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(2-115)
Where the definitions of the quantities are identical to those of Eqs.(1-1) and (1-2).
The average binding energy per nucleon is given by
Btot ( A, Z )
A
Bave ( A, Z )
(2116)
The following quantities are sometimes convenient, although we will not use them
(except in App.C)
Mass excess =
Packing fraction
(2-117)
M A
A
(2-118)
(2-119)
All separation energies can be expressed in terms of the total binding energies of the
nuclei involved by substituting the expression for the mass, obtained from Eq.(2-115),
into expressions similar to (2-119). We then find, for example,
S n Btot ( A, Z ) Btot ( A 1, Z )
(2-120)
(2-121)
2-3b Average binding energy per nucleon. Saturation and short range of nuclear
forces. Experimentally, Btot can be determined from an accurate measurement of M
1
A(A-1)
2
1
CA( A 1)
2
(2-
122)
So that
Bave
1
C ( A 1)
2
(2-
123)
In complete contradiction to Fig. 2-8. The approximate constancy of Bave indicates
that each nucleon is not bonded equally to every other nucleon, but rather that nuclear
forces between nucleons do not extend to more than a few nucleons. Either the forces
must have a very short range of the order of the diameter of one nucleon, or they
saturatc, like chernical bonds. Saturation means that the binding, or bonding, energy
between one nucleon and the rest of the nucleus reaches a limit once a certain total
number of nucleons has been assembled. From Fig. 2-8 it appears that with four
nucleons, or more, saturation has set in.
We can find out which of the aforementioned effects is of importance by the
following argument. The range of nuclear forces can be inferred from a study of the
scattering of two nucleons (p,p or n,p) and from the binding energy of the
deuteron1.We find that the range is of order of 2 F, which is com-parable to the
diameter of a nucleon. This in itself might lead to a constant Bave , if each nucleon
were bonded only to its nearest neigh bors. But the volume of a nucleus would not
vary proportional to A, that is R
this is that the nucleons in a given nucleus arrange themselves in such a way as to
produce a system of minimum total energy. With the above attractive nuclear force,
the lowest potential energy is reached if all nucleons crowd into a region so that each
one is within about 2 F of the others. The lowest kinetic energy is obtained if each
nucleon moves in the largest possible nuclear volume2. Since the potential energy
turns out to be dominant3, the nucleus would collapse4 to a radius of the order of 2 F.
Evidently some other effect besides a short force range must occur.
Recent theories of nuclear structure trace saturation to two effects. First, it has
been established experimentally that at distances of the order of
1
F the forces
2
between nucleons becomes strongly repulsive. We can say that nucleons have a hard
core. Although this alone would given an
1
2
calculated constant R0 in Eq. (1-5) comes out too small. Second, the pauli exclusion
principle, which forbids two nucleons of the same kind, e.g.,two protons, to occupy
states with identical quantum numbers, produces effects which keep nucleons a part
from each other5.
(2-124)