Notica Explicativa - Norconsult

Ministry of Mineral Resources and Energy
National Directorate of Geology

Project Coordination and Implementation Unit
Republic of Mozambique
CREDIT NO. NDF 335
MINERAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

CAPACITY BUILDING PROJECT
REPUBLIC OF MOZAMBIQUE
Component 2:
Geological Infrastructure Development Project
Geological Mapping - Lot 1
REPORT No. B6.f
Sheet explanation:
1039 Muidine, 1040 Palma, 1134 Ponta Messuli, 1135 Lupilichi,
1136 Milepa, 1137 Macalange, 1138, Negomano, 1139 Mueda,
1140 Moimboa da Praia, 1234 Metangula, 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono,
1236 Mavago, 1237 Mecula, 1238 Xixano, 1239 Meluco,
1240 Quissinga-Pemba, 1334 Meponda, 1335 Lichinga, 1336 Majune,
1337 Marrupa, 1338 Namuno, 1339 Montepuez, 1340 Mecufi,
1435 Mandimba, 1436 Cuamba, 1437 Malema, 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi,
1535 Insaca, 1536 Guru, 1635 Milange, 1636 Lugela-Mocuba
January 2007
in association with
Norconsult (Mozambique) Lda
MINERAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT CAPACITY BUILDING PROJECT,

COMPONENT 2:
GEOLOGICAL INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT
GEOLOGICAL MAPPING LOT 1
REPORT No. B6.f

Sheet explanation:
1039 Muidine, 1040 Palma, 1134 Ponta Messuli, 1135 Lupilichi, 1136 Milepa, 1137
Macalange, 1138, Negomano, 1139 Mueda, 1140 Moimboa da Praia,
1234 Metangula, 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono, 1236 Mavago, 1237 Mecula,
1238 Xixano, 1239 Meluco, 1240 Quissinga-Pemba, 1334 Meponda,
1335 Lichinga, 1336 Majune, 1337 Marrupa, 1338 Namuno, 1339 Montepuez, 1340
Mecufi, 1435 Mandimba, 1436 Cuamba, 1437 Malema,
1438 Ribu-Mecuburi, 1535 Insaca, 1536 Guru, 1635 Milange,
1636 Lugela-Mocuba
January 2007
REPBLICA DE MOAMBIQUE
MINISTRIO DOS RECURSOS MINERAIS E ENERGIA

MINISTRY OF MINERAL RESOURCES AND ENERGY
DIRECO NACIONAL DE GEOLOGIA

NATIONAL DIRECTORATE OF GEOLOY
NOTCIA EXPLICATIVA / MAP EXPLANATION
FOLHAS/SHEETS:
1039 Muidine, 1040 Palma, 1134 Ponta Messuli, 1135 Lupilichi, 1136 Milepa,
1137 Macalange, 1138, Negomano, 1139 Mueda, 1140 Moimboa da Praia, 1234 Metangula, 1235
Macaloge-Chiconono, 1236 Mavago, 1237 Mecula, 1238 Xixano, 1239 Meluco,
1240 Quissinga-Pemba, 1334 Meponda, 1335 Lichinga, 1336 Majune, 1337 Marrupa,
1338 Namuno, 1339 Montepuez, 1340 Mecufi, 1435 Mandimba, 1436 Cuamba,
1437 Malema, 1438 Ribaue-Mecuburi, 1535 Insaca, 1536 Guru, 1635 Milange,
1636 Lugela-Mocuba
Escala / Scale 1:250 000

GEOLOGIA DA REA DE NIASSA E CABO DELGADO PROVNCIAS,
THE GEOLOGY OF NIASSA AND CABO DELGADO PROVINCES, WITH
PARTS OF ZAMBESIA AND NAMPULA PROVINCES
Autores / Authors
B. Bingen, T. Bjerkgrd, R. Boyd, J. Dehls, A. Engvik, T. Grenne, I. Henderson, O. Lutro, V. Melezhik, G.
Motuza, . Nordgulen, M. Often, J.S. Sandstad, M. Smelror, A. Solli, H. Stein, O.M. Sther, T. Thorsnes, E.
Tveten, G. Viola (Geological Survey of Norway), W. Bauer, P. Dunkley, E. Gonzalez, L. Hollick, J. Jacobs,
R. M. Key, R. Smith, R.J. Thomas (British Geological Survey), D. Jamal (University Eduardo Mondlane), F.
Catuane, S. de Azavedo, P. Feitio, P. Fumo, V. Manhica, S. Manuel, A. Moniz, F. Njange, D. Rossi, I. de S.
Saranga, H. de S. Soares, D. Tembe, B. Uachave e/and E. Zandamela (National Directorate of Geology)
MINERAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

CAPACITY BUILDING PROJECT
National Directorate of Geology, Republic of Mozambique
Date: 2007
Electronically available on CD-ROM from:

In Mozambique:
In South Africa
The Director,
National Directorate of Geology(DNG)
Praca 25 June 380
Maputo
PO BOX 217
Maputo
Tel: +258-21-305399
Fax: +258-21-429216
e-mail: edaudi@tvcabo.co.mz
The Director
Council for Geoscience (CGS)
280 Pretoria Str.
Silverton, Pretoria
Private Bag X112
Pretoria, 0001
+27 (012) 8411018

+27 (012) 8411221
e-mail:juanitaw@geoscience.org.za
Price available on request

The Geological Survey of Norway (NGU), cooperating with the British
Geological Survey produced this explanation, with funding from the
Nordic Development Fund and the World Bank in fulfilment of the
Mineral Resources Management Capacity Building Project, (MRMP);
Component 2: Geological Infrastructure Development Programme,
Geological Mapping (Lot 1 and Lot 1 Extension)
Technical Editor:
Linguistic Editor:
Cartographic reproduction:
Layout and Production:
Rognvald Boyd, NGU

Rognvald Boyd, NGU
Ole Lutro, Arne Solli NGU
John Dehls, NGU
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
5
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.1.5
5.2
5.3
5.4
6
6.1
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5
6.2.6
6.2.7
6.2.8
6.3
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
6.3.4
ABSTRACT................................................................................................. 1
Geology, geochemistry and geochronology ........................................................ 1
Geochemical classification .................................................................................. 7
Pre-Karoo Geochronology, Metamorphism and Tectonics ................................. 9
Mineral resources and potential ......................................................................... 11
RESUMO................................................................................................... 15
Geologia, geoqumica e geocronologia.............................................................. 15
Classificao geoqumica................................................................................... 22
Geocronologia, metamorfismo e tectnica do Pr-Karoo.................................. 23
Recursos minerais e seu potencial ..................................................................... 26
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 30
Project background ............................................................................................ 30
Historical Overview ........................................................................................... 30
Studies within Niassa, Cabo Delgado, Nampula and Zambezia Provinces....... 31
Regional studies from neighbouring countries .................................................. 33
Overviews of the mineral resources in the region ............................................. 34
Critical questions on the geology of the region ................................................. 34
GEOGRAPHY OF THE REGION............................................................ 36
Physical geography ............................................................................................ 36
Communications and infrastructure................................................................... 37
Topographic maps.............................................................................................. 38
METHODOLOGIES AND PROCEDURES............................................. 39
Existing data sets................................................................................................ 39
Topographic base maps...................................................................................... 39
Remote sensing .................................................................................................. 39
Potential field data ............................................................................................. 39
Geological and structural interpretation............................................................. 40
Mineral resource maps....................................................................................... 41
Fieldwork ........................................................................................................... 41
Sample and data processing ............................................................................... 41
Map compilation ................................................................................................ 41
LITHODEMIC AND LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNITS........................ 43
Introduction........................................................................................................ 43
Overview of the geology.................................................................................... 43
Terminology....................................................................................................... 45
Ponta Messuli Complex ..................................................................................... 46
Introduction........................................................................................................ 46
Migmatitic gneiss (<2074+11 Ma, U-Pb, detrital zircon)(Unit P1Pmg)............ 46
Quartz-mica schist (Unit P1Pqm)....................................................................... 48
Amphibolite (Unit P1Pam)................................................................................. 49
Talc schist (Unit P1Ptc)...................................................................................... 49
Augen gneiss (Unit P1Pag)................................................................................. 50
Gabbro (Unit P1Pgb) .......................................................................................... 51
Granite (Unit P2gra) intrusions in the Ponta Messuli Complex......................... 52
Nampula Complex ............................................................................................. 53
Introduction........................................................................................................ 53
Banded biotite gneiss and migmatite (Unit P2NMgm) ...................................... 56
Leucocratic quartz-feldspar-hornblende gneiss and migmatite (Unit P2NMlcm)
................................................................................................................... 58
Amphibolitic gneiss, garnet amphibolite (Unit P2NMam) ................................ 59
6.3.5
6.3.6
6.3.7
6.3.8
6.3.9
6.3.10
6.3.11
6.3.12
6.3.13
6.3.14
6.3.15
6.3.16
6.3.17
6.3.18
6.3.19
6.4
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.4
6.4.5
6.4.6
6.4.7
6.4.8
6.4.9
6.4.10
6.4.11
6.4.12
6.4.13
6.4.14
6.4.15
6.4.16
6.4.17
6.4.18
6.4.19
6.4.20
6.4.21
6.4.22
6.4.23
6.4.24
ii
Leucogranitic gneiss (11239 Ma, U-Pb) (Mocuba Suite) (Unit P2NMlc)........61

