Lecture1.WhyByzantium?

EasternRomanEmpirelongevity,bureaucracy,tax/goldcoins,ConstantinopleasNew
Rome,theideaofempire,temporalandgeographicbridge(antiquitytomedieval,
WesternEuropetoIslam,Turks,China,etc)
Nomisma(goldcoins)
RomanvsHellen(Greek)

Lecture2.Constantinople,theNewRome

TetrarchyinstitutedbyDiocletian(293)becausetheRomanEmpirewasgettingtobig
foronemantorulealonetwosenioremperorsandtwojunioremperors,onepairinthe
westandoneintheeast.AverymessycivilwarfollowedafterDiocletiansdeath
Constantine
raisedinthecourtofDiocletianinNicomedia(easternpartoftheempire)
BattleofMilivanBridge(312)whereConstantinesawthecrossthatledhim
tovictory
EdictofToleration(313)legalizationofChristianityinRomanEmpire
CouncilofNicaea(325)1stecumenicalcouncilsetprecedenttounify
Christiandoctrinesandbeliefs(e.g.whatisHolyTrinity)
convertstoChristianityonhisdeathbedinhislifethough,hestillwantedto
pleasepagangods
movedthecapitaloftheRomanEmpiretoConstantinople
Constantinople
GeographicsuperiorityThracehasveryfertileland(asopposedtoAsiaMinor
whichismountainous)theEastiswealthierandmoreurbanizedbytheWest
BosphorusattheintersectionoftraderoutescandealwithPersiansbetter
Militarysuperioritybecausesurroundedbywateron2sidesandnavalwarfare
wasnotverydevelopedbuiltwallonotherside
ReligiousreasonsRomewasapagancityfearedthepowerofpaganpriestsin
Rome
NewRome,EternalCitycityonsevenhillsHippodrome(imitatingcircus
maximusofRome)
InauguratedMay11,330workedfor7yearsbuiltthewall(withtowers),
aqueducts,palace,statueofConstantineetc
Significance(ofmoveofcapital)centerofpolitics,power,wealth,culture,
education,societymovedfromwesttoeastConstantinoplesupercedesRome
asimperialcenteritwasTHEcityoftheknownworldforbothChristiansand
Muslims

Lecture3.BarbariansattheGatesAgain

7thCenturyCrisisalmostdestroystheempire,buttheyrecoverandareforever
changed:becomemoreGreek,moremedieval,loseofterritorytoSlavsandArabs

LateAntiquity(3307thcentcrisis)pagansareslowlydecreasingandbeing
marginalizedflourishingart,philosophy,culture,Constantinopledecidedlyovershadows
RomeConstantineunitedtheempirebutdividedthestatebetween2sons(Westand
East)
MassmigrationbymostlyGermanicpeoplestartinginthe4thCentury,sack
Rometwicein5thcentury,andtakeoverRomeinthe470s(FallofWestern
RomanEmpire).NotethatConstantinopletoldthebarbarianstoattackRome
becauseitwaswealthier(diplomacywin)
Justinian(reign527565)wantedtorestoretheRomanEmpireinitsglory
conquerspartsofNAfrica,Spain,andtheentireItalianpeninsula.Unfortunately,
ByzantiumquicklylosesJustiniansterritorialacquisitionstotheLombards
(peoplewithlongbeards)
ThreatsfromSlavsandAvars(moreeuropeanvsturkishspeakers)inBalkan
peninsulabesiegedThessalonica
Maurice(582602)Byzemperor,wrotemilitaryhandbookonhowtodealwith
Slavicwarriors,averydangerousenemy(onereasonbecausetheyarenotused
tocities,andsotheirraidswerehighlydestructive).Triedtomovetheaterofwar
tonorthoftheDanube(SlavhomelandinsteadofByzantineland),whichangered
histroopssotheygetbehindPhokas
Phokas(602610)killsMauriceandhis6sons,andusurpspower.Atthispoint,thereis
noreallineofsuccessionwithByzantineEmperors.Phokasisconsideredatyrant,
raisesbreadprices,fightsthePersians(notsosuccessfully).Heisbadsobigwigsin
ConstantinopleaskHeracliustocomeinanddeposePhokas
Heraclius(610641)sonofgovernor(exarch)inNAfricaatalentedgeneral,defeats
thePersiansandsavestheTrueCrosstriestosquashheresy(thereweremany
Christiandoctrinesatthetime)movestheaterofwarwithPersianstotheCaucasus.He
foundedadynasty,whichwasharshinpunishmentmadesurehissonswouldinheritby
makingthemcoemperors,placingthemoncoinagewithhim,etc.
PersiansdeclarewaronByzantiumrightwhenPhokascomestopower,invadingAsia
MinorPersians,Slavs,andAvarsbesiegeConstantinoplein626defeatednextyearby
Heraclius
ArabsgreatestenemyafterthePersiansweredefeated.Verypowerfulempirebecause
ofadaptationskills(builtnavy,whichpromptsByzantinestobuildupanavy),
bureaucracy,andtheRiseofIslam,religioustolerationofJewsandChristians(whohad
topaytaxes).ByzantinetriestokeeptheArabsdisunified,butIslamplaysarolein
unifyingthemasapeople(theysolidifylater)
BattleofYarmukRiver(636)eventhoughByzantinesoutnumberedArabs2to
1,theywerestilldefeatedbecausetiredafteryearsofwarfare.Afterthisbattle,
Arabconquestspreadsrapidly(Jerusalem638,AlexandriaandEgypt642,
PersianEmpire655)
FirstSiegeofConstantinople(674678)byArabsGreekFireisinvented
SecondSiege(717718)Arabsarebetterorganized,butGreekFiresavesthe
day

Lecture4.TheEndofAntiquity,ByzantiumsVersion

NoradicalruptureexistedforWesternEurope(lateantiquitytomedieval:lossof
education,culture,etc)didNOTexistforByzantium,noDarkAgesandthusno
Renaissance.However,Byzantiumwentthroughmajorchangesduringthe7thcentury
crisisbecauseofthesechangesandadaptations,theywereabletosurvive!
LossoflanguagediversityduetoSlavsandArabs.InvasionofSlavs(after580s),
whosettleintheBalkansanddisplaceGreekspeakerstocoastalareas.Invasionof
Arabs(after630s)whosettleintheNearEast(theLevant).Thesearetwohighly
decentralizedpeoples,soByzantiumwasabletokeepthematbayforawhile.
JustinianicPlague(542),recurringevery510yearsuntil747.Itispossiblethatitcould
havebeenBubonicplaguethatcouldhavebeenspreadbyratsongrainshipsfrom
Egypt.Nostatisticsonthisplague,buttheBubonicPlagueofthe14thcenturykilled1in
every3people.
Demographicchanges:lossofpeopleduetoterritorialloss(2/3)toSlavs/Arabsand
alsotheplaguepopulationdisplacementduetoSlav/Arabinfluxdecreaseddiversityin
languages.
IncreasedHellenizationLatindiesasanofficialstatelanguageinthe7thcentury
instituteGreektitlesforpositionsofpowerandnewoffices
Declineofancientcity(polis)aprominentfeatureintheRomanEmpirewith
communalgovernance,preferabletreatmentoflocalelites,andprominentcivicspaces.
However,EasternRomanEmpirewasveryheavilyurbanized,andtherewasless
emphasisonpubliccivicspaces.Alotofthegreatcitiesofantiquitysufferduetothe
plagueandwarsanddecreaseinimportanceandpopulation.
Constantinople:populationgoesfrom500kto40k,partiallybecausetheylosethe
breadbasketofEgypttotheArabsandalsotheplague
TheGreatFour:Constantinople,Antioch,Jerusalem,andAlexandriaallhave
patriarchs(theothercitywithapatriarchwasRome,buttheRomanpatriarchis
thePope).ThelattertwocitieseventuallyfalltotheArabs,butwereabletokeep
theirpatriarchsduetoArabreligioustolerance.Patriarchsarethehighestranking
bishopsintheChurchatthetime,andtheycontinuedintheOrthodoxChurch.
Abevyofcitiesshrankintoobscurityorceasedtoexist(duetoplague,war,etc).
EphesusandSardisaremovedtohilltopsforbettermilitaryfortification.
AdministrativechangesByzantiumsufferedagreatlossinwealthbecauseof
territoriallossesandlossoftaxbase.Itbecomeshardtopayofficials,andsenators
becomeanonhereditaryrole,appointedbyemperor.Familynamesdisappearinthe7th
century,whichsuggestsamarginalizationofthearistocracy(Karinathinksso).
Theme(thema)highlymilitarizednewformofprovince,eachgovernedbyageneral,
developedasresponsetocriticalsituations,andthegeneralswouldbeinchargewiththe
governmentlesspowerful.ThefirstfivethemeswereallinAsiaMinor.
AfricanRedSlipPotteryanarchaelogicalmarkertoidentifywithwhomAfricanstates
traded.AfterthelossofNAfricatotheArabs,theMediterraneanbecomesdecentralized
andtradebecomesmorefragmented.

