1) as follows.
gQ Q
= 1 / 2 5 / 2
5
g H
5
g1 / 2 H 3 / 2
11
P
g H Q
,
,
, ,
)=0
3 5
2
3
N D
N D D ND
Further simplification can be made
by knowing that g is a constant and
can be combined with the head H to
give the potential energy per unit
mass.
(
( P, , g, H, , D, N, Q) = 0
P
gH
Q
,
,
,
)=0
N 3 D 5
N 2 D 2 ND 3
gH
P
Q
=
(
,
,
)
1
2 2
3 5
3
N D
N D
ND
12
As
P = gHQ
gH
Q
=
2
3
N 2D2
ND
P
Q
=
3
3
N 3 D5
ND
Q
= 4
3
ND
13
Dimensionless numbers
Major forces in a fluid flow system :
Inertia force ~ mass x acceleration ~ L3 L/t2 ~ L2(L/t)2 ~
L2v2
And driving or resistance forces including:
a) viscous force ~ viscous shear stress x area ~ viscosity
x velocity gradient x area ~ (v/L)L2 ~ vL
b) Gravity force ~ mass x gravitational acceleration ~
L3g
c) Elastic force ~ bulk modulus (dimension of pressure) x
area ~ KL2
d) Surface tension force ~ surface tension x length ~ L
e) Pressure force ~ pressure x area ~ pL2
14
Dimensionless numbers
Reynolds number Re = inertia force / viscous force ~
L2v2/(vL) ~ Lv/
Froude number Fr = inertia force / gravity force ~
L2v2/(L3g) ~ v2/(gL) v/(gL)
Mach number Ma = inertia force / elastic force ~
L2v2/(KL2) ~ v2/K v/(K/)
Cauchy number Ca = Ma2 = v2/K
Weber number We = inertia force / surface tension force
~ L2v2/(L) ~ Lv2/
Euler number Eu = pressure force / inertia force ~ pL2/
(L2v2) p/ (v2)
15
Dimensionless
number
Expression
Case of importance
Reynolds number
Lv/
Froude number
v/(gL)
Cauchy Number
and Mach number
v2/K and
v/(K/)
Weber number
Lv2/
Euler number
p/(v2)
Pressure or pressure
difference are of interest
16
Velocity (m/s)
0.356382
0.59397
0.886386
1.778864
3.390198
5.153832
7.109364
8.751158
299.7288
746.928
1479.492
5075.28
15752.52
32606.28
57456
82832.4
Find the general relationship between the pressure drop per unit length and
the other variables
18
V 2
V
V 2
To vary the Reynolds number, the simplest way is to vary the
velocity, since the same fluid and the same pipe can be used.
19
0.019511
0.017504
0.015569
0.01326
0.011331
0.010149
0.009398
0.008942
4004.26
6673.766
9959.313
19987.07
38091.8
57907.76
79879.85
98326.82
2
V
0.25
0.025
0.02
0.015
Dp L
V 2
0.01
0.005
0
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
VD /
0.1
1000
Dp L
V 2
10000
100000
0.01
0.001
VD /
21
Theory of Models
A model is a representation of a
physical system (usually in smaller
scale) and has the same behavior
as the physical system
A prototype is the physical system
itself
The hydraulic behavior of a physical
system can be described by a set of
terms
1m = ( 2 m , 3m ,...., nm )
The form of function will be the
same for both cases. Therefore
2 m = 2 p ; 3m = 3p ;
1 = ( 2 , 3 ,...., n )
The above equation is applicable to
any system governed by the same
variables. Thus for a prototype, we
have
1p = ( 2 p , 3p ,...., np )
......... nm = np
And
1m = 1p
Similitude analysis
5
gH
H H
24
Model scales
Length scales ratio of
corresponding lengths in the model
and prototype. If there are two
length variables L1 and L2, then
terms equivalence gives
So
L1 p
L 2p
L1 m
L 2m
Vm
=
Vp
Lm
= L
Lp
L1m L 2 m
=
= L
L1p L 2 p
25
Discharge scale
Q m Vm L2m L m
=
=
Qp
Vp L2p L p
5/ 2
= 5L/ 2
Time scale
1/ 2
Tm L m / Vm L m
=
=
Tp
L p / Vp L p
= 1L/ 2
Fm L m
=
= 3L
Fp L p
Force scales
F
F
2 2 = 2 2
L V m L V p
Fm m L m
=
Fp p L p
Vm
V
p
26
Example - spillway
A spillway for a dam is 20m wide and is designed to carry 125m3/s at flood stage. A
1:15 model is constructed to study the flow characteristics through the spillway.