Tonalitic gneiss and migmatite (Mocuba Suite) (Unit P2NMto)........................63
Diatexitic granite gneiss and migmatite (Mocuba Suite) (Unit P2NMgg) .........65
Mamala Gneiss: Leucogranitic gneiss (Unit P2NMlcl) ......................................66
Rapale Gneiss: Hornblende-bearing granodioritic gneiss (Unit P2NMmd) .......69
Banded biotite gneiss and migmatite (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMgmc)........69
Metapelitic gneiss and migmatite (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMpt).................72
Garnet-bearing leucogneiss (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMglc) ........................72
Quartzite, marble, calc-silicate rock, etc. (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMqz).....73
Quartz-feldspar gneiss, sillimanite-bearing (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMsb) .74
Quartzite and quartzitic gneiss (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMqq) ....................75
Marble (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMma).........................................................76
Strongly foliated K-feldspar granite gneiss (equigranular) (Culicui Suite) (Unit
P2NMfgr) ....................................................................................................76
Augen gneiss with charnockite (1042 1087 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P2NMga) and
charnockite (Unit P2NMch) (both Culicui Suite) .......................................77
Megacrystic granitic gneiss (Culicui Suite) (Unit P2NMyg)..............................79
Unango Complex................................................................................................80
Introduction ........................................................................................................80
Chala Gneiss: Banded mafic granulitic gneiss (Unit P2UNmr)..........................81
Migmatitic, stromatic gneiss (Unit P2UNmg) ....................................................83
Banded migmatitic gneiss (Unit P2UNsm).........................................................83
Hornblende gneiss (Unit P2UNbh) .....................................................................85
Biotite gneiss, partly mylonitic (Unit P2UNbi) ..................................................86
Quartz porphyric metarhyolite (Unit P2UNvo) ..................................................87
Quartz-feldspar gneiss and quartzite, locally magnetite-bearing (Unit P2UNfq)
....................................................................................................................88
Quartzite, muscovite- and kyanite-bearing (Unit P2UNqm) ..............................89
Leucocratic quartz-feldspar gneiss (5699 Ma metamorphic; 82720 Ma
detrital: both U-Pb) (Unit P2UNlcr) ...........................................................90
Stromatic mafic gneiss and charnockitic gneiss (Unit P2UNmc).......................91
Lichinga Gneiss: Enderbitic to charnockitic granofels, partly migmatitic (Unit
P2UNef) ......................................................................................................92
Charnockitic gneiss, partly migmatitic (5366 Ma, metamorphic zircon, UPb)(Unit P2UNcm) .....................................................................................95
Monte Elinasse Charnockitic granofels and gneiss, partly porphyric (100133
Ma) (Unit P2UNfp) .....................................................................................96
Charnockitic to enderbitic granofels, partly gneissic (106516 Ma; U-Pb) (Unit
P2UNce)......................................................................................................96
Charnockitic gneiss, feldspar-phyric (99521 Ma; U-Pb) (Unit P2UNcf) .......100
Metagabbro (5485 Ma; U-Pb metamorphic) (Unit P2UNbf) .........................102
Metagabbro and mafic gneiss (Unit P2UNgb)..................................................103
Meponda Gneiss: Biotite- and biotite-hornblende gneiss (Unit P2UNbb) .......105
Granitic to granodioritic migmatitic gneiss (103610 Ma; U-Pb) (Unit P2UNgo)
..................................................................................................................107
Syenitic gneiss (Unit P2UNsy) .........................................................................108
Chiconono Gneiss: Granodioritic, locally feldspar-phyric (103010 Ma) (Unit
P2UNtg) ....................................................................................................109
Granitic to granodioritic gneiss (10069 Ma) (Unit P2UNdi)..........................112
Augen gneiss, granitic (Unit P2UNag) .............................................................117
6.4.25
6.4.26
6.4.27
6.4.28
6.4.29
6.4.30
6.5
6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5.3
6.5.4
6.5.5
6.5.6
6.5.7
6.5.8
6.5.9
6.5.10
6.5.11
6.5.12
6.5.13
6.5.14
6.5.15
6.5.16
6.5.17
6.5.18
6.5.19
6.5.20
6.6
6.6.1
6.6.2
6.6.3
6.7
6.7.1
6.7.2
6.7.3
6.7.4
6.8
6.8.1
6.8.2
6.8.3
6.8.4
6.9
6.9.1
6.9.2
6.9.3
6.9.4
Ultramafic rocks (Unit P2UNpx) ..................................................................... 118

Monzonite, foliated (Unit P2UNmz) ................................................................ 119
Granite, locally feldspar-phyric (97533 Ma; 100424 Ma; 10488 Ma all UPb) (Unit P2UNfg) ................................................................................... 120
Leucogranite, fine grained (Unit P2UNlc) ....................................................... 121
Monte Balise Quartz porphyry (Unit P2UNqg) ............................................... 122
Granitic mylonite (Unit P2UNmy) ................................................................... 122
Marrupa Complex ............................................................................................ 124
Introduction...................................................................................................... 124
Migmatitic grey gneiss (Unit P2MRgy) ........................................................... 124
Garnet-biotite-quartz-feldspar gneiss (Unit P2MRbqf ).................................. 125
Quartz-feldspar gneiss and paragneiss (Unit P2MRqv) ................................... 126
Quartz-feldspar leucogneiss, with amphibolite (Unit P2MRlca) .................... 127
Leucogneiss, locally garnet-biotite bearing (Unit P2MRbl) ........................... 128
Migmatitic leucogneiss (521 15 Ma) (Unit P2MRmc) ................................. 129
Quartz-rich paragneiss (Unit P2MRqp)............................................................ 130
Marble (Unit P2MRma).................................................................................... 132
Amphibolitic gneiss (Unit P2MRam)............................................................... 132
Serpentinite (Unit P2MRsp) ............................................................................. 133
Dioritic gneiss (Unit P2MRdi) ......................................................................... 133
Tonalitic gneiss, banded and biotite-rich (Unit P2MRbn) ................................ 134
Trondhjemitic gneiss (Unit P2MRtr)................................................................ 135
Granodioritic gneiss (10269 Ma; U-Pb, 101610 Ma; U-Pb) (Unit P2MRgd)
................................................................................................................. 137
Amphibole-bearing granitic diatexite (Unit P2MRad)..................................... 139
Migmatitic quartz-feldspar-hornblende gneiss (55811 Ma; U-Pb) (Unit
P2MRhg) .................................................................................................. 140
Granitic gneiss (102512 Ma U-Pb, 100519 Ma U-Pb) (Unit P2MRgg) ...... 142
Mylonitic granite (Unit P2MRmy) ................................................................... 145
Matondovela Alkali Syenite (Unit P2MRsy) ................................................... 146
Nairoto Complex.............................................................................................. 147
Introduction...................................................................................................... 147
Metasandstone and biotite gneiss (Unit P2NRbg)............................................ 148
Granitic to granodioritic gneiss, locally migmatitic (Unit P2NRgr) ................ 149
Meluco Complex.............................................................................................. 153
Introduction...................................................................................................... 153
Granitic to tonalitic gneiss, locally migmatitic (94612 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit
P2MCgn) .................................................................................................. 155
Granodioritic gneiss (Unit P2MCgd) ............................................................... 156
Granitic gneiss (Unit P2MCgr)......................................................................... 156
Mugeba Complex............................................................................................. 158
Mafic granulitic gneiss (P2MBum) .................................................................. 158
Felsic to intermediate granulitic gneiss (P2MBfg)........................................... 158
Mylonitic to flaser orthogneiss (P2MBog)....................................................... 158
Ultramafic rocks (P2MBum) ............................................................................ 158
Xixano Complex .............................................................................................. 158
Introduction...................................................................................................... 158
Quartz-feldspar-garnet gneiss (Unit P3Xgn).................................................... 159
Metarhyolite (81810 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3Xrh)............................................... 160
Biotite gneiss, quartz-feldspar gneiss and amphibolitic gneiss (Unit P3Xbg) . 162
iii
6.9.5
6.9.6
6.9.7
6.9.8
6.9.9
6.9.10
6.9.11
6.9.12
6.9.13
6.9.14
6.9.15
6.9.16
6.9.17
6.9.18
6.9.19
6.9.20
6.10
6.10.1
6.10.2
6.10.3
6.10.4
6.10.5
6.10.6
6.10.7
6.10.8
6.10.9
6.10.10
6.11
6.11.1
6.11.2
Quartz mica gneiss and schist, locally graphite-bearing (Unit P3Xqm)...........163