Lecture5.TheIconoclasts:FanaticsorSocialReformers?

Iconoclasm(720840):thedebateoverwhetherholyreligiousfiguresshouldbe
portrayedinimagesandwhethertheseimagesshouldbevenerated.Theterm
iconoclasmalsoreferstothedestructionoftheseicons.Otherterms:icon,iconoclast
(destroyer),iconophile/iconodule(venerator)
Startedasaresponsetothe7thcenturycrisisofSlavs,Arabs,Avars,plague.
ThoughtGodcouldbepunishingthembecausetheworshipoficonswasa
mispracticeofreligionandtoosimilartopaganism.
Tiedinwithanewfoundquestforselfidentity:emperorsusedthisasapolitical
ideologytorevive/redefinetheempire.Greatlyunifiestheempirereligiously,
andby700,ByzantiumisatotallyChristianculture(disappearanceofpagans).
Problemwithsources:veryfewsourcesin7thcenturymoresourcesin8th
century,butthesearewrittenbythevictors(iconophiles)thesepresentalotof
womenasiconophilesbecausetraditionallywomenareassociatedwithpietyand
thehome(whichiswhereiconswere).
St.Theodosiaaniconophilewhokillsaman(memberofimperialguard)who
wastryingtotakedownicons(theimageofChristabouttheimperialpalace).
Thisismostlikelyafabricatedstory(asaremanysaintslives).
OriginsofIconoclasm
Movementagainstmonksbysoldiers:idlemouths
Womenmighthavespearheadediconoclasm(genderedmovement)
GreaterinterestinBibleasresponsetocrisis,specificallytheSecond
Commandment,whichsaysthoushaltnotmakeuntotheeanygravenimages
InfluencebyJudaismandIslam,whichbothareiconoclast
CanonoftheCouncil(691):firsteverchurchlegislationregardingimages.Say
theywantChristtobedepictedinhumanformratherthanasalamb.
Iconoclastemperors
LeoIII(717741):usurpspowerin717ontheeveofTHEArabsiegeof
Constantinopleof717718.Heistheonewholaunchesiconoclasminthe720s
andcausesthemilitarytobecomeveryiconoclastic.Removesreligiousimagery
fromcoinsandseals
ConstantineV(741775):THEiconoclastemperor,sonofLeoIII.Convenesan
iconoclastcouncilthatreplacesreligiousfigureswithcrosses.Highlyeffective
militaryemperoragainstbothSlavsandArabs.
Significance:defendByzantiumagainstArabsandSlavs,rebuildpartsof
Constantinople,endofplague,creationofnewthemes(espinareassettledby
Slavs),newcodeoflaws,theEcloga.Theiconoclastemperorswereconsidered
heretics,buttheypushedByzantiumthroughtheDarkAgesoftheaftermathof
the7thcenturycrisis.
TheEcloga(740)newlawcodecreatedbyiconoclastemperors.Strengthens
socialwelfare,corporalpunishment,marriagetiesChurchandStatetogether

andtherebyintroducesreligiousrhetoricoftheByzantinesasGodsChosen
People
Iconophileempresses
Irene(797802):reliesonsupportoficonophiles(asopposedtomilitary)and
triestogetsupportofchurchbyconveningaEcumenicalCouncil.Interruptionof
iconoclastpolicies(abriefhiatusoficonoclasm)
Theodora:endsiconoclasmwiththeTriumphofOrthodoxyinMarch843.
ShehassupportfromChurchandpiousbureaucrats(ratherthantheiconoclast
military).
PostIconoclasm:massproliferationoficons,withreligiousfiguresbeginningtoappear
ontheemperorscoinsandseals.Peoplestarttobelievethaticonsthemselvesareholy
objectsandnotjustrepresentations(e.g.ifyoukisstheicon,youwillbehealed).
Iconnotmadebyahumanhandasatypeoficonaswellascontactrelic(e.g.
Christsfaceonatowel)

Lecture6.FoesandPartners:ByzantiumandtheArabs

ArabsandByzantiumwerefoesmilitarilybutmoresimilarculturally
GreekFire(warfare)inflammablematerialisprojectedthroughasiphon(tube)towards
theenemy(onlyworkswhenwindconditionsarefavorable),usedmostlyasadefensive
weapon(toprotectinsieges)onlytwodepictionshavesurvivedtotodayagreatsecret
oftheByzantinemilitary.Significance:entirelyinstrumentalinthwartingArabattempts
atConstantinople,i.e.thetwoArabsiegesofConstantinople,674678and717718.
DefensivetoOffensiveswitch(militarystrategy):startingwithiconoclastemperors,
ByzantiumturnedtotheoffensivetotrytorecoverlostlandsfromtheArabswouldmeet
Arabsatthefrontiers(Amorion,Melitene,Edessa,Aleppo,Cyprus,Antioch,etc)rather
thanConstantinople.Bythe10thcentury,Byzantiumisreallyontheoffensive.
MacedonianDynasty(8671056):Byzantiumreachesitslargestsizeinthe
medievalperiod(sinceJustinian)afewsmallbutimportantareasandcitiesare
retaken.NikephorasIIPhokas:emperorusurperinthe960s,brilliantgeneral
DivisionsintheCaliphateaidedByzantium.SunnivsShiaAbbasiddynastyinBaghdad
(whichbecomesagreatercitythanConstantinople)vsUmayyaddynastyinSpain
territorialfragmentation
HowweretheArabsandByzantiumpartners?
Sharedalotincommoninfashion,education,trade
HellenizationoftheArabsmanyGreekspeakersinArabnations,espinareas
takenfromByzantiumCaliphateusedGreekasofficiallanguageforaperiod
Arabsadoptmanyvisual/artisticstylesfromByzantium,i.e.GreatMosqueof
Damascus(715)decoratedwithmosaics,QasrAmrahasahuntinglodgewith
paintingsofanimalsandhumansandnudes
ArabsastruesuccessorstoancientGreeks
GreektoArabictranslationmovementinBaghdad(culminatinginearly9th
century)Aristotle,arithmetic,astronomy,medicineetc

IdealizedHeraclius(Mohammedscontemporary)theworthieryouropponent,
theworthieryourvictory
IdeathatArabsandGreekshavecommonancestrythroughAbraham,etc
ByzantiumalsoadoptsfromArabs
Fashionsuchaskhaftans,turbans
Textsincludingliterature,someadoptedfromevenfurthereast(i.e.India)
ItemsfromFarEastsuchaspaper
TendencytoexociticizetheEast