Determine the required model width and flowrate. What operating time for the model
corresponds to a 24-hr period in the prototype? The effects of surface tension and
viscosity are to be neglected.
Solution
The width wm of the model spillway is obtained from the length scale
wm/wp=1/15 and wm=20/15=1.33m
Froude number should be equal between model and prototype.
Vp
Vm
=
gmLm
gpLp
gm = gp
L
Qm V L
=
= m
L
Qp
VL
p
2
m m
2
p p
Vm
=
Vp
Lm
= 1 / 15
Lp
5/ 2
= (1 / 15)5 / 2
Tm L m / Vm L m
=
=
Tp
L p / Vp L p
= (1 / 15)1 / 2
Distorted Models
It is always not possible to satisfy all the similarity
requirements ( terms equivalence) for a model, so
1m 1p
Ym
Yp
3/ 2
1 / 2
29
Lm
= L
Lp
So
Vm m p L p
=
= L
Vp p m L m
m / m
= 3L/ 2
p /
/ p
Scale errors
The previous example shows that it is in general not
possible to satisfy both Froude and Reynolds number
criteria at the same time.
The practice is to model the prototype on the basis of
scale chosen to suit the dominant force action and to
allow the other forces to be out-of-scale.
The errors incurred are known as scale errors.
31
Scale errors
For cases if scale errors are not small, special treatment must be
made to reduce the errors.
For example, gravitational and viscous forces are both important in
ship modeling. The practice is to operate the model based on
Froude number equivalence. Drag force Fd on the ship model will be
separated into viscous component F and gravitational components
Fg.
Fd=F + Fg
The gravitational component is reproduced correctly in the model
but the viscous component is out of scale.
The viscous force will be separately calculated using semi-empirical
equations developed from experiments
32
Submerged vortices
Swirling flows
35
Modeling of vortex
Gravitational effects are most important. Froude number
should be preserved.
Viscosity and surface tension will also be important near
the core of the vortex where the fluid is rotating and
where the free surface is sharply curved.
Model velocities based on Froudian scaling are too small
to give comparable conditions for vortex formation
The model should first be operated at Froudian velocities
to establish the basic flow conditions and that the
velocities should be increased if there is any evidence of
swirl to compensate for viscous scale errors.
36
Surface
Dimple
2/3
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V = Rh S
n
n=Manning roughness coefficient.
Apply the above equation to
model and prototype
Vm n p R hm
=
Vp n m R hp
2/3
Vm
=
Vp
Lm
Lp
1/ 2
Sm
S
p
So
1/ 2
R hm Sm
n m R hp Sp
=
1/ 2
np
Lm
L
p
Lm
1/ 6
nm p
Lm
=
=
n p L 1/ 2 L p
m
L
p
39
Model/Prototype Ratios
Length, L
1 : 40
1 : Lr
Flow, Q
1 : 10,119
1 : Qr = 1: Lr2.5
Velocity, U
1 : 6.32
1 : Ur = 1: Lr0.5
Time, t
1 : 6.32
1 : 1.85
1 : tr = 1: Lr0.5
1 : nr = 1: L 1/6
r
41
42
Mannings
Surface Types
Coefficients
Prototype
Gabion Mattress
0.035
Gabion Retaining Wall 0.040
Concrete Surface
0.018
Natural Surface
0.030
Roughness
Model
0.019
0.022
0.010
0.016
43
~Ch.110
~Ch.600
44
4/3
Sm Vm R hm n m
=
Sp Vp R hp n p
4) The horizontal scale is finally determined from
calculated velocity and slope scales.
Sm Ym / X m
=
using the
Sp
Yp / X p
45