Meta-sandstone (Unit P3Xss) ...........................................................................167
Quartzite (Unit P3Xqz) .....................................................................................168
Marble (Unit P3Xma) .......................................................................................169
Mafic granulitic gneiss (Unit P3Xpx) ...............................................................171
Mangeritic gneiss (Unit P3Xmn) ......................................................................171
Charnockitic rocks (74216 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3Xch) .....................................172
Amphibolitic gneiss (Unit P3Xag)....................................................................175
Metagabbro (Unit P3Xmg) ...............................................................................178
Metagabbro (Serra Nicage Suite) (Units P3XSgb) ...........................................179
Tonalite (Serra Nicage Suite) (Units P3XStl)...................................................180
Tonalitic gneiss (Unit P3Xto) ...........................................................................182
Augen gneiss (Unit P3Xau) ..............................................................................182
Granitic to granodioritic gneiss (79944 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3Xgd) .................183
Monte Mapancane Granite (739+8 Ma)(P3XMgr) ...........................................186
Mylonite (Unit P3Xmy) ....................................................................................187
Muaquia Complex ............................................................................................190
Introduction ......................................................................................................190
Amphibolite (Unit P3Qam)...............................................................................192
Calc-silicate gneiss (Unit P3Qcs)......................................................................192
Muscovite-biotite gneiss and schist, locally mylonitic (Unit P3Qbg) ..............193
Quartz-feldspar gneiss (meta-arkose) (Unit P3Qqf) .........................................195
Quartzite, muscovite- and kyanite-bearing (Unit P3Qqk) ................................196
Quartzite (Unit P3Qqz) .....................................................................................198
Amphibolitic gneiss (Unit P3Qag)....................................................................198
Granitic to granodioritic gneiss, mylonitic (Unit P3Qmy)................................198
Granitic to granodioritic gneiss (Unit P3Qgr)...................................................201
M'Sawize Complex...........................................................................................202
Introduction ......................................................................................................202
Banded migmatite with minor migmatitic granite and amphibolite (Unit
P3SWmi) ...................................................................................................203
6.11.3 Metagabbro and amphibolite (Unit P3SWgb)...................................................204
6.11.4 Granodioritic to gabbroic gneiss (Unit P3SWgd) .............................................206
6.11.5 Metatonalite (6404 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3SWto)...............................................208
6.12
Lalamo Complex ..............................................................................................209
6.12.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................209
6.12.2 Conglomerate (Unit P3LMco) and overlying sequence, including cordieritebiotite gneiss (unit P3LMcg).....................................................................209
6.12.3 Biotite gneiss, locally graphitic, interlayered with meta-sandstone, quartzite and
amphibolite (Unit P3LMbg)......................................................................212
6.12.4 Meta-arenite and quartzite (Unit P3LMss) .......................................................215
6.12.5 Marble (Unit P3LMma) ....................................................................................217
6.12.6 Ultramafic rocks (Unit P3LMum).....................................................................220
6.12.7 Amphibolitic gneiss (metagabbro) (Unit P3LMag) ..........................................222
6.12.8 Tonalitic gneiss (Unit P3LMto) ........................................................................223
6.12.9 Granitic to granodioritic gneiss (69613 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3LMgd) ..............225
6.12.10 Granitic gneiss (Unit P3LMgr) .........................................................................227
6.13
Mecubri and Alto Benfica Groups .................................................................227
6.13.1 Mecubri Group ...............................................................................................227
6.13.2 Gneissic metaconglomerate and meta-arkosic gritstone (Unit P3CBco)..........228
iv
6.13.3
6.13.4
6.14
6.14.1
6.14.2
6.14.3
6.14.4
6.14.5
6.14.6
6.14.7
6.14.8
6.14.9
6.14.10
6.15
6.15.1
6.15.2
6.15.3
6.15.4
Biotite gneiss, locally conglomeratic and with sillimanite nodules (P3CBbg) 230
Alto Benfica Group (Unit P3AB)..................................................................... 233
Montepuez Complex........................................................................................ 236
Introduction...................................................................................................... 236
Biotite gneiss (Unit P3MPbg) .......................................................................... 237
Quartz-feldspar gneiss (Unit P3MPqf) ............................................................. 237
Quartzite, meta-arkose and quartzitic gneiss (Unit P3MPqz) .......................... 237
Marble (Unit P3MPma) .................................................................................... 240
Amphibolitic gneiss (Unit P3MPam) ............................................................... 240
Dioritic gneiss (Unit P3MPdi).......................................................................... 242
Tonalitic gneiss (Unit P3MPto)........................................................................ 242
Granitic to granodioritic gneiss, not differentiated (Unit P3MPgd)................. 242
Granitic gneiss (Unit P3MPgr) ......................................................................... 242
Ocua Complex ................................................................................................. 244
Introduction...................................................................................................... 244
Biotite gneiss (Unit P3OCbi)............................................................................ 245
Marble (Unit P3OCma) .................................................................................... 246
Mafic granulites (5767Ma; 587Ma, U-Pb, metamorphic ages) (Unit P3OCpx)
................................................................................................................. 246
6.15.5 Felsic to intermediate granulitic gneiss (Unit P3OCfg) ................................... 252
6.15.6 Charnockitic gneiss (Unit P3OCch) ................................................................. 255
6.15.7 Mylonitic quartz-feldspar gneiss and quartzite with ribbon quartz (Unit P3OCgr)
................................................................................................................. 257
6.15.8 Dioritic to amphibolitic gneiss (Unit P3OCda) ................................................ 259
6.15.9 Granitic and tonalitic gneiss (Unit P3OCgt)..................................................... 260
6.15.10 Syenitic gneiss (5996 Ma, Mecufi; 50411 Ma, Malema U-Pb) (Unit P3OCsy)
................................................................................................................. 261
6.15.11 Granitic gneiss, locally migmatised (Unit P3OCgg) ....................................... 263
6.16
Txitonga Group................................................................................................ 265
6.16.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 265
6.16.2 Quartzite (Unit P3TXqz) .................................................................................. 265
6.16.3 Metasandstone, metagreywacke and quartz-mica schist (Unit P3TXsg) ......... 265
6.16.4 Quartz-mica schist, partly chlorite schist (Unit P3TXsc)................................. 268
6.16.5 Banded iron formation (Unit P3TXfe) ............................................................. 269
6.16.6 Meta-arkosic to meta-arenitic sandstone (Unit P3TXss).................................. 270
6.16.7 Greenstone, greenschist and metagabbro (Unit P3TXgb) ................................ 270
6.16.8 Quartz-feldspar porphyry (715 20 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3TXpq) ...................... 272
6.16.9 Quartz veins (Unit qv) ..................................................................................... 273
6.17
Geci Group....................................................................................................... 273
6.17.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 273
6.17.2 Tectonostratigraphic features........................................................................... 273
6.17.3 Metavolcanite (Unit P3GCvo).......................................................................... 275
6.17.4 Conglomerate with pebbles of fine-grained granite (Unit P3GCco)................ 275
6.17.5 Mica schist (Unit P3GCsc) ............................................................................... 276
6.17.6 Limestone (Unit P3GCli).................................................................................. 276
6.17.7 Depositional environment................................................................................ 279
6.18
Neoproterozoic to Palaeozoic intrusions ......................................................... 281
6.18.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 281
6.18.2 Syn- to post-tectonic intrusions in the Unango Complex ................................ 281
6.18.3 Syn- to post-tectonic intrusions in the Marrupa Complex ............................... 288
6.18.4
6.18.5
Syn- to post-tectonic intrusions in the Xixano Complex .................................291

Monte Miruei Suite: Granite gneiss (74920 Ma, U-Pb) (5459 Ma, U-Pb)
(Unit P3Mir)..............................................................................................294
6.18.6 Maco Suite: Porphyritic Granite (57317 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3CM) ................295
6.18.7 Murrupula Suite (Units CaR) ...........................................................................296
6.18.8 Malema Suite (Unit CaM) ................................................................................299
6.18.9 Niassa Suite (Unit CaN) ...................................................................................307
6.18.10 Tundo Suite: Jurassic syenite plutons and syenite and dolerite dykes (Units Jrsy,
sy and do) .................................................................................................313
6.19
Karoo Supergroup ............................................................................................315
6.19.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................315
6.19.2 Ecca Group (Unit PeE).....................................................................................317
6.19.3 Beaufort Group (Unit PeB) ..............................................................................319
6.19.4 Direct U-Pb dating of calcite concretions in the Beaufort Group ....................322
6.19.5 Upper Karoo Group..........................................................................................326
6.19.6 Upper Karoo Group northwest of the Rio Moola Fault (Unit TrKu) ...............333
6.19.7 Karoo Supergroup of the Tiambila basin (Unit CbK) ......................................334
6.19.8 Karoo Supergroup basins southeast and east of Lichinga (Unit CbK).............335
6.19.9 Karoo Supergroup in Cabo Delgado (Unit CbK) .............................................335
6.20
Kimberlites .......................................................................................................339
6.20.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................339
6.20.2 The present study..............................................................................................342
6.20.3 Petrography and mineralogy ............................................................................345
6.20.4 Geochemistry....................................................................................................349
6.21
Rovuma Basin ..................................................................................................352
6.21.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................352
6.21.2 Structural development of the Rovuma Basin..................................................356
6.21.3 Rio Mecole Formation (JrRM).........................................................................357
6.21.4 N'Gapa Formation (JrP)....................................................................................359
6.21.5 Macomia Formation (CrMo) ............................................................................361
6.21.6 Pemba Formation (CrPMml, CrPmss, PMsm) .................................................367
6.21.7 Mifume Formation (CrMf) ...............................................................................375
6.21.8 Alto Jingone Formation (TeAj) ........................................................................377
6.21.9 Quissanga Formation (TeQs) ...........................................................................381
6.21.10 Chinda Formation (TeQs) ................................................................................383
6.21.11 Mikindani Formation (TeK) .............................................................................386
6.22
Quaternary deposits ..........................................................................................395
7
METAMORPHIC DEVELOPMENT......................................................412
7.1
Introduction ......................................................................................................412
7.2
Ponta Messuli Complex....................................................................................414
7.3
Nampula Complex............................................................................................416
7.4
Unango Complex..............................................................................................418
7.5
Marrupa Complex.............................................................................................422
7.6
Xixano Complex...............................................................................................424
7.7
Muaquia Complex ............................................................................................427
7.8
M'Sawize Complex...........................................................................................428
7.9
Ocua Complex ..................................................................................................429
7.10
Other complexes...............................................................................................435
7.11
Synthesis...........................................................................................................437
8
IMPACT OF NEW AIRBORNE GEOPHYSICAL DATA ....................439
vi
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.3.1
8.3.2
8.3.3
8.4
8.4.1
8.4.2
8.4.3
8.5
8.6
8.7
9
9.1
9.2
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.2.3
9.2.4
9.2.5
9.2.6
9.2.7
9.2.8
9.2.9
9.2.10
9.2.11
9.2.12
9.2.13
9.2.14
9.2.15
9.2.16
9.2.17
9.2.18
9.2.19
9.3
9.3.1
9.4
9.4.1
9.4.2
9.4.3
9.4.4
9.4.5
9.4.6
9.5
9.5.1
9.5.2
9.5.3
9.5.4
Background ...................................................................................................... 439

