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Table of Contents
1. Linux Commands and How To Use
Them
2. SYM
3. A
4. B
5. C
6. D
7. E
8. F
9. G
10. H
11. I
12. J
13. K
14. L
15. M
16. N
17. O
18. P
19. Q
20. R
21. S
22. T
23. U
24. V
25. W
26. X
27. Y
28. Z
29. INTERVIEW PRACTICE TEST
30. Note From Author
2. SYM
SYM
. Run a command script in the current shell
!! Run the last command again
### Comment / Remark
3. A
A
alias Create an alias
apropos Search Help manual pages (man -k)
apt-get Search for and install software packages (Debian/Ubuntu)
aptitude Search for and install software packages (Debian/Ubuntu)
aspell Spell Checker
awk Find and Replace text, database sort/validate/index
4. B
B
basename Strip directory and suffix from filenames
bash GNU Bourne-Again SHell
bc Arbitrary precision calculator language
bg Send to background
bind Set or display readline key and function bindings
break Exit from a loop
builtin Run a shell builtin
bzip2 Compress or decompress named file(s)
5. C
C
cal Display a calendar
case Conditionally perform a command
cat Concatenate and print (display) the content of files
cd Change Directory
cfdisk Partition table manipulator for Linux
chgrp Change group ownership
chmod Change access permissions
chown Change file owner and group
chroot Run a command with a different root directory
chkconfig System services (runlevel)
cksum Print CRC checksum and byte counts
clear Clear terminal screen
cmp Compare two files
comm Compare two sorted files line by line
command Run a command - ignoring shell functions
continue Resume the next iteration of a loop
cp Copy one or more files to another location
cron Daemon to execute scheduled commands
crontab Schedule a command to run at a later time
csplit Split a file into context-determined pieces
curl Transfer data from or to a server
cut Divide a file into several parts
6. D
D
date Display or change the date & time
dc Desk Calculator
dd Convert and copy a file, write disk headers, boot records
ddrescue Data recovery tool
declare Declare variables and give them attributes
df Display free disk space
diff Display the differences between two files
diff3 Show differences among three files
dig DNS lookup
dir Briefly list directory contents
dircolors Colour setup for `ls
dirname Convert a full pathname to just a path
dirs Display list of remembered directories
dmesg Print kernel & driver messages
du Estimate file space usage
7. E
E
echo Display message on screen
egrep Search file(s) for lines that match an extended expression
eject Eject removable media
enable Enable and disable builtin shell commands
env Environment variables
ethtool Ethernet card settings
eval Evaluate several commands/arguments
exec Execute a command
exit Exit the shell
expect Automate arbitrary applications accessed over a terminal
expand Convert tabs to spaces
export Set an environment variable
expr Evaluate expressions
8. F
F
false Do nothing, unsuccessfully
fdformat Low-level format a floppy disk
fdisk Partition table manipulator for Linux
fg Send job to foreground
fgrep Search file(s) for lines that match a fixed string
file Determine file type
find Search for files that meet a desired criteria
fmt Reformat paragraph text
fold Wrap text to fit a specified width.
for Expand words, and execute commands
format Format disks or tapes
free Display memory usage
fsck File system consistency check and repair
ftp File Transfer Protocol
function Define Function Macros
fuser Identify/kill the process that is accessing a file
9. G
G
gawk Find and Replace text within file(s)
getopts Parse positional parameters
grep Search file(s) for lines that match a given pattern
groupadd Add a user security group
groupdel Delete a group
groupmod Modify a group
groups Print group names a user is in
gzip Compress or decompress named file(s)
10. H
H
hash Remember the full pathname of a name argument
head Output the first part of file(s)
help Display help for a built-in command
history Command History
hostname Print or set system name
htop Interactive process viewer
11. I
I
iconv Convert the character set of a file
id Print user and group ids
if Conditionally perform a command
ifconfig Configure a network interface
ifdown Stop a network interface
ifup Start a network interface up
import Capture an X server screen and save the image to file
install Copy files and set attributes
ip Routing, devices and tunnels
12. J
J
jobs List active jobs
join Join lines on a common field
13. K
K
kill Kill a process by specifying its PID
killall Kill processes by name
14. L
L
less Display output one screen at a time
let Perform arithmetic on shell variables
link Create a link to a file
ln Create a symbolic link to a file
local Create variables
locate Find files
logname Print current login name
logout Exit a login shell
look Display lines beginning with a given string
lpc Line printer control program
lpr Off line print
lprint Print a file
lprintd Abort a print job
lprintq List the print queue
lprm Remove jobs from the print queue
ls List information about file(s)
lsof List open files
15. M
M
make Recompile a group of programs
man Help manual
mkdir Create new folder(s)
mkfifo Make FIFOs (named pipes)
mkisofs Create an hybrid ISO9660/JOLIET/HFS filesystem
mknod Make block or character special files
more Display output one screen at a time
most Browse or page through a text file
mount Mount a file system
mtools Manipulate MS-DOS files
mtr Network diagnostics (traceroute/ping)
mv Move or rename files or directories
mmv Mass Move and rename (files)
16. N
N
nc Netcat, read and write data across networks
netstat Networking information
nice Set the priority of a command or job
nl Number lines and write files
nohup Run a command immune to hangups
notify-send Send desktop notifications
nslookup Query Internet name servers interactively
17. O
O
open Open a file in its default application
op Operator access
18. P
P
passwd Modify a user password
paste Merge lines of files
pathchk Check file name portability
ping Test a network connection
pkill Kill processes by a full or partial name.
