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A Career Entrenchment Model: Theoretical

Development and Empirical Outcomes


Kerry D. Carson
Phillips Carson
University of Southwestern Louisiana

Paula

Joyce S. Phillips
Delta State University
C. William Roe
University of Southwestern Louisiana

Introduction

Social, economic, and demographic pressures in the contemporary


labor environment are resulting in the career immobility of many
workers (Elsass & Ralston, 1989). This immobility is caused by several factors including increased longevity of labor force participants,
organizational gridlock intensified by the presence of baby-boomers,
decreased advancement opportunities due to technological change,
and increased competition for jobs with the entry of nontraditional
workers into the labor force (Greenhaus, 1987). Workers rendered
stagnant are likely to become frustrated with their career progression. Once stalled, some workers continue to contribute to their
employing organizations, but many do not (Leibowitz, Kaye, & Farren, 1990). Since arrested career development may negatively impact
organizational outcomes and personal well-being, it appears to be a
topic worthy of theoretical development and empirical investigation.
The focus of this research is to describe and test outcomes associated with a model of career entrenchment. For the purpose of this
An earlier version of this manuscript was presented at the 1994 Southern Managemeeting in New Orleans.
Address correspondence to Kerry David Carson, P.O. Box 43570, Department of Management and Quantitative Methods, College of Business Administration, University of
Southwestern Louisiana, Lafayette, LA 70504.
ment Association

Journal

of Career Development,

Vol. 22(4), Summer 1996

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273

274

paper, &dquo;career&dquo; is defined as stability within a closely connected vocational field (Van Maanen & Schein, 1977). As theoretically developed
below, &dquo;entrenchment&dquo; is described as immobility resulting from substantial economic and psychological investments in a career that

make

change

difficult.

Career Entrenchment Model

Choosing and pursuing success in a career results in the accrual of


&dquo;side-bets&dquo; (Becker, 1960), or ties that bind an individual to a career
for reasons other than an affective affinity. Individuals who change
careers forfeit not only financial investments, but also effort associated with obtaining educational credentials and career-specific skills.
Career change is also likely to involve difficult disruptions in selfidentity, social status, and interpersonal relationships (Osherson,
1980). These economic and psychological side-bets may be construed
as irretrievable or sunk costs when contemplating decisions about career withdrawal (cf. Arkes &
Blumer, 1985).
The process of investing and maintaining social-psychological stability divert individual energies from scanning the environment for
viable career alternatives. As external stimuli are ignored, individuals experience a constriction in their perception of career options.
Such &dquo;tunnel vision&dquo; obfuscates opportunities until, with the passage
of time, alternatives objectively diminish (Brockner, 1992; Teger,
1980).
The passage of time also

compounds investments and costs in a


self-sustaining manner. For example, some investments,
such as pensions and experience, increase unremittingly unless the
decision-maker deliberately terminates career continuance. For an individual to prevent further accumulation of side-bets, an active decision must be made and action taken toward a career change. But
since self-sustaining investments accrue without deliberation, individuals may be impeded in their conscious calculation of the costs and
benefits of remaining in a career field. Thus, entrenchment is quietly
self-perpetuating (Brockner, 1992). (See Figure 1).
If employees are both entrenched and career dissatisfied, they become entrapped (cf. Strube, 1988). However, just because employees
are entrenched does not necessarily mean they dissatisfied. Some
may be content with their entrenchment, for although they are bound
to their career choice, they might be pleased with their development
passive

or

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275

Figure

Model of Career Entrenchment

(cf. Bretz & Judge, 1994). In contrast to those entrenched, othersbecause of low investments, few emotional or interpersonal attachments, or other opportunities-may perceive themselves as mobile.
Those not entrenched but career dissatisfied are likely to make career
changes. Alternatively, those not entrenched but career satisfied are
likely to voluntarily remain in their careers. Figure 2 depicts these
four career profiles.
In the subsequent section, hypotheses predicting outcomes associ-

ated with these four

profiles

are

developed.

Hypothesis Development
Hypotheses are developed for the main effects of career satisfaction,
the main effects of career entrenchment, and the interactive effects of
both these variables.

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276

Figure 2
2 x 2 for Career Entrenchment and Career Satisfaction

Main Effects

of Career Entrenchment

Researchers investigating organizationally-based commitment have


distinguished between two different types. One construct-affective
organizational commitment-defines organizational commitment
along psychological dimensions, operationalized as involvement in
and attachment to ones organization (Mowday, Steers, & Porter,
1979). A second construct- calculative organizational commitmentapproaches commitment from a perspective in which individuals are
viewed as continuing in an organization for extrinsic rewards (Meyer
& Allen, 1984). This latter perspective parallels entrenchment in the
career domain in that a calculatively-committed employee stays with
an organization because of side-bets and few perceived alternatives.