Lecture7.SoftEmpire:ByzantiumandtheSlavs

SoftEmpire:theideathatempirescanmaintainpowerandinfluencelongtermonother
areasbywinningtheheartsandmindsofthelocalpeopleinsteadofmilitaryforceor
economicsanctions.ByzantiumusesreligionanddiplomacywiththeSlavs
SlavsvsArabs:bothmigrateintoByzantiumin7thcentury(SlavsinBalkans,Arabsin
Persia+CentralAsia)bothtranslatedimportantGreektexts(Slavsonreligioustexts,
Arabsonseculartexts)Slavsnotinterestedineducation
Slavs:notmuchincommonwithGrecoRomanpeople,notusedtocitylife
destructiveraids/invasions.
Tribalpeople:agriculturalists,butlackcentralgovernment
SouthernSlavsinBalkans:mosttroubleforByzantium(cantdealon2frontswith
theseguysandtheArabs)
EasternSlavs:highlytribalanddividedancestorsofRussians
WesternSlavs:somepeople(whocares)
SlavsinGreeceare(forthemosttime)notaproblem,theyintegrateintothe
empireastaxpayingfarmershighlytribal,peaceful
SteppePeople:nomadslivinginprairies(dry,notrees),e.g.Avars(C68),Bulgars(C7
),Khazars(C710),Magyars(C10),Pechenegs(C911)
ThessalonicasecondlargestcityofByzantiumbesieged5times,savedbypatron
saintSt.DemetriosmainlyattackedbytheBulgarsandtheSlavs(whoareoftenfighting
inmercenarycapacities)
TheRusortheVarangiansVikingtradersallupontheDnieperRiverNofBlackSea
(ByzcontrolCrimea,ByzantiumhasanoutpostofChersonthere).860:Rusfleetfirst
attacksConstantinople
TheRusmergewiththeSlavs,asdotheBulgarshowever,theseassimilationstake
manycenturies
ChristianMissionsonewayByzantiumdealtwiththeRusandSlavs.Most
conversionsaretopdown,i.e.kingsfirst,peasantslast.
Bythe860s,Constantinople(Orthodox),Baghdad(Islam),Rome(Catholic)are
engagedinmissionarycompetition.
Byzantiumpromisespoliticalfavor,titles,crowns,etcforconversion
BorisofBulgaria(Slav,convertsin860s):playspatriarchagainstpopegains
autonomouschurchchangestitletotsarmightvebeenaforcedbaptism
alotofSerbianprincesconvertin880s

ThelongconversionoftheRus
Veryhardtoconvertthesepeopletheeliteresisted
PrincessOlgaofKiev(957)isbaptizedinConstantinople,butherson
goesbacktopaganism
GrandPriceVladimir(989)Olgasgrandson,finalconversionofthe
Rus.Thiswasacalculatedpoliticalmove:1)marriesByzemperors
sister,2)estVaragianGuard,thepersonalguardoftheByzemperor
whichlastsuntiltheempiresdownfall,ismadeofRus,3)metropolitanof
KievandallRusestablishedwhichisdependentonConstantinople
(KievismostimportantcityinRusatthistime)
ByzantiumelectsreligiousleadersfortheRusthesereligiousleadershad
muchpoliticalcloutByzantiumwantedtocivilizethebarbiansandhelda
lotofculturalpowerovertheRus
KeyfiguresinByzantinemissionaryimperialism
Photios(c.810post893):twicethepatriarchofConstantinopletowering
intellectualfiguremanagesconversionofBulgariansmainachievementisto
sendConstantinethePhilosophertoMoravia
ConstantinethePhilosopher(St.Cyril)(826869):highlyeducatedatapalace
school,ambassadortoArabsandKhazarssentondiplomaticmission(863869)
toGreatMoraviaalongwithbrotherMethodiostranslatetextsandtrainclergyin
Slaviclanguagesthiswasafailedmissionintheshorttermbuthelpedlongterm
byfootindoor
inventsGlagoliticScript(850s),whichbecometheCyrillicscript(inthe
890s):thisistheoriginofthemodernRussianscriptenablestranslations
ofByzantinereligioustextsintotheirlanguage
ImportanceofChristianization:ChristianitywasanimportantweaponinByzantiums
arsenalofSoftEmpire,andByzantineChristianityspreaddeeplywithinSlavic/Russian
lands.TheseotherempireshaveculturaltiesanddebttoByzantium,andthroughthis
culturalsway,Byzantiumisabletoexercisepoliticalpowerovertheseotherpeople.
ConstantinopleisseenascenterofChristianworld

Lecture8.WarvsDiplomacy:DidByzantiumhaveaGrandStrategy?

GrandStrategyofByzantineforeignpolicy:avoidwaratallcosts,butactasifwaris
goingtohappenuseintelligenceandsubversionbehindenemylines
ByzantineMilitaryaprofessionalarmy,composedofafewdifferentunits:
Soldiersofthethemes:troopsintheprovincesgrantedlandsonwhichtheydid
notpaytaxlivedoffoftheselandsagriculture
Soldiersofthetagmata:mobiletroopsbarrackedaroundConstantinoplepaidin
salarieshighlyefficient,mobilefieldarmyactasbackupforthematicarmies(if
theyarehavingtrouble)
ImperialGuards:mostimportantistheVarangianGuard,themainguardofthe
ByzantineemperororiginallyrecruitedfromtheRus

Foreignmercenaries:increasinglyimportantovertimehighlyefficient,often
masterarchersandhorsemenespifSteppepeople(Byzantiumhasaweak
cavalry)
Militarytreatises:thereexistsadirectcorrelationbetweenByzmilitarysuccessinthe
10thcenturyandthewritingsofByzmilitarytreatises
Clientprincipalities(intheBalkans):incorporatedintotheempire,butnontaxpaying
kepttheirownprinces(clientprinces)wouldoftengraduallybefullyincorporatedintothe
empire(espwiththeSlavs)
MilitaryStrategy:warfarewaspredominantlydefensivewaraslastresortoccasionally
wouldmakeshortstrategicattacksintoenemyterritory.NEVERwarontwofronts!!
Flexibilityandadaptability:adoptionofheavycavalryin10thcenturySteppe
mercenariesaregood
Defensivetechnology:opticaltelegraphoneasternfrontierfortificationsGreek
fire
Diplomacynoprofessionaldiplomats.Espionagewoulddazzlememebersofbarbarian
eliteinConstantinople
LogotheteofDrome(MinisterofPublicPostalSystem)akeyfigurecharged
withsupervisingdiplomaticmissions
SatelliteStates(ourfriendsandallies)mostlyinSteppecorridorfirstlineof
defenseagainstRus/SteppepeopleCrimeaandChersongavecourttitles,
money,prestigetorulersofthesestatesderivedlegitimacyfrombackingofByz
empiredependedonByzempire
ClientprincesmuchmoredependentonByzthansatellitestatesByzemperor
controlsforeignpolicy,taketributemosteventuallyareintegrated
DidtheStrategywork?Sometimesyessometimesno.TherewasntreallyaGrand
Strategy,buttheydidthinkstrategically(defensiveratherthanoffensive).Theyhada
seriesofpracticesandwerealsoluckysometimes.
Yes:StCyrilsmissiontotheSlavs(860s)ArabsiegeofConstantinople
(717718)bcByzalliedwithSteppeandBulgars
YesandNo:VladimirtheRussconversion
Maybe:ArabsiegeofConst(674678)gotluckywithGreekFireconquestof
Antiochin968
No:firstandsecondconquestofBulgaria(970sand1010s)

Lecture9.TheLibrariansoftheMiddleAges

DarkAges7thand8thcenturiesbecausewedonthavemanywrittentextsfromthis
eracouldpossiblybeanindicationofdecreasedprominenceofeducation
MacedonianRenaissance(mid9thcent11thcent)
TheAgeofByzantineEncyclopedismcollectionsofancienttextsgathered,espin
10thcentury
Whypreserveancientbooks?EducationandCulturalTradition(Byzantineasheirsof
GrecoRomanculture).Preservedbothsecularandreligioustexts
Revolutioninbookproduction,9thcentury