popd Restore the previous value of the current directory
pr Prepare files for printing
printcap Printer capability database
printenv Print environment variables
printf Format and print data
ps Process status
pushd Save and then change the current directory
pv Monitor the progress of data through a pipe
pwd Print Working Directory
19. Q
Q
quota Display disk usage and limits
quotacheck Scan a file system for disk usage
20. R
R
ram ram disk device
rar Archive files with compression
rcp Copy files between two machines
read Read a line from standard input
readarray Read from stdin into an array variable
readonly Mark variables/functions as readonly
reboot Reboot the system
rename Rename files
renice Alter priority of running processes
remsync Synchronize remote files via email
return Exit a shell function
rev Reverse lines of a file
rm Remove files
rmdir Remove folder(s)
rsync Remote file copy (Synchronize file trees)
21. S
S
screen Multiplex terminal, run remote shells via ssh
scp Secure copy (remote file copy)
sdiff Merge two files interactively
sed Stream Editor
select Accept keyboard input
seq Print numeric sequences
set Manipulate shell variables and functions
sftp Secure File Transfer Program
shift Shift positional parameters
shopt Shell Options
shutdown Shutdown or restart linux
sleep Delay for a specified time
slocate Find files
sort Sort text files
source Run commands from a file .
split Split a file into fixed-size pieces
ssh Secure Shell client (remote login program)
stat Display file or file system status
strace Trace system calls and signals
su Substitute user identity
sudo Execute a command as another user
sum Print a checksum for a file
suspend Suspend execution of this shell
sync Synchronize data on disk with memory
22. T
T
tail Output the last part of file
tar Store, list or extract files in an archive
tee Redirect output to multiple files
test Evaluate a conditional expression
time Measure Program running time
timeout Run a command with a time limit
times User and system times
touch Change file timestamps
top List processes running on the system
tput Set terminal-dependent capabilities, color, position
traceroute Trace Route to Host
trap Run a command when a signal is set(bourne)
tr Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters
true Do nothing, successfully
tsort Topological sort
tty Print filename of terminal on stdin
type Describe a command
23. U
U
ulimit Limit user resources
umask Users file creation mask
umount Unmount a device
unalias Remove an alias
uname Print system information
unexpand Convert spaces to tabs
uniq Uniquify files
units Convert units from one scale to another
unrar Extract files from a rar archive
unset Remove variable or function names
unshar Unpack shell archive scripts
until Execute commands (until error)
uptime Show uptime
useradd Create new user account
userdel Delete a user account
usermod Modify user account
users List users currently logged in
uuencode Encode a binary file
uudecode Decode a file created by uuencode
24. V
V
v Verbosely list directory contents (`ls -l -b)
vdir Verbosely list directory contents (`ls -l -b)
vi Text Editor
vmstat Report virtual memory statistics
25. W
W
wait Wait for a process to complete
watch Execute/display a program periodically
wc Print byte, word, and line counts
whereis Search the users $path, man pages and source files for a program
which Search the users $path for a program file
while Execute commands
who Print all usernames currently logged in
whoami Print the current user id and name (`id -un)
wget Retrieve web pages or files via HTTP, HTTPS or FTP
write Send a message to another user
26. X
X
xargs Execute utility, passing constructed argument list(s)
xdg-open Open a file or URL in the users preferred application.
xz Compress or decompress .xz and .lzma files
27. Y
Y
yes Print a string until interrupted
28. Z
Z
zip Package and compress (archive) files.
Q:2 What does Sar provides and at which location Sar logs are stored ?
Answer: Sar Collects, reports, or saves system activity information. The default version of
the sar command (CPU utilization report) might be one of the first facilities the user runs
to begin system activity investigation, because it monitors major system resources. If
CPU utilization is near 100 percent (user + nice + system), the workload sampled is CPUbound.