Because of the similarities of career entrenchment and calculative organizational commitment, it is expected that these two loyalties will
be intertwined. For example, the sacrificing of an organizational sidebets such as a coworker relationship may also result in the loss of a

professional colleague.
#1: Those high in career entrenchment (entrapped and contented immobiles) will report higher levels of calculative organizational
commitment as compared to those low in career entrenchment (career
changers and voluntary careerists).

Hypothesis

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277

Those who are not entrenched have avoided becoming &dquo;calculatively&dquo; bound to their chosen careers. This flexibility may result
from a lack of side-bets (such as tenure) or a willingness to sacrifice
side-bets while perceiving alterative career choices as attractive. The
unentrenched, then by definition, are more likely to think about and
execute career changes. However, those who are entrenched, and
hence are knowingly unable to self-select out of their careers, are
likely to become resigned to the situation. Because of this process, the
desire to change careers diminishes as career tenure accumulates
(Carson & Bedeian, 1994; Teger, 1980).
Those high in career entrenchment (entrapped and contented immobiles) will report lower levels of career withdrawal intentions and longer career tenure as compared to those low in career entrenchment (career changers and voluntary careerists).

Hypothesis #2:

Main

Effects of Career Satisfaction

Genetic influences have been reported to explain about 30% of the


variance in job satisfaction (Avery, Bouchard, Segal, & Abraham,
1989) and 40% of the variance in work values (Keller, Bouchard, Arvey, Segal, & Dawis, 1992). Given the increasing body of evidence on
attitudinal consistency toward work (Staw, Bell, & Clausen, 1986)
and the relationship of stable personality attributes to affective work
outcomes (Watson, Pennebaker, & Folger, 1987), it is expected that
affective measures of work attitudes should be congruent.

Hypothesis #3: Those high in career satisfaction (contented immobiles


and voluntary careerists) will report higher levels of job satisfaction,
affective organizational commitment, and career commitment as compared to those low in career satisfaction (entrapped and career
changers).

Following career selection, an individual initiates the process of investment. Increasing amounts of time, money and effort are being devoted to training and preparing for demanding careers (Osherson, 1980).
But, investments do not stop with education. After initial schooling, career motivated individuals continue to put a great deal of energy into
their vocations. This effort frequently results in enriched work opportunities, higher compensation, and increased authority-factors related
(Aryee, Chay, & Chew, 1994; Zeitz, 1990).

to fulfillment and satisfaction

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278

Hypothesis #4: Those high

in career satisfaction (contented immobiles


and voluntary careerists) will report longer career tenure and educational experience as compared to those low in career satisfaction (entrapped and career changers).

Interaction

Effects

While many workers aspire to either ascend the organizational hierarchy or to just maintain their professional skills, there are some
who predictably engage in career change in pursuit of personal
growth, variety, or stimulation (Driver, 1979). These individuals are
likely to have a short time perspective regarding feelings of entrenchment. In fact, the possibility of becoming entrenched may be a powerful force stimulating career change for these individuals, strengthening withdrawal intentions, and weakening career commitment (Hall,

1986). This salient desire to avoid entrenchment may further discourage transient careerists from investing too heavily in educational

preparation (Driver, 1979).


Hypothesis #5: Career changers will report higher levels of career withdrawal intentions, lower levels of career commitment and shorter career
tenure and educational experience as compared to entrapped, voluntary
careerists, and contented immobiles.

Because satisfaction precedes affective attachment (cf. Williams &


Hazer, 1986), only the voluntary careerists and contented immobiles-who are career satisfied-are expected to report high levels of
career commitment. However, it is thought that the contented entrenched group will report being more committed and less likely to
leave their careers than any of the other groups. This prediction is
based on Festingers (1957) cognitive dissonance theory which pur-

ports that individuals engage in rationalization to reconcile inconsistencies between attitudes and behaviors. Cognitive dissonance allows
the individual to modify beliefs about a less than ideal situation, such
as entrenchment, which the person cannot or is unwilling to change.
Therefore, contented immobiles will engage in cognitive gymnastics to
convince themselves of the adequacy of their career choice (cf.

Brockner, 1992).
#6: Contented immobiles will report higher levels of career
commitment and lower levels of career withdrawal intentions as compared to entrapped, voluntary careerists, and career changers.