Radioelement signatures of the geological complexes .................................... 441
Regional geology ............................................................................................. 442
Regional scale deformation and timing relationships...................................... 443
Constraints on the building of the new tectonostratigraphic column .............. 443
Identification of the Nipepe klippe .................................................................. 445
Kinematics and structural interpretation.......................................................... 446
Lurio belt pure-shear conjugate shear zone array ............................................ 446
Interpretation of shear zone reactivation.......................................................... 448
Asymmetric regional-scale boudins................................................................. 449
Interpretation of geochemical and geochronological data ............................... 450
Detection of possible kimberlite bodies........................................................... 451
Modification of the geological maps ............................................................... 453
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY ................................................................... 455
Introduction...................................................................................................... 455
Structures observed on sheets 1134 Ponte Messuli, 1135 Lupilichi, 1234
Metangula and 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono ................................................. 456
Regional-scale geophysical interpretation ....................................................... 456
Tectonic contact at margin of the Txitonga Group.......................................... 456
Mylonitised Hornblende Gneiss ...................................................................... 456
Strike-slip shear kinematics on the western margin of Txitonga Group ......... 458
Sinistral strike-slip mylonitic shear zone......................................................... 459
S-C fabrics in hornblende gneiss ..................................................................... 460
Steep veins parallel to foliation........................................................................ 460
South-verging small-folds and reactivation veins: a........................................ 461
South-verging small-folds and reactivation veins: b ....................................... 461
Ductile shear zone in fine-grained leuco-granite intrusion.............................. 462
Fault structures in the Karoo Supergroup ........................................................ 463
Crustal scale mylonite zone ............................................................................. 464
Extensional ductile shear zone......................................................................... 467
Dextral strike-slip shear zone........................................................................... 468
Greenschist-facies shear zone .......................................................................... 468
Gold-bearing strike-slip shear zones................................................................ 468
Quartz vein kinematics and gold mineralisation.............................................. 470
Conjugate brittle faults in Karoo sandstone..................................................... 470
P-T conditions during strike-slip segmentation of the Unango Complex........ 472
Structures observed on sheets 1334 Meponda and 1335 Lichinga .................. 472
Regional scale geophysical interpretation ....................................................... 472
Structures observed on sheets 1435 Mandimba and 1436 Cuamba................. 479
Main structural features ................................................................................... 479
Western Domain .............................................................................................. 479
Southeastern Domain ....................................................................................... 480
Northeastern domain........................................................................................ 482
Faulting in the Marrupa Complex.................................................................... 482
Types and ages of deformation ........................................................................ 483
Structures observed on sheets 1136 Milepa, 1236 Mavago and 1237 Majune 483
Regional scale geophysical interpretation ....................................................... 483
Granodioritic body with ductile thrust shear ................................................... 484
En-echelon veins with dip-slip thrust displacement ........................................ 484
Dip-slip ductile shear zone............................................................................... 485
vii
9.5.5
9.5.6
9.5.7
9.5.8
9.6
9.6.1
9.6.2
9.6.3
9.6.4
9.7
9.7.1
9.7.2
9.7.3
9.7.4
9.7.5
9.7.6
9.7.7
9.7.8
9.7.9
9.7.10
9.7.11
9.7.12
9.7.13
9.7.14
9.7.15
9.7.16
9.7.17
9.7.18
9.7.19
9.7.20
9.7.21
9.7.22
9.7.23
9.7.24
9.8
9.8.1
9.8.2
9.8.3
9.8.4
9.8.5
9.8.6
9.8.7
9.8.8
9.8.9
9.8.10
viii
Asymmetric north-verging, thrust-related folds ...............................................487

Granite mylonite...............................................................................................487
Deformed veins in strike slip shear zone..........................................................488
Shear zone bounding the Marrupa-Unango Complexes...................................488
Structures observed in the Marrupa, Mecula and Macalange sheets................490
Thrusting in the Marrupa granite gneisses .......................................................490
Extensional ductile shear zone .........................................................................492
Extensional ductile mylonitic shear zone .........................................................493
Regional-scale crustal extension structures......................................................495
Structures observed on sheets 1338 Namuno, 1238 Xixano, 1138 Negomano,
1139 Mueda, 1239 Meluco, 1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi .................496
The nature of the Marrupa-Xixano Complex Contact......................................497
Southwest-northeast-trending map-scale folding .............................................497
Flexural slip on the limbs of map-scale folds...................................................498
LalamoXixano-Montepuez Complex contact relationships ...........................499
Conjugate pure shear deformation zones in the Ocua and Montepuez Complexes
..................................................................................................................500
Reactivation of the Marrupa-Xixano Complex contact as a brittle Karoo
structure ....................................................................................................501
Tectonic contact between the Marrupa and Xixano Complexes ......................502
Sinistral shearing on Xixano Complex mylonite..............................................503
Xixano Complex emplacement-related thrusting.............................................503
Xixano Complex emplacement-related thrust mylonite...................................504
Thrusting in the Meluco Complex and syn-tectonic pegmatites ......................505
Granite mylonite with asymmetric porphyroblasts ..........................................505
Sinistral shear zone in granodioritic gneiss ......................................................507
Example of reactivated mylonitic fabric ..........................................................507
Vertical flattening in the Xixano Complex I ....................................................508
Vertical flattening in the Xixano Complex II...................................................509
Regional stereonet data associated with the Lurio belt ....................................510
Pre-Lurio north-northeast - south-southwest-trending F1 cut by Lurio westsouthwest - east-northeast-trending F2 .....................................................511
Axial planar migmatisation ..............................................................................511
Northeast-southwest-trending folding ..............................................................511
Pure-shear flattening conjugate zones ..............................................................513
Shear zone kinematics ......................................................................................515
Extensional shear bands ...................................................................................516
Crustal extension in the Lurio belt ...................................................................516
Structures observed on sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi.......520
Introduction ......................................................................................................520
Brief structural overview..................................................................................520
The Lurio belt ...................................................................................................522
F2a and F2b folding phase..................................................................................525
Megascopic example of an F2b fold closure in Malema...................................530
D1 deformation and F1 folding phase ...............................................................532
Interference pattern between F1 and F2a/F2b .....................................................533
Conjugate shear zones ......................................................................................535
Structures in the Nampula Complex.................................................................535
Structures in the Marrupa Complex .................................................................537
9.9
9.10
9.10.1
9.10.2
9.10.3
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.3.1
10.3.2
10.3.3
10.3.4
10.3.5
10.3.6
10.3.7
10.3.8
10.4
10.4.1
10.4.2
10.5
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.4.1
11.4.2
11.5
11.5.1
11.5.2
11.6
11.6.1
11.6.2
11.7
11.8
11.8.1
11.8.2
11.9
11.10
11.11
11.12
11.12.1
11.12.2
11.12.3
11.13
11.13.1
11.13.2
11.14
Structures observed on sheets 1535-1536 Insaca-Guru, 1635 Milange and 1636

Mocuba ........................................................................................................ 538
Regional Structural trends observed in the area .............................................. 539
Nampula Complex ........................................................................................... 539
Unango Complex ............................................................................................. 544
Ocua Complex ................................................................................................. 547
GEOCHEMISTRY .................................................................................. 550
Introduction...................................................................................................... 550
Data analysis .................................................................................................... 550
Results.............................................................................................................. 552
Nampula Complex ........................................................................................... 552
Unango Complex ............................................................................................. 556
Marrupa Complex ............................................................................................ 562
Xixano Complex .............................................................................................. 566
Ocua Complex ................................................................................................. 570
Other complexes .............................................................................................. 574
Neoproterozoic plutons.................................................................................... 579
Rocks of sedimentary origin ............................................................................ 583
Summary of the geochemical data................................................................... 585
Previous work .................................................................................................. 585
Compositional features and origin of the main rock groups............................ 586
Conclusions...................................................................................................... 588
GEOCHRONOLOGY ............................................................................. 589
Previous geochronology................................................................................... 589
New geochronological results.......................................................................... 596
Ponta Messuli Complex ................................................................................... 603
Nampula Complex ........................................................................................... 605
Zircon U-Pb data.............................................................................................. 605
Synopsis ........................................................................................................... 607
Unango Complex ............................................................................................. 609
Zircon and monazite U-Pb data ....................................................................... 609
Synopsis ........................................................................................................... 617
Marrupa Complex ............................................................................................ 618
Synopsis ........................................................................................................... 623
Nairoto and Meluco Complexes ...................................................................... 624
Xixano Complex .............................................................................................. 626
Zircon U-Pb data.............................................................................................. 626
Synopsis ........................................................................................................... 630
M'Sawize and Muaquia Complexes................................................................. 631
Lalamo Complex.............................................................................................. 632
Alto Benfica and Mecubri Groups................................................................. 633
Montepuez Complex........................................................................................ 635
Geochemical and isotopic data on the Montepuez marbles............................. 635
Apparent depositional age of the Montepuez marbles..................................... 638
Synopsis ........................................................................................................... 639
Ocua Complex ................................................................................................. 640
Synopsis ........................................................................................................... 646
Txitonga Group................................................................................................ 648
ix
11.14.1
11.14.2
11.15
11.15.1
11.15.2
11.15.3
11.16
11.17
12
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10
12.11
12.12
12.13
12.14
12.15
12.16
12.17
12.18
12.19
12.20
12.21
12.22
13
13.1
13.1.1
13.1.2
13.1.3
13.1.4
13.1.5
13.1.6
13.1.7
13.2
13.2.1
13.2.2
13.3
13.3.1
13.3.2
13.3.3
13.4
13.4.1
Zircon U-Pb data ..............................................................................................649