Codex:aByzantinebookboundleavesofparchment(calfskin,sheepskin,
papyrus,paper)
Minisculescript:newtypeofscriptintroducedin835introducespunctuation,
divisionofwords,andletspeoplefitmoreideasperpage.Couldhavedeveloped
followingthedefeatoficonoclasm(becauseoftheneedtoproducelotsof
religioustexts).By950,theoldscriptfallsfromfashion
St.TheodoreofStoudios(759826):opponentoficonoclasmtakesoverthe
StoudiosmonasteryinConstantinople,whichbecomesabusycenterofcopying
activity
RevivalofLearningUniversityisrefoundedinthe850sintheGreatPalace
LeotheMathematician(790869)Arabsofferedhimalotofmoneytoteachin
Baghdad,buthechoseConstantinopleinstead(competition)
Photiosexemplifiesconnectionbetweencivilservantandhigherlearning
EnlightenedpatronsemperorsandhighofficialsintheMacedonianDynasty
LeoVItheWise
ConstantineVIIPorphyrogenitus
BasiltheChamberlain,eunuch,brotherinlawofPurpleBorn

Lecture10.BenefitsofBureaucracy:Byzantinegovernance

TheParisPsalter,NewClassicism(10thcentury)
TheCodexwaslargelydrivenbyChristianityandthedrivetowritedowntheBible
NoRenaissancewasnecessarybecauseByzantiumneverlosttouchwiththe
classicalworld/texts
Again,boththeneedtocopyreligioustexts(forchurch&conversion)and
classicalseculartexts(foreducation)
ByzantineBureaucracylargesizesalariedcivilservantswhokepttaxrecordsand
issueddocumentswithauthentifyingseals
Universaltaxation(everyonewhoholdslandmustpaytaxes):basedonoutput
oflandalwayspaidingoldcoins(nomismata).Taxcollectorssupervisedbythe
generalswhogovernedthethemes
CourttitlesrevealRomanoriginpaidsalaryinnomismata
Highlycentralized(despitebeingethnicallydiverse)
Pragmatic&flexible
Massivetransfersofpopulationfillingoutareasthatwereleftemptyby
plague
IncorporatingclientstateseliteintoByzbureaucracy
Benefits:WealthandStabilityofempirestrongnotionofstateguidedByz
throughusurpations,etc
TheEmperorasagovernmentofficialbothYesandNo
Yesbecauseheisanimperatorandsuprememanagerofpublicwealthholds
publicoffice
Nobecauseherulesbydivineright(allemperorsfromConstantineonwards),i.e.
representativeofChristonEarth

Succession:bybirth,butalsobymeritinthecaseofusurpersleading
generalsoftentriedtousurpthethrone,soemperorshadtobeongoodterms
withthemilitary.Usurperswouldblindandexiletheexemperorsometimes
benevolentusurperswouldjustputtheemperorunderhousearrestandrulein
hisstead(hooray!thisonlyhappenedtoyoungemperors,basilii&constantine
vii,butcouldlastintoadulthood).Whileusurpationswerehappening,the
bureaucratswerekeepingtheempirerunning!
BasilI:FounderoftheMacedonianDynasty(8671056)
Apeasantbybirth,rosetoinfluenceinthecourtofMichaelIIITheDrunkard
Becomestheemperorsfavorite,isappointedcoemperor
Usurpspower,assassinatesMichaelIII,andpromoteshissonsascoemperors
Uneducated,butanableadministratorandgeneral
Reformedthetaxationsystem
EunuchsinfluencefromPersiaandChina,notreallysanctionedbyRomanvalues
entertheByzantinecourtunderConstantinehadmanypositionswithinandoutsidethe
imperialhouseholdcouldNEVERbeemperor

Lecture11.TheChurch:aDepartmentofState

ChurchasaDepartmentofStatetightlycontrolledbytheemperorandstate
TheEmperordidnothavemuchcontroloverthepatriarch,andthechurchnever
dependsongoodrelationswiththeemperor
Thepatriarchcrownstheemperor,sothereisthenotionthattheemperoris
madebythepatriarch
DistinguishingfactorofByzchurch:itsintricateconnectionstosecularaffairs
Secularclergysecularbecausetheyfreelymixwiththelaity
Deacons,priests,andbishops
Highrankingbishopsmetropolitanbishops(bishopsofmajorcities),
archbishops,patriarches
Patriarchs:thefivemostexaltedarchbishops:Rome(Pope),Antioch,
Alexandria,Jerusalem,andConstantinople
Byzantinereligionashighlycentralizedundertheruleofthe
Patriarch,whoistheheadoftheByzchurch
TheEastern(orGreat)SchismbetweenEastandWestchurchesbeganin
1054
Pentarchy:allfivepatriarchsareequaltoeachother
PapalPetrine:thePopeissuperiortootherpatriarches
Othertensions:facialhair,celibacy,breadleavening,etc
Regular(monastic)clergy,monkscalledregularbecausetheyarefollowinga
monasticrule
Worldlynatureofchurchoffices
Bishopswerealsosupposedtobehighjudgesalsoquiteworldly
Bishopsandpatriarchswerewealthy,andthereforepatronizedwelfare
institutions

ChristianizationofmarriageinC10
LawofEmperorLeoVItheWiseinthe10thcentury,declaringthatonly
marriagesinchurcheswerelegalbeforethis,weddingscouldbesecular,now
theyhadtobereligious
Showhowpowerfulthechurchhadbecome
StrongfamilyvaluesintheBibleandthescriptures
Strongprohibitiononsecondmarriagespossibletoobtain,butvery
difficultthirdmarriageswerebad,fourthmarriagesbannedentirely
Oftenexceptionsweremade,especiallyforsecondmarriages
LeoVIwastheonewhowasexcommunicatedforhavingfourmarriagesgave
theChurchtherighttocontrolmarriageaspartofhispenancetogetbackintothe
Church

Lecture12.WhywasByzantiumwealthy?

HistoryofByzantineeconomy:generallywealthystatewithgrowingeconomysharp
dipin7thcentrecoveredin8thcentundericonoclastperiodgrewsteadilyin911thcent
HowdoweknowthatByzantiumwasrich?
Impressionsofforeigners
Urbanarchaeology:largersizesofcities,Byzantinewhiteglazedpottery(9thcent
onwards),morecoinsfound
Environmentalarchaeology:lesstreesmeanmoreagriculturallandMacedonia
andThraceveryfertile(MediterraneanTriad:wheat,oliveoil,andwine)
Changesstartinginthe9thcentury:endoftheplague(747)andendofLittleIceAge
(fromC6C8)newvillagesagriculturalexpansion(roleofmonasteries)growthof
tradegrowingpopulationincountryside,butnotnecessarilywithgreaterproductivity
Growingcommerceandwealth
BookoftheEparch(911/912)aguidetoByzantinecommercewrittenfor
Eparch(headofByzeconomy)
Statecollectedmanytaxes:landtax(biggesttax)taxesonpastureland
commercialduties
Merchants:Byzantines,Arabs,EasternChristians,Jews,especiallyVenetians
(whoconsideredthemselvespartofByzantium)afterthe10thcentury
ConstantinoplewasacrossroadsbetweenEastandWestimportantforspice
andsilktrade
Silk.Byzantineshadasilkmonopolyin610centuries(stolenfromChina)regulated
productionandsale(restrictionofpeachandpurplecoloredsilk)highlyfashionableand
expensivesometimescommonersworesilkalso
SilkenDiplomacy:ByzantiumwouldsendsilkasdiplomaticgifttoWEurope