Hypothesis

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279

Method

Sampling Procedure

In selecting respondents, the researchers made an effort to include


occupational groups varying in professional characteristics such as
technical training, advanced education, formal testing and control of
admission, professional associations, codes of conduct, and sense of
calling (Benveniste, 1987) by using an estimation sampling procedure. Of the 1,292 surveys distributed, 476 were returned for a response rate of 36.8% which exceeds the traditional return rate of 20
to 30% (Peterson, 1982). Over 85% of the respondents were college

66% were married, and 61% were women. Average respondent age was 43 years old and average tenure in career was 15 years.
The sample was composed of 141 employees at a small southern
23.8%; example vocation types
teaching university (response rate
and
129
counselor);
being teaching faculty
employees at a large southeastern research university, including 21 employees of food service
14.5%; example vocation types being
departments (response rate
dietician and supervisor), 14 employees of engineering services (re60.9%; example vocation types being computer analyst
sponse rate
and clerk), and 94 Doctors of Veterinary Medicine (response rate
55.0%; example vocation types being lecturing faculty and clinician);
22 employees from a nursing home (response rate
44.0%; example
vocation types being practical nurse and nursing assistant); 6 employees from a packaging plant (response rate 26.1%; example vocation types being truck loader and driver); 8 employees from a public
school system computer service (response rate
66.7%; example vocation types being data entry operator and clerk); 137 members of a
state library association, academic section (response rate
66.5%;
example of vocation types being reference librarian and circulation
librarian); and 33 members of an area personnel association (response
rate
47.8%; example vocation types being personnel manager and
human resource specialist).
Surveys were accompanied by a cover letter assuring confidentiality. The following prefatory instructions introduced the first section of the survey: &dquo;This survey begins with statements about your
LINE OF WORK or CAREER FIELD in which you are currently employed. You may consider line of work/career field as having the same
meaning as occupation, profession, or vocation.&dquo; The middle sections
contained questions tapping perceptions about the respondents em-

graduates,

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280

and jobs. A five-point-rating scale was used to


strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree). The
responses (1
final section of the survey requested demographic-related information
including marital status, chronological age, gender, career field tenure, and educational level.

ploying organizations
measure

Measures

Career entrenchment. Career entrenchment (a - .88) was tapped


with a 12-item multi-dimensional measure gauging investments, psychological costs, and few perceived career alternatives. The instrument is reported to be valid and internally consistent across three
separate populations (Carson, Carson, and Bedeian, in press). Sample
items include &dquo;It would be very costly for me to switch my line of
work/career field&dquo; and &dquo;If I left this line of work/career field, I would
feel like I had no reasonable options.&dquo;
Career commitment. Career commitment was gauged using the sevenitem scale developed by Blau (1985; a
.87) and has been shown to
be a reliable instrument on insurance and newspaper industry sam.84 and a
.83, respectively; Blau, 1988). Chartrand and
ples (a
confirm
the
measures validity. Sample items include, &dquo;If
(1991)
Camp
I could do it again, I would not choose to work in this career field&dquo; and
&dquo;I definitely want a career for myself in this industry.&dquo;
=

Career

satisfaction. A five-item career satisfaction measure (0. .79),


adapted by the authors from the job satisfaction index developed by
Brayfield and Rothe (1951), was used to assess enjoyment with ones
line of work. Their instrument has been described as possessing adequate validity and reliability (Price & Mueller, 1986). Sample items
include &dquo;I feel fairly satisfied with my present line of work/career
field&dquo; and &dquo;My line of work is usually interesting enough to keep me
from getting bored.&dquo;
=

Calcu.latiue organizational commitment. Calculative organizational


commitment (a
.80) was gauged using an eight-item instrument
developed by Meyer and Allen (1984). McGee and Ford (1987) found
=

the scale to demonstrate adequate reliability. With regards to construct validity, McGee and Ford (19887) suggest that the measure
may gauge two aspects of calculative commitment: (a) existence of few
employment alternatives and (b) personal sacrifice associated with

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281

leaving an organization. A sample item is &dquo;Right now, staying


my organization is a matter of necessity as much as desire.&dquo;

with

Affective organizational commitment. Affective organizational commitment (a.


.89), an eight-item measure developed by Meyer and
Allen (1984), was used to assess identification with an organization.
=

McGee and Ford (1987) found this measure to be reliable and offer
support for its construct validity. A sample item is &dquo;I really feel as if
this organizations problems are my own.&dquo;

satisfaction. Job satisfaction was measured using an 18-item instrument developed by Brayfield and Rothe (1951; a
.90). The instrument has been described as possessing adequate validity and reliability (Price & Mueller, 1986). A sample item is &dquo;I feel fairly well

Job

satisfied with my present job.&dquo;


Career withdrawal cognitions. Career withdrawal cognitions is a
three-item measure that can be linearly summed (a = .82). This measure gauges individuals thoughts of quitting their present line of
work/career, intentions to search for another line of work/career, and
intentions to quit their present line of work/career. The measure displays adequate internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity (Blau, 1985).