Re-Os dating of the Niassa Gold Belt ..............................................................649
Geci Group .......................................................................................................651
Geochemical and isotopic data.........................................................................651
Screening for possible postdepositional alteration ...........................................652
Apparent depositional age of the Geci Group ..................................................654
Kimberlites, Maniamba Graben .......................................................................655
Conclusions ......................................................................................................656
TECTONOSTRATIGRAPHY AND GEOTECTONIC EVOLUTION ..660
Introduction ......................................................................................................660
Tectonostratigraphy..........................................................................................661
Palaeoproterozoic foreland of the Pan-African orogen ....................................666
Mesoproterozoic continental building..............................................................667
Neoproterozoic alkaline magmatism................................................................670
Neoproterozoic volcanic arcs and microcontinents..........................................671
Crustal extension leading to the exhumation of the 735 Ma granulites ...........673
D1 early Pan-African deformation phase..........................................................674
Pan-African crustal compression and nappe imbrication.................................675
Northwest-southeast Pan-African regional compression-D2a and D2b .............679
Deposition of synorogenic sequences: Mecuburi, Alto-Benfica and Geci Groups
......................................................................................................................681
The Lurio belt ...................................................................................................681
Pan-African bulk regional crustal flattening ....................................................683
Northwest-southeast syn- to late-Pan-African crustal extension......................686
Pan African granite plutonism..........................................................................688
Ordovician-Devonian greenschist-facies sinistral shear zones ........................688
Emplacement of the Geci Group ......................................................................688
Gold mineralisation in the Txitonga Group......................................................689
Karoo rifting .....................................................................................................689
Post-Karoo tectonics.........................................................................................691
Discussion ........................................................................................................691
Geodynamic reconstruction..............................................................................696
MINERAL RESOURCES........................................................................697
Gold ..................................................................................................................697
Caguru Gold Field ..........................................................................................698
M'Popo (0D Zero D) Gold Field ...................................................................705
Rio Lulimbo alluvial gold (name uncertain) ....................................................706
Rio Chimulicamuli bedrock and alluvial gold..................................................707
Rio Lugenda alluvial gold ................................................................................708
Other previously reported gold showings.........................................................708
Sulphide-mineralised rocks assayed.................................................................709
Copper ..............................................................................................................709
Rio Lureco copper prospect..............................................................................709
Mazeze copper showing ...................................................................................710
Nickel-copper ...................................................................................................710
Chiure (Mucacata) copper-nickel occurrence ..................................................711
Lusaka copper-nickel showing .........................................................................711
Rio Nicuburi copper-nickel occurrence............................................................712
Iron and iron-titanium ore ................................................................................712
Mazogo iron deposit .........................................................................................712
13.4.2
13.4.3
13.4.4
13.5
13.5.1
13.5.2
13.6
13.6.1
13.6.2
13.6.3
13.6.4
13.7
13.7.1
13.7.2
13.7.3
13.7.4
13.8
13.8.1
13.8.2
13.9
13.9.1
13.9.2
13.10
13.11
13.11.1
13.11.2
13.11.3
13.11.4
13.12
13.12.1
13.12.2
13.12.3
13.12.4
13.12.5
13.12.6
13.12.7
13.12.8
13.13
13.13.1
13.13.2
13.13.3
13.14
13.15
13.16
14
14.1
14.1.1
14.1.2
14.1.3
Mirrote/Maravone haematite-magnetite occurrence........................................ 713

Mazua ilmenite-magnetite occurrence............................................................. 714
Chiure Velho magnetite occurrences ............................................................... 715
Heavy mineral sand deposits ........................................................................... 716
Murrubue.......................................................................................................... 716
Natuca (Ponte Uifundo) showing/sampling profile ......................................... 717
Special metals (Nb, Ta, REE) and Uranium .................................................... 717
Monte Naumale Nb, Ta, U and REE mineralisation ....................................... 717
Monte Chissindo nepheline, Nb, Ta and U mineralisation.............................. 718
Rio Lucuisse apatite, U, Nb, REE mineralisation in a mafic alkaline complex
................................................................................................................. 718
Other mineralisations ....................................................................................... 722
Graphite............................................................................................................ 722
Ancuabe graphite mine .................................................................................... 723
Graphite occurrences in the Xixano Complex ................................................. 725
Graphite occurrences on sheet 1340 Mecufi.................................................... 725
Namapa graphite occurrence............................................................................ 726
Carbonate minerals .......................................................................................... 726
Marble in the Meso- to Neoproterozoic gneiss complexes.............................. 727
Malulo limestone deposit................................................................................. 727
Quartz, quartzite............................................................................................... 730
Rio Levele kyanite-quartzite............................................................................ 730
Hydrothermal quartz ........................................................................................ 731
Talc .................................................................................................................. 734
Dimension stone............................................................................................... 734
Montepuez marble quarries.............................................................................. 734
Mazeze marble quarry...................................................................................... 736
Soapstone ......................................................................................................... 736
Other types of dimension stone........................................................................ 737
Precious/semi-precious stones ......................................................................... 738
Occurrences in the Marrupa area ..................................................................... 739
Occurrences southeast of Mueda ..................................................................... 740
Occurrences in the Mirrote area....................................................................... 741
Namahaca corundum occurrence..................................................................... 743
The Rio Muthicana (Odinepa) corundum occurrence ..................................... 744
Cuamba garnet deposit..................................................................................... 745
Rose quartz and aquamarine in the Cuamba area ............................................ 746
"Minerais rara"................................................................................................. 746
Coal .................................................................................................................. 747
Maniamba Graben............................................................................................ 747
Lugenda southwest........................................................................................... 748
Lugenda N........................................................................................................ 748
Kimberlite ........................................................................................................ 748
Stone aggregate................................................................................................ 749
Hydrocarbon seeps........................................................................................... 749
RESOURCE POTENTIAL AREAS ....................................................... 751
Gold.................................................................................................................. 751
Niassa Gold Belt (NGB) .................................................................................. 751
Macaloge gold lens .......................................................................................... 752
Rio Lugenda/Rio Lureco.................................................................................. 752
xi
14.2
14.2.1
14.3
14.4
14.4.1
14.4.2
14.4.3
14.4.4
14.5
14.6
14.6.1
14.6.2
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
14.11
14.12
14.13
14.14
xii
Copper and nickel-copper.................................................................................752

Rio Lureco copper prospect..............................................................................752
Iron and iron-titanium.......................................................................................752
Special metals and uranium..............................................................................753
Naumale alkaline complex ...............................................................................753
Monte Chissindo syenite ..................................................................................753
Rio Lucuisse .....................................................................................................754
Special metals in pegmatites ............................................................................754
Graphite ............................................................................................................754
Carbonate minerals...........................................................................................755
Marble in the Meso- to Neoproterozoic complexes .........................................755
Geci meta-carbonate rocks ...............................................................................755
Quartz, quartzite ...............................................................................................756
Talc ...................................................................................................................756
Dimension stone ...............................................................................................756
Precious/semi-precious stones..........................................................................756
Coal ..................................................................................................................757
Kimberlite.........................................................................................................757
Petroleum systems and hydrocarbon potential .................................................759
Summary ..........................................................................................................759
ABSTRACT
1.1 Geology, geochemistry and geochronology

This map explanation presents the results of a four-year reconnaissance-mapping project in
northern Mozambique and represents a significant revision of the pre-existing understanding of
the geology of the area. An overview of the main geological units is shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Overview of the main geological units in northeastern Mozambique.