Lecture13.TheAristocracy:genesisandpower

Aristocracy:(def)hereditarywealth,politicalpower,andsocialstatusanupperclass
withhereditarybasedentitlement(ratherthanmerit)

pre1000:Byzantiumhadavisiblebutnotparticularlystrongaristocracyemperor
grantedtitlesgenerationaftergenerationConstantinetheGreatmadeSenatora
hereditaryrole
post9thcentury:anewaristocracywithnewfamilies,whichstartappearingin7th
centurymanywereArmeniansorforeignerslossofhereditarystatusof
SenatorsoldRomanaristocraticfamiliesdisappear
Formationoffamilynames(haddisappearedearlierandreemergedinC9):patronyms,
nicknames(toughhearted),offices,placeoforigin,professionriseoffamilynames
correspondswiththeriseofthearistocracy
MacedonianEmperors:highlyantagonistictothearistocracyemperorstriedtoavoid
familyallianceswithpowerfulfamiliesbrideshow:theemperorwouldcollectall
eligiblebridesandchooseoneofthemasawayofnotoffendingthefamilies,butnotso
successful:otherfamilieswouldfeelslightedandpushback
BasilItheMacedonian(867885):peasantorigin,Armenianancestryusurped
powerfromMichaelIIIimprovedtaxregistersandtriedtomakepeasanttaxes
faironeofhisgeneralswasthefutureNikephorosIIPhokas
RomanosILekapenos(920944):abenevolentusurperforConstantineVII
Porphyrogenitusfirsttoissuelawsagainstaristocracy,e.g.lawagainstthe
powerful(934)whichbansthepowerfulfromseizinglandfromthepeasants
NikephorosIIPhokas(961969):fromtheoldPhokasfamily,enemyof
RomanosIusurperwhorulesinthenameofBasilII
BasilIItheBulgarSlayer(9761025):thelongestrulingMacedonianemperor
internalchallengesin15years:BasiltheChamberlain(hisstepuncleand
eunuch)andmajorrebellionsinEasternarmymarriedhissistertoVladimirthe
RusacquiredArmenianandGeorgiansatelliteprincipalitiesafterquashing
rebellionslastlawagainstthepowerfullessantiaristocracyafterhisdeath.
Pselloslovesthisguy
Consequences:Macedoniandynastygainslegitimacy,rulesfor2centuriesPhokas
familycrushedprotectsinterestsofsmallfarmersestablishesprecedentfordynasty
andbenevolentusurpers

Lecture14.Alapseinleadership:troublesinthe11thCenturyakaPsellos

11thcentury:populationandagriculturegrow,butpoliticalinstability(10251081)with
avgreign4yearsandlotsofplots/rebellions,etc
BasilII(9761025):endofanera:lastgreatconqueringemperor,lastemperortoissue
landlegislationagainstthepowerful(protectingsmallfarmers),lastemperortoamass
hugebudgetsurplusandextensivecrownlandsnochildren,sohisdeathleadto
successionproblems
ConstantineVIIIBasillIIsbrotherwhobecomesemperorafterBasilsdeath.Three
daughters,whoweretoldtonotmarryhisdaughterZoebecomeskeytosuccessionfor
30yrpostBasilsdeathasawayoflegitimizingtheemperor
RomanosIIIZoes1sthusbandhewasoriginallyaneparch,wasforcefullydivorced
andmarriedtoZoenotagoodemperorislikelykilledbyZoeetal

MichaelIVZoes2ndhusband,theyoungmanwhoZoefallsinlovewithwhilestill
marriedtoRomanosIIIfirsttodebasethegoldcurrency,whichleadtoinflation
belongedoffamilyofcraftsmen
MichaelVtheCaulkernotmarriedtoZoe,nephewofMichaelIVhisfatherwasa
CaulkerbytradeandbroinlawtoMichaelIVusurpspowerandexilesZoethe
populationofConstantinoplearemad,blindsandexileshimandputsZoebackonthe
thronewithConstantineIX
ConstantineIXMonomachosZoes3rdhusbandconfrontationalrelationshipwith
leadinggeneralsanddisbandssomethemes(e.g.Iberia)lotsofplotsagainsthim
promotedmembersofguildsenormousandwastefulspendinggrantscourttitles
arbitrarilycontinuesdebasementofgoldcoins
TheodoralastofMacedonianline
MichaelVIbrieflyholdsthronefor1year(whocareslolhepromotesthecivilservice
overthemilitarytheninsultsthegeneralswhentheycomplainandisconsequently
quicklyoverthrown)
IsaacIKomnenos(10571059)emphasizedhisroleasmilitaryemperor(militaryis
backinpower),marriedaDoukasgirlandcreatesfamilyalliancesDoukasfamily=
generalswhoconfrontSeljikTurksandeventuallybringstability
11thcenturypatterns:recklessdecisionsbyemperors(i.e.personalitiesmatters)the
opennessoftheofficeofemperorshiphadbeenastrengthin10thcentbutisnowa
weaknessin11thcenteveryoneisusurpingoops,evensenatorsandguildmembers
Organizationofpopulationintoguildsandthemobthatemperorsmust
appeaseunfortunatelyemperorsneglectthemilitary...

Lecture15.TheSeljukTurks:anewpowerfromtheEast

SeljukTurks:subsetofOghuzTurks,aconfederationofpeoplearoundtheAralSea
settlers,notjustraidersrecentlyIslamicized.In1055,theytakeBaghdadandtheirruler
adoptsthetitlesultan.SultanArpArslanwasthebaneofByzantium!
Byzantinewasnotinagoodpositiontocounter:notusedtoenemiescomingfromNE
AsiaMinor(ArabscamefromSEAsiaMinor)bufferstates(Armenia,etc.)already
incorporatedintoempiresocantabsorbshockByzantiumsufferingfromhighemperor
turnover,mistreatmentofarmy,massinfluxofmercenaries(manyofwhomcouldntor
didntwanttofighttheTurks),wasnotprecedentedbygreatmigrations,settlers(unlike
theArabs),Byzantineshadoverextendedtheirresources
BattleofManzikert(1071):RomanosIVDiogenesvs.ArpArslan.Byzantiumloses
horribly,RomanosIVcapturedbrieflywakeupcallforByzantium(Turksareaserious
power)Byzantiumdescendsintocivilwar,andtheTurksoverrunAsiaMinor,eventually
takingallofit,whichisamajorblowtoByzantium(becauseAsiaMinorisitsheartland).
LeadstoadeclineinByzantinefortunes,becauseofgreatreductioninlandandsoldiers
fromAsiaMinorafterthis,Byzantiumisneveragainaseriousmilitarypower(didhe
reallysaythis???theKomnenoidoprettyalrightforthemselves)
Otherdates/battles:sacksofAni,Caesaria,Ikonion(renamedKonya,lateranimportant
politicalcenterfortheTurks)fallofNicaea,Antioch,etc

SultanSuleimanestablishesasultanateinNicaea,dividingtheSeljukTurks
intobranches:Mesopotamian(BaghdadArslan)andAsiaMinor(Nicaea
Suleiman)Nicaeaiseventuallyretakenbythecrusaders(1097)
SuleimanthenmovestoKonyaandestablishesSultanateofRum(Rome)

Lecture16.Byzantinefarmers:mythsandreality

Whydowecare?(Lucydoesnt):90%ofByzpopulationarefarmers,iffarmersare
happy,theempireishappy(goodinC10,badinC11&C12)
CharacteristicsofByzantinepeasants:majorityarefreelandowningpeasants(C711)
PeasantpopulationrisessteadilyfromC814(JustinianicplaguetoGreatPlague)
Emancipatedslavesorlandlesspeasantsbecometenantstopowerful
individuals,whocollecttaxesdirectlyfromtheirpeasantsthisfueledthetransition
ofthepeasantryfromfreeandlandowningtodependentandlandless
GeographicalfeaturesofByzantineworld:mountains=cattleraisingDanube,Thrace,
partsofAsiaMinorweremajoragriculturalareas
Sourcesonpeasantry:churchrecords,historians,Saintslives,taxrecordsand
inventories(greatquantitiesin14thcentMacedonia),bioarchaeology(lotsofbonesand
villagesinCrete)
Legaltexts:inheritancelaw(decreedevensplittingoflandamongchildren
unlessotherwisespecified)promptedarrangedmarriagesamongpeasants
FarmersLaw(7thCent,alegalcasebookaboutpeasantlife)andotherland
legislation
Villages:100400peoplepervillage,livinginnuclearfamiliescommunalspaces
(pastures)andinitiatives(peasantsworktogethertobuildmajorinfrastructures)houses
weregenerallyclusteredforprotection,withfieldsinaseparateareaCollectiveTax
Obligation:ifyoucantpay,yourneighborshavetomakeupthedifference.
Taxation:landtax(biggest,assessedonqualityofland),polltax,supplementarytax
collectedannually(September)incoinage.Sizeoftax:about50%ofthesurplusofa
landowningpeasant75%ofsurplusofdependentpeasant
Slavery:rarebutdidexistforcashcrops(onCrete,Cyprus)generallydisappearsby
1204