Results

Each of the six hypotheses was tested using planned comparisons


create the four groups, scores on career satisfaction and
career entrenchment were divided at their means (career satisfaction
m
2.95). This subdivision resulted
4.21; career entrenchment m
in four groups with the following cell sizes: Career Changers, n
124; Entrapped, n
91; Contented
130; Voluntary Careerists, n
112. To rule out the possibility that marital status
Immobiles, n
and gender could account for significant differences among the
groups, a MANOVA was conducted. Results show there was no significant differences (F
.996; n.s.) among the four groups on these devariables.
Cell
means for each group (career changers, enmographic
trapped, voluntary careerists, and contented immobiles, respectively)
were: (a) career commitment-----3.34, 3.50, 3.99, 4.18; (b) job satisfaction-3.62, 3.60, 4.15, 4.12; (c) career field tenure-148.90, 189.55,

analysis. To
=

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282

174.43, 215.11; (d) affective organizational commitment-3.19, 3.35,


3.57, 3.76; (e) calculative organizational commitment-2.87, 3.37,
2.51, 3.25; (f) career withdrawal intentions-2.52, 2.15, 1.76, 1.62;
and (g) educational experience-5.09, 5.53, 5.82, 5.80.

Hypothesis Testing
planned comparisons analysis indicated that all hypothsupported. Hypothesis 1-~--entrapped and contented immobile groups report higher levels of calculative organizational commitment (t(396) = 9.66, p ~ .01) than do career changer and voluntary
careerist groups (Hypothesis 1). Entrapped and contented immobile
Results of

eses were

report lower levels of career withdrawal intentions (t(431) _


3.72, p ~ .01) and longer career tenure (t(410)= 3.66, p ~ .01) than
do career changer and voluntary careerist groups (Hypothesis 2).
Contented immobiles and voluntary careerists report higher levels of
job satisfaction (t(436) = 14.00, p :5 .01), affective organizational commitment (t(407) = 4.35, p ~ .01), and career commitment (t(419) _
10.88, p ~ .01) than do entrapped and career changers (Hypothesis
3). Contented immobiles and voluntary careerists report longer career
tenure (t(4 10) = 2.30, p ~ .05) and educational experience (t(447) =
3.54, p ~ .01) than do entrapped and career changers (Hypothesis 4).
groups

The main effects of career entrenchment and career satisfaction are


reported in Tables 1 and 2.
With regard to the interactive effects, career changers report higher
levels of career withdrawal intentions (t(I85)= 7.97, p ~ .01), lower
levels of career commitment (t(187)= 7.27, p s .01), and shorter career tenure (t(232) = 3.65, p ~ .01) and educational experience
(t(215) = 3.94, p s .01) than do entrapped, voluntary careerists, and
contented immobiles (Hypothesis 5). Contented immobiles report
higher levels of career commitment (t(245) = 9.31, p ~ .01) and
lower levels of career withdrawal intentions (t(229) = 7.26, p ~ .01)
than do entrapped, voluntary careerists, and career changers (Hypothesis 6). The interactive effects for Hypotheses 5 and 6 are reported in Table 3.

Discussion

476) from a variety of occupations were surveyed


theoretical modelof career entrenchment. Groups higher in
entrenchment showed significantly higher levels of calculative

Respondents (n
to test
career

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Table 1
Planned

Comparisons Results for the Main Effects

of

Career Entrenchment

* =p~.01

Planned

Table 2
Results
for the Main Effects of
Comparisons
Career Satisfaction

*=p-=.05
**=

p !5 .01

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284

Table 3
Planned Comparisons Results for the Interactive Effects

Note: An underline connecting groups indicates that they were combined and compared
to the remaining group for the purposes of planned comparisons.

*=p-=.01

organizational commitment, lower career withdrawal intentions, and


longer career tenure than those lower in career entrenchment.
Groups higher in career satisfaction reported significantly higher affective outcomes and longer career tenure and educational experithan those lower in career satisfaction. Of the four career profile groups, career changers reported higher levels of career
withdrawal intentions, lower levels of career commitment, and
shorter career tenure and educational experience than do entrapped,
voluntary careerists, and contented immobiles. Contented immobiles
reported higher levels of career commitment and lower levels of career withdrawal intentions than do the other three groups.
While these results support all hypotheses, common method variance is frequently identified as a problem associated with the survey
ences

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285

data collection method. This concern, however, is minimized in the


as both positively and negatively worded items were
included in the measures and survey completion contexts were varied
as some respondents received their surveys at work whereas others
received their surveys at home. While the threat of common method
variance may be reduced by these precautions, future research would
increase our understanding of entrenchment by measuring objective

present study

performance

outcomes.
The researchers in this

study attempted to survey occupational


varying degrees of professionalism, but response rates
from individuals in nonprofessional groups were low. Relatedly, respondents were more educated than nonrespondents. Hence, the lack
of variance among respondents may have somewhat weakened the
results. In addition, most of the respondents were from the academic
and service sectors. Therefore, future research should include individuals with less professional work patterns and training as well as
those from manufacturing settings (Cook, Campbell, & Peracchio,
groups with

1990).

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