The main units are:
Ponta Messuli Complex: This complex is found along the shore of Lago Niassa. Some of its
component units are unique in the region. The northern areas are occupied by migmatitic
gneiss of supracrustal origin containing cordierite and sillimanite. The southern part of the
Ponta Messuli Complex is dominated by augen gneiss. The Ponta Messuli Complex has been
shown to be the oldest unit in the region, giving a Palaeoproterozic metamorphic age (1,95
Ga), and containing detrital zircons with a minimum age of 207411 Ma. Sm/Nd model ages
also indicate that Archaean material has been involved in the formation of the complex.
Nampula Complex: The Nampula Complex is the structurally lowest of the Mesoproterozoic
tectonostratigraphic crustal blocks in northern Mozambique (Figure 1.1). It occupies the
southern part of all the sheets that define the southern limit of the area described. The
lithodemic and lithostratigraphic units comprise a sequence of supracrustal gneisses, the
Molcu Group, which is migmatised to various degrees, and an even older suite of granitoid
gneisses known as the Mocuba Suite (dated at 1123-1148 Ma). These supracrustal and
granitoid rocks were intruded by various intermediate to acid intrusives, now orthogneisses, the
Culicui Suite (dated at 1028 1087 Ma). Many of the units encountered are very highly
migmatised. The orthogneisses include I- and A-type granitoids. These basement rocks make
up about 90% of the surface area of the Complex, the remainder being comprised of two
overlying units of metasedimentary gneisses, the Mecuburi and Alto Benfica Groups, which
were deposited unconformably on the Nampula Complex later than 630 Ma. The Alto Benfica
Group contains detrital zircons covering a wide age span, back to 3,31 Ga. Subsequently, the
Nampula Complex was intruded by syn- to post-tectonic, Pan-African granitoid plutons, dykes
and sheets of the Murrupula Suite and the Malema Suite during the Cambrian. The western
margin of the Nampula Complex was intruded by a number of Jurassic syenite and nephelinesyenite plutons, plugs, sheets and dykes, representing alkaline activity along the southern
termination of the East-African rift system.
Unango Complex: The Unango Complex dominates the geology of the western part of Niassa
Province (Figure 1.1): it extends from the border with Tanzania, where it is partly overlain by
the Karoo rocks of the Maniamba Graben, to 150 30' S, and from Lago Niassa and the Malawi
border in the west to 36 30' E, northeast of Mavago, where it is overthrust by the Marrupa
Complex and overlain by a klippen consisting of the Muaquia and M'Sawize Complexes. South
of this nappe it has a tectonic contact with the Marrupa Complex. It was emplaced structurally
above the Nampula Complex during the Pan-African Orogeny. The boundary between these
two complexes is a complex series of northeast-southwest-trending, anastomosing, steep shear
zones, evidence of which was only rarely observed in the field. The Unango Complex is
dominated by acid to intermediate orthogneisses, partly at granulite grade and partly
retrogressed. Migmatisation of variable character is extensive. Some components show little
indication of having been exposed to granulite-facies metamorphism. Most of the granodioritic
rocks plot in the field of I-type granites and about 50% of the granites have compositions
similar to fractionated I-type rocks, whereas other granites plot in the A-type field together
with syenitic rocks. Monzodioritic to monzonitic rocks plot both in the field of fractionated Itype and A-type granites. High-grade paragneisses locally predominate in the west along the
border with Malawi. Many of the units within the complex are bounded by elements in a
network of anastomosing shear zones. Ten samples of various orthogneisses of the Unango
Complex range in intrusion age from 106516 to 97533 Ma. In addition three samples of
paragneiss were dated by different methods giving peak amphibolite- to granulite-facies PanAfrcan metamorphism between 55313 and 5259 Ma.
Marrupa Complex: The Marrupa Complex is one of the most extensive tectonostratigraphic
units in northern Mozambique (Figure 1.1): it is dominated by orthogneisses of acid to
intermediate compositions, while mafic orthogneisses and paragneisses are subordinate. The
gneisses vary from being homogeneous and rather fine-grained, to more coarse-grained, and
include banded and migmatitic varieties. From the mineral assemblages present, the rocks
seem to have undergone amphibolite-facies metamorphism. This differs from the adjoining
units, which have experienced granulite-facies conditions. Geochemical data show that the
complex is dominated by normal and fractionated I-type granitoids in addition to rocks with a
clear A-type affinity. Thirteen age determinations have been carried out on rocks from the
Marrupa Complex, most of them granite and granitic gneiss. The ages of the protoliths are 9681026 Ma with uncertainties of 8-19 Ma, while metamorphic overprints are Pan-African ages of
521-562 Ma (uncertainties of 5-15 Ma).
Nairoto Complex: The Nairoto Complex forms a 15-30 km wide north-northeast - southsouthwest trending belt that runs from the central part of sheet 1139 Mueda southwards along
the contact between sheets 1238 Xixano and 1239 Meluco. North of Montepuez there is a
major fold with axial plane trending north-northeast - south-southwest that turns the unit to a
west-northwest-east-southeast direction. Eastwards the complex comprises a 10-15 km wide
belt across sheets 1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi. The complex thus comprises an arcshaped belt wrapped around the Lalamo Complex. The contacts to the latter are clearly
tectonic. The orthogneisses are commonly magnetite-bearing, and the belt shows pronounced
positive anomalies in the aeromagnetic data. The Nairoto Complex consists mainly of a suite of
felsic orthogneisses with varying degrees of migmatisation. Geochemically they are calcalkaline with granitic to tonalitic compositions, and can be classified as normal I-type
granitoids. Granitic to granodioritic varieties predominate. A few minor lenses of paragneiss
were found. There are no indications that the metamorphic grade has exceeded amphibolite
facies. A psammitic gneiss has yielded a zircon with an interpreted crystallisation age of 976
5 Ma, with a metamorphic overprint at 579 10 Ma. Intrusion ages of 1044 44 and 1019 36
Ma have been reported for biotite gneiss and amphibolite respectively.
Meluco Complex: The Meluco Complex occurs in two large oval dome-like structures in the
southwest part of sheet 1239 Meluco (Figure 1.1). The largest of these structures continues
onto sheet 1240 Quissanga-Pemba. Three much smaller, restricted structures occur on sheets
1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi. The Meluco Complex consists of orthogneisses mainly of
granitic to granodioritic composition, with tonalitic rocks as a subordinate component. The
geophysical data on the two large dome structures show a rather irregular, folded pattern in
contrast to the supracrustal rocks in the surrounding Lalamo Complex, which have a very
banded pattern that seems to wrap around the Meluco Complex. The idea that the Meluco
Complex is a basement for the supracrustal rocks is therefore plausible. Where the contact
between the complexes has been observed it is a thrust, with the rocks of the Lalamo Complex
thrust over the Meluco Complex in a "top-to-the-south" movement. Geochemical data on
granodioritic/granitic gneiss from the Complex indicate a high-K calc-alkaline character: the
rocks can be classified as fractionated I-type granitoids. The western granite dome yields an
intrusion age of 947r21 Ma. The easternmost granite yields an almost identical intrusion age of
946r12 Ma. Metamorphic overprint of the latter sample is dated to 585r13 Ma
Mugeba Complex: The Mugeba Complex forms a klippe, the westernmost part of which is
poorly exposed in the southeast corner of sheet 1636 Mocuba. It consists of a range of
granulitic gneisses underlain by mylonitic to flaser orthogneiss, which forms the base of the
structure.
Xixano Complex: Its highly distinctive radiometric signature facilitated recognition of this
Complex as a new tectonostratigraphic unit. It extends from the Tanzanian border, east of Rio
Lugenda to the Lurio belt and includes two outliers within the Marrupa Complex on sheets
1437 Malema and 1337 Marrupa, a large, north-south-trending body near Nipepe and another
isolated mass to the west, in the Monte Macicoro area. A third small mass is found at Tele on
sheet 1338 Namuno. The major part of the complex consists of metasupracrustal rocks
enveloping predominantly mafic igneous and granulitic rocks that comprise the core of a
regional north-northeast - south-southwest-trending synform. The paragneisses include various