Lecture17.WomeninByzantium:glasshalffullorhalfempty

Byzantinewomen:generallyrestrictedtothehome,butgenerallyenjoyedmorerights
thanancientwomen(waymorethaninAncientGreece/Rome)
Legalrights:canfilelawsuits,haveaccesstolawcourts,butbannedasserving
aswitnessesintrial(testimonybywomenwasconsideredunreliable)
Inheritance:equaldivisionofinheritanceamongsonsanddaughters
Dowry:womencontrolledtheirowndowriesitwasgiventohernotherhusband
averyimportantinstitutionmarriageasaneconomicinstitutiontoconsolidate
andpassonyourproperty

Christianizationofmarriage:C10LawofLeoVItheWiseBasilIIdecreedthatyou
cantmarrycloserelatives(usedtobreakthearistocracy)restrictionsondivorce
(Ecloga)nuclearizationofthefamily
Aristocraticandelitewomen:Byzantineempresseswerepowerfulfigureswhoprovided
dynasticlegitimacytothecurrentemperor.Marriageofelitewomentoforeignerswas
tightlycontrolledlikewise,foreignbridesandempresseswererare,butbecamemore
commonfollowingthe12thcentury(duetoinfluenceoftheCrusades).Theirpublic
imageswereimportant,andtheyhadtheirownsealsandimagesoncoins
EmpressIreneDoukaina:marriesat11toAlexiosKomnenosandunitesthese
twogreatfamilies(bothmilitaryfamilieswhofeltneglectedbycivilofficials),
motherofAnnaKomnene
AnnaKomnene:theonlywomanhistorianoftheMiddleAges(inByzantium,not
intheWest),wrotetheAlexiadinhonorofherfatherAlexiosI

Lecture18.PatrimonialGovernance

Transformationin11th/12thcentury:aresponsetoC11CrisisPatrimonial
GovernancemostlythankstoEmperorAlexios
MostbureaucratizedstateintheMiddleAges
Topologyofauthority(Weber):all3modeswereusedinByzantiumthroughtheages
CharismaticMode:divinerightofkings
BureaucraticMode:powervestedinofficeandpublicinstitutions
PatrimonialMode:powercenteredonthefamilyoftherulerandonfamily
structures,commoninfeudal/medievalEurope
AlexiosIKomnenos:themanwhomovedByzantiumtowardaPatrimonialModeuses
hislargefamilytogoverntheempiremakesimperialfamilythebackboneof
governanceandcontrolovertheempireausurperallemperorsafterAlexiosIare
descendentsofhim(maybeoneexception)solvedthesuccessionproblemofC11
Newsystemofcourtdignitaries:olddignitiesdisappeareunuchsweakenednew
dignitiesappear,allbasedonsebastos(Greekforaugustus),cushypositionsonly
availabletoimperialfamily
Tightcontrolovermarriageofchildrenofroyalfamily
AlexiosIsreignandreforms
SeljukTurkswerehismainconcernduringhisreign,butmanagestorepelthem
PechenegscausedtroubleintheBalkans
NormansemployedinSicilysincethe1030sinwarsagainstArabs,butthey
enduptakingcontrolofSicilyRobertGuiscardbecomestheDukeofApulia,
Calabria,andSicilyAlexioshadalotoftroubledealingwiththeNormans
Reforms:caresalotaboutsocialwelfare,establishesastateorphanagecoinage
reformhyperpyron(superrefined)of21.5Kgoldconfiscatedgoldfrom
Churchsohadtoplacatewithpersecutionofheresy(intellectualheresy,i.e.
readingPlatoandAristotle,anddualistheresy,i.e.denyingtheOldTestament)
reformshighereducation

FirstCrusadebeginsafteradramaticappealforhelpfromAlexiosattheCouncilof
Piacenza(Mar15,1095)PopeUrbanIIconvokesthecrusadeattheCouncilof
Clermont(Nov27,1095)gofighttheinfidels!
PeoplesCrusade(1096):heavydefeat/massacrenearNicaea
BaronsCrusade(10961099):3yearmarchtotheHolyLand.Wonback
Nicaea,Antioch,andsackedJerusalem.ThesewinsarefortheWest,not
Byzantium.AlexiosIletsSultanescapefromCrusaderswhichleadsto
antiByzantinesentimentintheWest.
Results:4CrusaderKingdomsareformed:Edessa,Antioch,Tripoli,Jerusalem.
PeoplethoughtsubsequentCrusadeswouldbeassuccessfulasthefirst
crusadenotso.AlsoTurksdistractedbyCrusaders,givingByzantinessome
militarysuccessesinAnatolia.

Lecture19.TheFallofConstantinople:AccidentorConspiracy?

NiketasChoniates:ahistorianwhowritesaboutthefall,colorsourinterpretationofit
ChiefCulprits
EnricoDandolo,DogeofVenice:100yearsoldandblind.Until8thcenturyDoge
isappointedfromConstantinople.
Boniface,MarquisofMontferrat
Baldwin,CountofFlanders
AlexiosIV,Byzantineprince,sonofblindedemperorIsaacAngelos:anaiveman
whoalliedhimselftotheCrusaders
ByzantiumsRelationshipwithCrusadersinthe12thcentury:Crusadershavetopass
throughByzantiuminordertogettotheHolyLand,whichcausedtensionsbetween
ByzantiumandtheWestwouldbeeasierfortheWestiftheycontrolledConstantinople.
MostCrusadersfromVenice.
2ndand3rdcrusadehadWesternEuropeanroyalsinvolved
PopeissuesremissionofsinsforthosewhogoonCrusades.
Theeveofthe4thcrusade
VenetiansclaimtobeByzantinesubjectsbuttheydonotpaylandtax(because
Veniceisacityofwater).AlexiosIgrantedtheVenetianstherightstodutyfree
tradeinexchangeformilitarysupportagainsttheNormansin1082.Thismakes
theVenetiansveryunpopularinByzantium,becausetheyaregettingverywealthy
withoutpayinganytaxes.Bythe12thcenturytheVenetiansaretoopowerfulfor
Byzantiumtokickout.
PoliticalinstabilityinByzantium:AlexiosIKomnenosushersinabriefperiodof
stability,butdynasticstrugglesreemergeafter2generations.Hisgrandson,the
tyrantemperorAndronikos,institutesareignofterror,andisdeposedbythe
peoplewhostageacoupandputtheincompetentIsaacAngelosonthethrone.
Isaacissobadthathisbrotherusurpsthethroneandblindshim.Isaacsson
AlexioseventuallyaskstheCrusadershelpinretakingthethronefromhisuncle,
promisingtopayalltheirdebtinreturn.