By default log files of the Sar command is located at /var/log/sa/sadd file, where the dd
parameter indicates the current day.
Q:11 What is initrd image and what is its function in the linux booting process ?
Answer: The initial RAM disk (initrd) is an initial root file system that is mounted prior to
when the real root file system is available.The initrd is bound to the kernel and loaded as
part of the kernel boot procedure. The kernel then mounts this initrd as part of the twostage boot process to load the modules to make the real file systems available and get at
the real root file system. Thus initrd image plays a vital role in linux booting process.
Q:13 List out few of the differences between Softlink and Hardlink
Answer:
a) Hardlink cannot be created for directories. Hard link can only be created for a file.
b) Symbolic links or symlinks can link to a directory.
c) Removing the original file that your hard link points to does not remove the hardlink
itself; the hardlink still provides the content of the underlying file.
d) If you remove the hard link or the symlink itself, the original file will stay intact.
e) Removing the original file does not remove the attached symbolic link or symlink, but
without the original file, the symlink is useless
Q:15 What are the run levels in linux and how to change them ?
Answer: A run level is a state of init and the whole system that defines what system
services are operating and they are identified by numbers.There are 7 different run levels
present (run level 0-6) in Linux system for different purpose. The descriptions are given
below.
0: Halt System (To shutdown the system)
1: Single user mode
2: Basic multi user mode without NFS
Example :
-sh-4.1$ stat note.txt
File: `note.txt
Size: 4 Blocks: 8 IO Block: 4096 regular file
Device: fd05h/64773d Inode: 8655235 Links: 1
Access: (0644/-rw-rr) Uid: (69548/nixuser) Gid: (25000/ UNKNOWN)
Access: 2014-06-29 15:27:56.299214865 +0000
Modify: 2014-06-29 15:28:28.027093254 +0000
Change: 2014-06-29 15:28:28.027093254 +0000
Last password change : Days since Jan 1, 1970 that password was last changed
Minimum: The minimum number of days required between password changes.
Maximum: The maximum number of days the password is valid.
Warn : The number of days before password is to expire that user is warned that his/her
password must be changed
Inactive : The number of days after password expires that account is disabled
Expire : days since Jan 1, 1970 that account is disabled. It indicates an absolute date
specifying when the login may no longer be used
The /etc/passwd file stores essential information, which is required during login
/etc/passwd is a text file, that contains a list of user account related parameters like user
ID, group ID, home directory, shell, etc.
Here is the sample entry from /etc/passwd file
steve:x:6902:6902::/home/steve:/bin/bash
Username: Users login name.
Password: An x character indicates that encrypted password is stored in /etc/shadow file.
User ID (UID): Each user must be assigned a user ID (UID). UID 0 (zero) is reserved for
root.
Group ID (GID): The primary group ID
User Info: The comment field. It allow you to add extra information about the user.
Home directory: The absolute path to the directory the user will be in when they log in.
Command/shell: The absolute path of a command or shell (/bin/bash).
Q:19 How do you boot your system into the following modes, when you are in some
trouble ?
Answer: a) Rescue mode
b) Single user mode
c) Emergency mode
Rescue mode provides the ability to boot a small Linux environment from an external
bootable device like a CD-ROM, or USB drive instead of the systems hard drive.Rescue
mode is provided to help you with your system from repairing the file system or fixing
certain issues which prevent your normal operations.
In order to get into the rescue mode, change the BIOS settings of the machine to boot from
the external media. Once the system started booting using bootable disk, add the keyword
rescue as a kernel parameter or else you can give the parameter linux rescue in the
graphical boot interface.
In single-user mode, the system boots to runlevel 1, but it will have many more additional
functionalities compared to switching to runlevel 1 from other levels.
The local file systems can be mounted in this mode, but the network is not activated.
Use the following steps to boot into single-user mode:
1) At the GRUB splash screen during the booting process, press any key to enter the
GRUB interactive menu.
2) Select the proper version of kernel that you wish to boot and type a to append the
line.
3) Go to the end of the line and type single as a separate word.
4) Press Enter to exit edit mode and type b to boot into single usermode now.
In emergency mode, you are booting into the most minimal environment possible. The
root file system is mounted read-only and almost nothing is set up. The main advantage of
emergency mode over single-user mode is that the init files are not loaded. If the init is
corrupted , you can still mount file systems to recover data that could be lost during a reinstallation. To boot into emergency mode, use the same method as described for singleuser mode, with one exception, replace the keyword single with the keyword
emergency.
disk.