forms of mica gneiss and schist, quartz-feldspar gneiss, metasandstone, quartzite and marble.
Felsic orthogneisses occur with the paragneisses, mainly in the northern and eastern part of the
complex. The metamorphic grade within the Xixano Complex is dominantly amphibolite facies
although granulite-facies rocks are preserved within tectonic lenses. The contact to the
underlying Marrupa Complex in the west is a major shear zone that was subsequently folded
against the Lurio belt in the south. The shear zone contact with the Montepuez Complex in the
east is also strongly folded. A major shear zone also separates the Xixano Complex from the
Nairoto Complex in the east.
The oldest dated rock in the Xixano Complex is a weakly deformed metarhyolite from
sheet 1338 Namuno, which gives a reliable extrusion age of 81810 Ma. A similar age 79944
Ma, was obtained from a granitic gneiss further northeast. The intrusive age of an enderbitic
gneiss from a tectonic lens in the northeastern part of sheet 1238 Xixano is 74216 Ma. The
age of granulite facies metamorphism, 7354 Ma is recorded by a banded granulite from the
northern part of sheet 1338 Namuno.
Muaquia Complex: The complex occurs around the conjunction of sheets 1336 Majune, 1337
Marrupa, 1236 Mavago and 1237 Mecula. The Muaquia Complex is very heterogeneous. It
includes a wide range of acid to intermediate orthogneisses as well as lenses and bands of
paragneiss, including quartzite, quartz-rich two-mica schists, amphibolite and calcsilicate rock.
Its textures are mainly blastomylonitic and mylonitic and deformation increases towards the
border wth the Unango Complex to the west. The rocks show widely separated indications of
an early high-pressure metamorphic event.
M'Sawize Complex: The M'Sawize Complex lies mainly on sheets 1236 Mavago and 1237
Mecula. It overlies the Muaquia Complex and is partly surrounded by it (Figure 1.1). The
M'Sawize Complex includes granodioritic to gabbroic gneiss. Metatonalite, metagabbro with
amphibolite and banded migmatite with minor migmatitic granite. The Complex is underlain
by faults and shear zones, which are related to extensional movement. A tonalite within the
Complex has yielded an age of 640+4 Ma. Unlike the other complexes in the region the
M'Sawize Complex is dominated by mafic to intermediate rocks: they are of I-type.
Lalamo Complex: The Lalamo Complex is situated east and north of the Nairoto Complex and
overlain by the Cenozoic to Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of the Rovuma Basin (Figure 1.1). It
consists predominantly of various metasupracrustal rocks; biotite gneiss, meta-sandstone,
quartzite, marble, amphibolite and conglomerate and minor meta-igneous rocks of granitic to
ultrabasic composition. The rocks of the Lalamo Complex have generally experienced
amphibolite-grade metamorphism. The western contact with the Nairoto Complex is a shear
zone, along which a dextral movement cuts off the various units of the Lalamo Complex. The
lithologies are rather similar to those in the Montepuez Complex, but the Nairoto Complex
always separates these two complexes, except in the extreme east where the contact is a shear
zone. Since they also have a totally different tectonic style they are distinguished as two
complexes on the map. It has been observed that the Lalamo Complex has been thrust upon
the Meluco Complex, which might represent a basement for the supracrustal rocks. A granitic
gneiss from the north-central part of sheet 1239 Meluco has given an intrusion age of 69613
Ma. This indicates that rocks of the Lalamo Complex are younger than those of the Meluco
Complex.
Alto Benfica and Mecuburi Groups: The Alto Benfica Group is a stratified quartzitic
metasedimentary package that lies upon, and is restricted to, the Mesoproterozoic Nampula
Complex basement. It occurs as a series of narrow, isolated lens-shaped outcrops in the region
around Alto Benfica in the central-southern part of sheet 1636 Lugela-Mocuba and in the
easternmost part of sheet 1635 Milange. The main lithology is matrix-supported
metaconglomerate, which contains biotite granite, and leucogranite gneiss pebbles with fresh
pink K-feldspar. The clasts are set in a medium- to coarse-grained matrix of feldspathic
quartzite.
The Mecuburi Group occurs in an area of ~500 km2 on sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi. The
contacts of the Mecuburi Group with the surrounding gneisses of the Nampula Complex are
not exposed, but there is good circumstantial evidence to suggest that the contact is
unconformable, rather than tectonic: 1) The Group appears to regionally overlie and locally
overstep different units of the Nampula Complex, 2) No evidence of shearing was observed at
the contacts, even in localities that can only be a few tens of metres from observed contacts, 3)
Coarse conglomeratic units contain boulder-sized clasts that may be correlated with lithologies
in the adjacent, underlying Nampula Complex. The main lithologies are: Gneissic
metaconglomerate with meta-arkosic gritstone, and biotite gneiss, locally conglomeratic and
with sillimanite nodules.
Montepuez Complex: The Montepuez Complex forms a wedge-shaped unit of strongly
deformed para- and orthogneisses in the southeast part of the mapped area. It comprises
orthogneisses ranging from granitic to amphibolitic in composition, and paragneisses
comprising mainly quartzite, meta-arkose, marble, quartz-feldspar gneiss and biotite gneiss.
The rocks are strongly folded into tight and isoclinal folds on all scales, and have later been cut
by a number of mainly northeast-southwest trending shear zones. The strong deformation
makes the lithologic succession very complex with large variations on all scales both within
and between the lithologies. The rock assemblages have generally experienced amphibolite
grade metamorphism. A leucosome in a paragneiss in the western part of the complex was
dated to 942 r 14 Ma with a metamorphic overprint at 599r10 Ma. Chemostratigraphic dating
of marbles in the Complex suggests their deposition between 1100 and 1050 Ma.
Ocua Complex: The Ocua Complex is a tectonic mlange, mainly comprised of granulitic
lithologies. In the east, on sheet 1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi, it is situated between the
Nampula and Montepuez Complexes. It forms the core, in general, of a 25-30 km wide shear
belt called the Lurio belt, comprising strongly deformed, often mylonitic lithologies. The
lithologies are granulitic gneisses of both felsic and mafic character, orthogneisses of granitic
to amphibolitic compositions, and paragneisses including biotite gneiss, quartz-feldspar gneiss,
quartzite and meta-arenite. The structures most visible on the aeromagnetic and radiometric
data over the Lurio belt are a moderately northwest-dipping, southwest-northeast-trending
lithological banding, and megascopic isoclinal folds with moderately reclined axial surfaces
parallel to this direction. The high-strain Lurio belt fades progressively to the southwest, where
it becomes infolded within the Marrupa Complex and, to a lesser extent, the Nampula
Complex. Farther to the southwest, on sheets 1535-6 Insaca-Gur and 1636 Milange, the
complex contains a series of belt-like bodies, layers and lenses on all scales, which are
concentrated along the northeast-southwest-trending tectonic zone that separates the Nampula
and Unango Complexes. Thus they occur mainly in the contact shear zone belt itself, but also
infolded with the Nampula and Unango Complexes on either side.
The Ocua Complex is probably a composite unit, containing slices of the adjoining rock
units, deformed, transposed and dismembered during Pan-African tectonic events, and not
originally a separate rock unit. Lithologically, the Lurio belt can thus be regarded as containing
a tectonic melange including granulites and sheared gneisses and metasediments. The
traditional separation into supracrustal and intrusive gneisses cannot be made confidently
for large parts of the complex. Amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphism and
deformation in the Ocua Complex is bracketed between 578 10 and 540 7 Ma.
Txitonga Group: The Txitonga Group is bounded by the Ponta Messuli Complex to the west,
and the Karoo Supergroup to the east. It is 10-25 km wide and occupies a rugged, high
mountainous area, extending from the Tanzanian border to south of Cobu on Lago Niassa, a
distance of nearly 100 km. The Group is dominated by metasedimentary rocks, mainly
metagreywacke, metasandstone, quartz-mica schist and chlorite-rich schist. In the northern part
of the unit there are numerous bodies of metagabbro, greenstone, greenschist and minor felsic
metavolcanic rocks. There are indications that metamorphic conditions have varied along the
length of the Group. In the northern areas the metamorphic grade may not have exceeded
greenschist facies. Garnet and staurolite are found in the Cobu area, which indicates
amphibolite facies. A late retrogressive event has affected both the Txitonga and most of the
Ponta Messuli lithologies, leading to regional sericitisation and local carbonatisation. The
Group hosts the important Niassa Gold Belt. A quartz-feldspar porphyry in the Group has been
dated to 71520 Ma, while Re-Os dating of sulphides from the Gold Belt yielded an age of
~483 Ma.
Geci Group: The Geci Group occurs as several, tectonically dissected, intensively sheared,
folded and mylonitised lenses within Unango Complex granulite rocks northwest of Lichinga..
The dominant rocks are calcarenites, dolarenites, calcite matrix-supported and dolostone clastsupported carbonate breccias. In places, primary depositional features are well preserved. The
least-altered 87Sr/86Sr and G13C ratios suggest an apparent depositional age of either 590-585 or
630-625 Ma. This provides a lower age limit for juxtaposition of the low-grade Geci group
rocks and granulite-facies rocks of the Unango Complex.
Neoproterozoic to Palaeozoic intrusions: A great variety of igneous rocks that are not an
integral part of the Meso- to Neoproterozoic gneiss complexes have been distinguished. They
range in age from Neoproterozoic to Jurassic, although syn- to post-tectonic Pan-African
intrusions predominate. Some of these intrusives are clearly related, and comprise distinct
intrusive suites. They include:
x The Monte Naumale and Monte Chissindo (7998 Ma) alkaline intrusions in the
Unango Complex: both bodies have a potential for special metals of various types.
x The Monte Miruei Suite of granite gneiss pods in the southeastern part of the Unango
Complex, dated at 74920 Ma.
x The Murrupula Suite, found in the area south of sheets 1437 Malema and 1438
Ribu-Mecuburi. It consists of older sheet-like syntectonic bodies of foliated biotite
granite orthogneiss, and younger intrusions of undeformed to weakly deformed granite.
x The Malema Suite, comprising Pan-African monzonitic, syenitic and granitic bodies as
well as charnockitic rocks in the southern part of the area mapped. On sheets 1437
Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi the suite includes seven sub-circular to ellipsoidal
plutons, including three zoned, granitoid ring complexes along a north-northeastoriented line parallel to the Lurio belt.
x The Niassa Suite, comprising several granitic to syenitic Pan-African intrusions that
form prominent mountains from Meponda in the north, southeastwards along the
6
border with Malawi, to south of Mandimba. Intrusion ages of 5074 and 51435 Ma
have been obtained. There are four major ring complexes on sheets 1334 Meponda and
1335 Lichinga, namely Monte Metonia, Monte Livigire, Monte Nicucule and Monte
Chande. Except for Monte Chande, they are all mainly syenitic in composition. Monte
Chande consists of alkali-syenite surrounding a core of alkali-granite. The highest and
most impressive mountains, Monte Lissiete and Serra Lipane on sheet 1435 Mandimba
are underlain by late granites and associated syenites.
Karoo Supergroup: The Karoo strata of the Maniamba Graben in Niassa Province (Figure 1.1)
include a lower sequence with coal measures of Permian age attributed to the Ecca Group.
The overlying upper Karoo siliciclastic sediments are of probable upper Permian/Triassic to
Jurassic age. The graben system developed by rifting throughout Karoo deposition and is up to
about 10 km deep in its centre. Smaller, tectonically bounded blocks of Karoo sediments are
found in the northwestern part of Cabo Delgado Province (two) and east and southeast of
Lichinga on sheets 1335 Lichinga (two) and 1336 Majune (two).
Kimberlites: Kimberlites occur as dykes up to 3 m thick and isometric bodies in the southern
part of the Maniamba Graben. They occur along four northwest-southeast-trending zones, and
one east-northeast west-southwest-trending zone. They are macrocrystic hypabyssal Group Ia
kimberlites based on their mineralogy and whole rock geochemistry. Mineral and Sr isotope
data confirm the Group I classification. A phlogopite Rb-Sr mineral isochron provides a Lower
Cretaceous estimate of 1388,5 Ma for emplacement of one of the isometric bodies.
Geophysical data acquired in 2005 indicate that kimberlites may also be found further north in
the graben.
Rovuma Basin: The history of the basin is directly linked to the progressive break-up of
southern Gondwana: the sedimentary succession of the basin can be divided into five tectonostratigraphic mega-sequences reflecting the different break-up stages: Pre-rift during the
Permo-Triassic, syn-rift during Triassic to Early Jurassic, early drift during Mid-Jurassic
Mid-Cretaceous, late-drift during Mid-Cretaceous to Oligocene, and deltaic progradation
during Oligocene to present time. The lithostratigraphy of the Basin has been reassessed based
on field results, petrography and micropalaeontological data, in the light of the above tectonic
development. Oil seeps are known from several parts of the basin and there is increased
interest in the hydrocarbon potential of the area.
1.2 Geochemical classification
Sampling for geochemical analyses mostly covers amphibolite- to granulite-facies metaigneous rocks and is representative of the spectrum of rock types of the various complexes and
rock units in the investigated area. Table 1.1 summarizes the main compositional parameters:
within each complex there is considerable variation from subordinate mafic to ultramafic
lithologies to a diversity of intermediate to acid rocks.
The granitic to charnockitic rocks of the Unango, Marrupa, Nampula, Nairoto, Meluco,
Lalamo and Montepuez Complexes appear to be broadly similar in composition and consist
mainly of metaluminous, medium- to high-K (shoshonitic), calc-alkaline rocks. All of these
complexes contain subordinate mafic to ultramafic rocks. In contrast, the Xixano, Muaquia,
M'Sawize and Ocua Complexes reveal abundant mafic to intermediate, low-K orthogneisses,
and some amphibolite. In the Xixano Complex, the evolved rocks appear to have a bimodal
distribution including low-K tonalite and high-K granite.
In general, the magnesian mafic rocks may represent fairly juvenile additions to the
crust. However, most of the high-K granitic to charnockitic rocks probably represent a
significant degree of recycling of previously formed crust. Plutonic rocks of this type are
commonly emplaced in relatively mature continental arcs and as large, post-collisional
batholiths following terrane accretion. Syn- to post-tectonic intrusive rocks, including the ring
complexes of the Niassa Suite, are high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic to highly alkaline, and
exhibit very high values for several trace elements (e.g. Zr, Ba, Sr and LREE). The evolved
alkaline complexes (syenites) are generally regarded as products of post-collisional and/or
anorogenic magmatism. The geochemical data (Table 1.1) support the model for terrain
assembly presented below (Figure 1.2) in showing the geological and geochemical contrast
between the mainly felsic lower tectonostratigraphic levels (Ponta Messuli to Meluco
Complexes) and the significantly more juvenile overlying complexes (Xixano to Lalamo
Complexes) assembled during the Pan-African orogeny.
Complex/Suite
General
classification
Mainly shoshonitic Atype
SiO2
(wt %)
60.9 77.5
K2O
(wt %)
4.5 7.7
Niassa Suite
14
Malema Suite
16
52.4 75.0
1.9 6.2
Murrupula Suite
High-K calc-alkaline to
shoshonitic
54,8 74.9
2.0 5.7
Neoproterozoic
plutons, undiff.
17
shoshonitic
46.2 76.8
0.1 6.7
High/variable Zr, Ba, Sr

and LREE
Txitonga Group
47.0 75.9
0.4 5.9
Ocua Complex
25
Mafic, low-K to intermed.