Egypt(SultanSaladin)conquersJerusalem(1187)andbecomesthenewtarget
oftheCrusademovement.Atthetimeofthe3rdcrusade,Byzantinehadapeace
treatywiththeSultanofEgypt,whichangeredCrusadersandledto
antiByzantinesentiment
4thCrusade(convoked119812021204):aimedagainstEgyptplannedasamassive
enterprisefor33kwarriorsledbyBonifaceofMontferratandEnricoDandoloofVenice.
VenicehadbeenaskedtobuildshipsfortheCrusaders(sotheycouldtakea
searoutetoJerusalem),butonlyofthecrusaderscomeandtherebycannot
payVenicefortheships.Compromise:CrusadershelpVenicetakeovertheir
rivalcityZaraandareexcommunicatedbythePope.
PrinceAlexiosasksCrusaderstohelphimretakethethroneinreturnforpaying
theirdebts.Somecrusadersdropout(dontwanttoattacktheChristiancity),and
therestgoforConstantinople:getpastthegreatchainoftheGoldenHorn,
breachthewallsatthePetrionGatetwice.Alexiosbecomesemperor,butthe
previousemperortookthetreasurywithhim,sohetriestotakemoneyfromthe
ChurchtopayhisdebtstotheCrusadersendsupbeingassassinated
March1204:CrusadersagreetodivideupConstantinople:fortheLatin
Emperor,VenetianandFrankishCrusaders.PossiblyimportantthatVenetians
gotalltheislands.
April1204:Crusadersbreachthewallsforasecondtimeandsubject
Constantinopletoahorrificsiegewithfunlootinganddestroyinghooray.Atthis
point,Byzantiumceasestoexist:O
AccidentorConspiracy?Alogicalfollowingofhistoricalevents,combinationoftensions
builtupinthe12thcenturyleadstothisexplosion.
ConsequencesoftheFallofConstantinople:temporarilydestroyedtheByzantine
empire,sealedByzantiumsfateasaminorpowerConstantinoplenolongertheeternal,
unconqueredcity

Lecture20.Artandcoinage

Obverseandreverse:obverse=frontside,moreimportantusuallydepictsemperoror
religiousimagery.Reverse=lessimportant,backsideoftenholdsimagesofvirtueor
power
Nomisma=nameofgoldcoins,struck24Kgoldinitially,72coinsper1poundofgold
MichaelIVasthefirstemperortodebasethecoins
AlexiosIKomnenosreversedthedebasementbroughtpurityupto22.5K
WhyCoins?Coinsrepresentmanyaspectsoflifepolitical,economic,cultural,etc.
andwereusedindailylife.
goodvenueofpropagandaforByzantineemperors
PowerofByzantineCoins:Byzantinemoneystayedstronginothernationsevenwhen
theByzantineEmpireitselfwasweakaftertheFourthCrusade.Byzantinesalsohad
controlovertheirmintsuntiltheveryend(unlikeWesternRomanEmpire).
Goldvs.silvervs.copper:coppercoinsareusedbylocalpopulationindailyeconomic
transactions,goldcoinsusedtopaysalariesandtaxes


Lecture21.Theempirestrikesback:fromexiletorestoration
PeriodizationofByzantinehistory:
EarlyByzantium(C46):Constantine7thcenturycrisis
MiddleByzantium(C712):C7crisis,iconoclastemperors4thcrusade
LateByzantium(C1315C):4thcrusade,empireinexilefallofConstantinople
toOttomanTurks
ChangesinLateByzantium(immediatelypost1204):
Empireinexile(outsideConstantinople)for~50yearsafter1204
Shiftinidentity:ByzantiumasRomans/HellensvsWEuropeasLatins
everyone(threesuccessorstatesandLatins)considerthemselvesthetrue
descendentsoftheRomanEmpire
Shiftinpowerbalance:slowlyandimperceptibly,Byzantiumbecameless
powerfulthanWEuropebothmilitarily(LatinscouldprotectagainstGreekFire
withwethides)andeconomically(lostsilkmonopolyVenetianswereOP
traders).
Territorialfragmentation:ByzantinelandsweredividedamongstdifferentLatin
states,andineach,aminorityofWesternersruledovertheByzantinenative
majority.
EmpireinExile:membersofaristocracymovedtotheprovincesandfoundedByzantine
successorstatesthreemainones.
KomnenosDoukasfamilyofEpiros
GrandKomnenosfamilyofTrebizond
LaskarisfamilyofNicaea(12041261):themostsuccessfulsuccessorstate
continuedByzantinebureaucracyandtaxcollectionhighlymilitaristicspirit:main
goalwastorecaptureConstantinople(severalfailedattempts).Hadastable
frontierwiththeSeljukTurks(forthistime).
TheodoreILaskaris:founder,consideredhimselfEmperorofthe
RomansastrongwarriorwhofledConstantinoplebeforethesiege
Nicaea(capitalcity):onalakeandheavilyfortified(easytodefend)
Nicaea(state):lotsofagriculturallandbringsinlotsoftaxmoney,
economicproductionencouraged
1261:RecaptureofConstantinoplebyLaskarisfamily,largelybloodless
LatinemperorinConstantinopleispennilesscouldntrecreateByzantinesystem
oftaxadministrationsoldrelicstomakemoney(pawnedtheCrownofThorns)
NicaeanscouldfocusontheLatinsandretakingConstantinoplebecausetheir
neighbortheSeljukTurkswerepreoccupiedwiththeMongols
MongolsunderGenghisKhan+family+mountedarchersuniteahugepartof
Eurasia,facilitatingtrade.SackedKievin1240(MoscowbecomesRussiasnew
#1city).CrushedtheSeljukTurksatthebattleofKseDain1243,leadingto
thecollapseoftheSeljukTurksandtheriseoftheOttomans.SackBaghdad
andendtheCaliphate(1258).

Lecture22.WhydidByzantiumfail?SocialconflictsandtheOttomans

PalailoganDynasty(12611453):longestreigningByzantinedynastynewregimeof
power.Peoplehadhighexpectationsinatimeofinstabilitythoughttorecreatetheglory
daysofBasilII.
MichaelVIIIPalaiologos:usurpspowerfromtheLaskarisrulersofNicaea
recoversConstantinople(1261)inabloodlesscoupgifteddiplomat,prevents
BaldwinII(thelastLatinemperorofConstantinople)fromstartingacrusadeto
retakeConstantinople.
TerritorialexpansionintoPeloponneseakatheMorea.MaincityMistrawasthe
secondcapitaloftheByzantineempirebuiltonahill(defenseastopconcernin
timeofwarringstates)retakenbyByzantiumin1259
MongolscausethecollapseoftheByzantineTurkishfrontier
Diplomacy:allianceswithboththePapacyandtheMongols
UnionofLyons(1274):postponedacrusadeagainstConstantinople,but
otherwiseignoredbybothsides
UnionofFerraraFlorence(1439):encouragingacrusadeindefenseof
ConstantinopleagainsttheOttomans(completefailure).TheByzantines
mademajorconcessionstomakethePapacy/theLatinshappy
Weakeningempire(post1261):Byzantiumfragmentsandtransformsintoagroupof
warringstates,embroiledinconflictswiththeLatinsandcivilwarsdiminishedtax
resourcesleadtosocialconflictsanddivision(infightingamongnoblesandacross
socialclasses).AsmallminorityofthepeopleadoptCatholicism(moretension).
Mercenaryarmy(overrelianceonmercenaries):unreliablebecausetheychase
money,notaswelltrainedByzantiumdidnthaveastrongtaxationsystemand
socouldnotpayaregulararmyPalaiologanemperorsarenotgoodgenerals
Aristocracyhadweakcommitmenttopublicserviceandstroveonlytointermarry
withthePalaiologosfamily(theONEgreatfamilyatthistime)andbenefitfromthe
patrimonialsystemofgovernance
CivilWarsthroughoutthe14thcentury:weakenByzantiumandaidOttoman
expansion:inonecaseaclaimanttothethronealliedhimselfwiththeOttomans,
allowingOttomansaccesstoEuropeforthefirsttime.
UrbanRebellions/SocialStrife:peasantshatethePalaiologosfamily,ally
themselvesinsteadwiththeoverthrownLaskarisfamily
BlackDeath(1347andlaterperiodicoutbreaks):weakensEuropemorethanthe
nomadicOttomanscausesanxietyanddoubtdemographiccrisis
TheRiseoftheOttomans:descendedfromOsmanGhazi,anupstartwhoclaimed
legitimacyfromtheSeljukSultan.Anaggressivefrontierforcethattookgovernment
institutions/ideasfromallthedifferentempirestheyencountered(e.g.Byzantinefinancial
administration).
KeyDifferencesfromByzantium:noaristocracy(Sultanownsupto90%ofthe
land),standingarmyofjanissaries(slavesoldiers)startinginsecondhalfofC14
Atolerantanddiverseempire,bothethnicallyandreligiously
ImportantDates

1270:ByzantiumstillcontrolsWesternAsiaMinorandthePeloponnese,
controlsanimportantcorridorkeepstheCrusadersatbay
1320:WestarttoseetheOttomansonthemap
1340:ByzantiumhaslostAsiaMinor
1370:OttomanshavetakenoverThracewhatsleftoftheByzantine
EmpireisConstantinopleandthetipofthePeloponnese
1371:BattleofMaritsa:ByzantiumbeginstopaytributetotheOttomans
1389:BattleofKosovo:SerbsvsTurks:SerbslostbuttheTurkishleader
wasassassinated
1400:OttomanempirehasalmosttakenoverByzantium
1402:BattleofAnkara:MongolsdealahardblowtoOttomans
1420:Ottomansbouncebackthankstotheforcesofcentralization

Lecture23.HardeningBoundaries:Orthodoxy

ByzantineCommonwealthlast2centuriesofByzantiumSoftEmpirethroughcultural
unityinEasternEuropebothreligiousandsecularshapedbyByzantiumasan
authenticsourceofOrthodoxChristianitygreatrespectpaidtothePatriarchof
Constantinople.HardeningofreligiousideologiesledtoanimosityagainsttheCatholic
Church.
SincethetimeofSt.Cyril,Slavicwrittenlanguageshavedeveloped,andthereis
agreatinterestintranslatingreligioustexts.ThereisamovementtoreturntoSt.
CyrilslanguageoldchurchSlavonicratherthanthevernacular.
TheRus(KievanRus=preMongolRussia)
MetropolitanofKievandAllRussiaappointeddirectlyfromConstantinople
noautonomouschurch
MongolssackKievin1240anddemandtribute.Moscowisputincharge
ofcollectingtributeandrisesinimportanceasacity.BattleofKulikovo
(1380)beginsresistanceagainstMongolHorde,culminatingin
independencein1480.
BalticCrusadesareaimedatChristianizationofthelastremaining
pagansclashofinterestswithRusprinces
GreatMoravia:whereSt.CyrilhadbeenfelltotheMagyars(Hungary)eventually.
Serbia:themainpushbackagainsttheOttomans(theByzantinesaretooweak),
andtheirnobilityisveryByzantinized
HungaryandCroatia:dropoutofByzantinesphereofinfluenceinC11C12.Pope
sendsCroatiaacrownin1076ByzantiumsendsHungaryacrownin
competitionCroatiaandHungarymergecrownsin1102thoughmarriage.
Croatia:featuredclientprincesdependentonByzantium,moreOrthodox
Hungary:mainlyCatholicbutwillingtoaidByzantiumagainsttheOttomans.
Hesychasm:amysticalreligiousmovementcommoninC14whichbecomestheofficial
doctrineoftheOrthodoxChurchunitedByzantiumwiththeSlavsreligiouslyand
culturallydevelopsintoahighlyantiLatinideologythatironicallydrivessomeintellectuals
toCatholicism

FoundedbyGregoryofSinai,enforcedbyGregoryPalamas.Centeredaround
Mt.Athos(themostimportantByzantinemonasticcenterinC14wouldtranslate
doctrinesintootherlangauges)
Cyprian/Kiprian:HesychastwhobecomesMetropolitanofKievandAllRussia
(13751406),sentmoneytoConstantinopletoaidtheminthefightagainstthe
Ottomans

Lecture24.Byzantium:theRenaissanceandColumbus

Byzantiums(indirect)rolewasintransmissionofancientGreeklearning,esp.the
transmissionofancientGreekmapstoRenaissanceItalymadeColumbussurehecould
reachIndiabysea.
ByColumbustime,theOttomanscontrolledlandroutestoAsia,whichprompted
aneedtofindanotherwaytoIndiaandChina.
BackgroundontransmissionofGreeklearninginPalaiologanByzantium
Flourishingeducation:lotsofeducatedpeopleinByzantinecities&monasteries
ContinuedcopyingofGreekclassics:broughttoItalybyscholardiplomatsand
laterbyrefugeesafter1453
Womanbookcopyist:TheodoraRaoulainaKantakouzenePalaiologina:
late13thcenturynun
Byzantinegovernmentbyscholarshighlylearnedmenwhoponderedcurrentaffairsin
theirwritings,proLatinsbelievedonlyaWesternCrusadecouldsaveByzantium
imperialdiplomatswithoutarealempireveryloyaltoByzantiumtheHenryKissingers
ofthelateByzantineperiod
MaximosPlanoudes(c.1255c.1305):oneofthefirsttoknowLatinverywellin
Byzantium
DemetriousKydones(1324/251397):translatedThomasAquinasSumma
Thelogiae,whichpissedpeopleoffbecauseitwasproLatinconvertedto
Catholicismalongwiththecurrentemperor(whowastryingtowintheWests
aid)travelledtoVenicewithMC
ManuelChrysoloras(13551415):convertedtoCatholicismtravelledtoVenice
withDK
GeorgeGemistosPlethon(c.13601452/54):changedhislastnamefrom
GemistostoPlethon(tohonorPlato)
Byzantinebookdiplomacy:aByzantinetraditionwoulddonatemanuscripts
(sometimesluxuryones)toWesternEuropeankings,etc
RisingWesternInterestinGreekclassics
TheriseoftheUniversity:startin11thcenturyasWesternEuropecentralizes
monarchshireuniversitygraduatestobetheirmainstaffmembers
3MainDifferencesbetweenByzantineandWesternuniversities
Byzantineinmonasteriesvs.Westernincathedrals
Westernuniversitiesbasedonguildsystem(rulesandregulations)
andwithecclesiasticalteachersnotByzantine

FocusofWesternschoolswastheologyByzantineschoolsdidnt
teachtheology
Scholasticism:theologyemployingAristotelianlogic
ChurchCouncilofVienne(1312):Popedecreesthatuniversitiesof
Oxford/Paris/Bologna/SalamancaaswellastheVaticanshouldeachhavetwo
professorsofGreek,toteachmissionariesandtranslateancientworks

Lecture25.TheFinalFallandByzantiumsLegacy
MajorPlayers
MehmetIItheConqueror
GiovanniGiustinianiGenoesesoldierthebestdefenderofConstantinople
ConstantineXIfellinbattleonMay29,1453
ByzantiumenteredaunionwiththeWest&theCatholicChurch,whichmost
peoplehated:IprefertheTurkishturbantothePopesmitar
ConstantinoplewouldhavefallenearlierifnotfortheBattleofAnkara(1402)inwhich
theMongolsdefeatedtheOttomans
TheByzantinesknewtheyweredoomed:remembered1204verywell
Ottomans=landbasedempire,strongerthanVenetians
Constantinople&theByzantineEmpirewerejustpaleshadowsofwhatthey
usedtobedwindlingpopulation,etc.
May29,1453:TheFallofConstantinopletotheOttomanTurks
TheOttomans,usingcannons,weakenedandpenetratedthewalls
ConstantineXIfellinbattle
Peoplewereenslavedsomewerefreedorescaped
Mistra&TrebizondsurvivedConstantinopleConstantinoplewasnotthelast
citytofall
WhatwasthelegacyofByzantium?
GreekOrthodoxChristianity
TransmissionofGreeklearningtotheWest(especiallyinC14&C15)librarians
oftheMiddleAges
AnimperiallegacyofempiretotheOttomansandRussians
Constantinopleslegacyasanimperialcity/acenterofempireMehmetIIadopted
thetitleCaesaraswellasByzantinetaxpractices
InfluenceonRussiatsarcomesfromcaesar,Russiansarethenew
guardiansofOrthodoxyRussiabecomesthecontinuationofByzantium,Moscow
asthe3rdRome