high-K rocks
Ultramafic and low-K to
medium-K, calc-alkal,
metaluminous rocks
Medium-K to high-K
calc-alkaline
Medium-K to high-K
calc-alkaline
Low-K calc-alkaline
39.8 75.3
0.2 8.5
Partly high Ba and

LREE
Predominantly mafic to
intermediate
43.3 76.0
0.1 4.7
36.1 76.4
0.01 5.4
45.0 63.5
0.3 1.2
Low-K to medium-K
calc-alkaline
Low-K calc-alkaline and
high-K calc-alkaline
High-K calc-alkaline
Medium-K calc-alkaline
Medium-K to high-K
calc-alkaline
44.9 78.2
0.1 3.5
39.7 77.7
0.1 5.6
66.8 68.7
60.3 70.4
42.3 78.9
4.0 4.9
1.2 3.3
0.3 6.1
Medium-K to high-K
calc-alkaline
Medium-K to high-K
calc-alkaline
Mafic calc-alkaline
granodiorite and
amphibolite
43.1 78.4
0.8 6.9
49.7 77.2
0.6 7.3
Montepuez
Complex
Lalamo Complex
9
19
M'Sawise Complex
Muaquia Complex
Xixano Complex
47
Meluco Complex
Nairoto Complex
Marrupa Complex
4
6
81
Unango Complex
125
Nampula Complex
44
Ponta Messuli
Complex
Other characteristics
High LREE and HFSelements
Predominantly
intermediate to acid
Partly high Zr, Ba, Sr
and LREE
intermediate
intermediate
Abundant mafic rocks.
Tonalite and granite
Mainly intermediate to
felsic; commonly high
Ba
Very wide range in
composition
Partly high Zr, Ba, Sr
and LREE
Table 1.1Summary of compositional features for the main groups of rocks (N=no. of samples).
1.3 Pre-Karoo Geochronology, Metamorphism and Tectonics

The gneissic complexes, from west to east, are (Figure 1.1):
x The Ponta Messuli Complex, along Lago Niassa, consists of 1.95 Ga Palaeoproterozoic
high-grade basement: its contact with the Txitonga Group, which is dominated by lowgrade metasediments, is tectonic but it is unclear whether it is a thrust or a tectonized
nonconformity..
x The Unango, Marrupa and Nampula Complexes consist mainly of 1.1-1.0 Ga granitoid
gneisses, associated with slivers of metasediments. These complexes were affected by
Pan-African metamorphism from 560-520 Ma, commonly at granulite facies in the
Unango Complex. The Unango and Nampula Complexes show widespread PanAfrican granitic plutonism. The Marrupa and Unango Complexes are juxtaposed along
northwest-verging tectonic contacts: this is interpreted as a top-to-northwest imbricated
nappe sequence.
x The Xixano Complex includes lenses of granulite juxtaposed with various
metasedimentary rocks along greenschist- to amphibolite-facies shear zones.
Granulite-facies metamorphism is dated at 7354 Ma.
x The Lalamo and Montepuez Complexes include abundant metasediments and felsic
metavolcanic rocks. Available data for the Montepuez Complex suggest deposition of
marble units between 1100 and 1050 Ma (chemostratigraphic dating) and deposition of
clastic sediments sometime after 94214 Ma (age of a detrital zircon).
x The Geci Group, in part preserves primary depositional features and primary isotopic
composition. Chemostratigraphic data suggest two apparent depositional age intervals
of either 590-585 or 630-625 Ma. The Geci Group, metamorphosed in greenschist
facies, was juxtaposed with the much higher grade Unango Complex, as a result of late
Pan-African shearing.
x The metasediments of the Alto Benfica and Meecuburi Groups were deposited in
small, possibly strike-slip, grabens at ~600 Ma. They were subsequently internally
deformed and metamorphosed to sillimanite grade during the Pan-African event.
x The Lurio belt separates the Nampula Complex to the south from the Marrupa and
Montepuez Complexes to the north in the eastern part of the region. It is cored by
granulite lenses decreasing in abundance to the west, and by highly sheared
leucogneisses. These lithologies have been assigned to the newly established Ocua
Complex. Granulite-facies metamorphism and deformation is bracketed to 580-530
Ma. The Lurio belt does not always correspond to a major lithological break between
the Nampula, Marrupa and Montepuez Complexes, and is consequently not interpreted
as representing a Pan-African suture zone.
The sequence of tectonic events is envisaged as follows:
x A granulite-facies metamorphic event is recorded at 7354 Ma in the Xixano
Complex. Preservation of these granulites suggests a phase of northwest-southeastoriented crustal extension after 735 Ma, responsible for their partial exhumation.
x Structures from the western sector of the Lurio belt (Ribu-Malema area) differ
remarkably from those observed in its eastern sector (Montepuez region). Tight to
isoclinal folds with north-northwest-dipping axial planes and roughly down-dip
plunging axes and stretching lineations are common. We refer to these features as
"Proto-Lurio". No clear kinematic indicators could be identified, which precludes
assigning of these structures to a specific tectonic phase. Nonetheless, the Proto-Lurio
event can be envisaged as being responsible for the exhumation of early Pan-African
granulites. The youngest of these granulites are reported in the Mugeba klippe, south
of the Lurio belt, and have a published age of ~6148 Ma. Therefore, the Proto-Lurio
tectonic event probably post-dates 615 Ma.
x A post-615 Ma top-to-northwest directed nappe-stacking episode juxtaposed the
distinct tectonic slices, the Ponta Messuli, Txitonga, Unango, Marrupa, Muaquia,
M'Sawize and Xixano Complexes, listed from west to east with increasing structural
level in the nappe stack. Field evidence strongly supports the tectonic origin of the
terrain contacts and confirms their northwest-directed thrusting kinematics. While the
Unango Complex shows granulite-facies metamorphic grade with recorded P up to
15.3 kbar, the overlying Marrupa and Xixano Complexes show amphibolite-facies
conditions during this event.
Figure 1.2: Tectonostratigraphic overview of the Proterozoic units in northern Mozambique.

The Karoo sediments and the Jurassic-Neogene sediments of the Rovuma Basin overlie the
gneiss complexes unconformably. Tectonic boundaries are shown by the saw-tooth lines.
10
x The high-resolution geophysical data allow the identification of a crustal-scale set of

east/east-northeast- west/west-southwest-trending upright, open to tight folds that can
be followed from the Tanzanian border to the Lurio belt and further south in the
Nampula Complex. Fold axes plunge moderately to the west/west-southwest. Field
observations confirm the geometry of the folds and their importance. The Lurio belt
(especially its eastern sector) is part of this geometrical framework, with its mylonitic
foliation folded isoclinally around east/east-northeast - west/west-southwest-trending
axes. The belt underwent strong flattening with granulite bodies being highly
attenuated, segmented and retrogressed in response to the extreme pure-shear strain
that affected the whole region. The isoclinal folds that characterize the belt reached a
stage of strain hardening, which resulted in strain accommodation being taken up by
crustal-scale sets of conjugate ductile shear zones. These are identifiable from the
outcrop scale to the regional scale based on geophysical data. The eastern sector of the
Lurio belt, where the overall structural grain swings to an east-west orientation, reflects
the local, strong control of such an east-west-trending ductile shear zone. Strainaccommodation within the Lurio belt (via isoclinal folding and conjugate shear zones)
is more intense than in the surrounding blocks (open to tight folding and conjugate
shear zones) because of the Proto-Lurio structure, which acted as a zone of mechanical
weakness, leading to preferential strain accommodation. Nonetheless, evidence of the
south/south-southeast - north/north-northwest-directed regional compression is found
throughout the region, leading not only to the above-mentioned crustal-scale east/eastnortheast- west/west-southwest-trending folds, but also to intense structural reworking
of pre-existing tectonic features. Geochronological results constrain the age of the
regional compression to between 580 and 530 Ma. High-pressure granulite facies
metamorphism is recorded in the Lurio belt. The peak conditions were followed by a
stage of near-isothermal decompression.
x 530 Ma monazite ages from mylonitic fabrics associated with top-to-northwest
extensional structures constrain a renewed phase of crustal extension co-axial with the
prior compressional event. Field evidence of extensional structures deflecting and
cutting through folds of the previous compressional event was found within the eastern
sector of the Lurio belt and to the north, at least as far as the Tanzanian border.
x Pan-African granites are widespread and follow specific structural trends. Ring
complexes and alkali granite intrusives within the Lurio belt have been assigned to the
Malema Suite. The emplacement of such magmatic complexes was most likely
facilitated by the overall crustal thinning starting at 530Ma.
x Northeast-southwest-trending sinistral shear zones northwest of the Lurio belt record
late Pan-African ages ranging from 480 to 445 Ma. We interpret these to be lateral
ramps defining the western margins to the displaced blocks that accommodated the
overall crustal thinning.
1.4 Mineral resources and potential
Gold: The Niassa Gold belt (NGB) is the most important gold district in the area. Artisanal
mining of alluvial and primary gold in quartz veins has been performed since 1990 along Lago
Niassa from the Tanzanian border towards Cobu in the south, ~90 km north-south and up to
25 km east-west. The estimated total gold production is 5-12 t/a (Lchelt 2004). The most
important gold mining areas currently include Caguru, Long Bay/Miazini, M'Papa, 0A and
M'Popo (0D) in the northern part of the belt.
Primary gold occurs in quartz veins in low-grade metasedimentary rocks and associated
mafic dykes of the assumed Neoproterozoic Txitonga Group. The veins are associated with
11
north-south-/northeast-southwest-trending shear zones of probable Ordovician age, related to

the juxtaposition of the NGB as an exotic tectonic sliver against the western margin of the
Unango terrane. Re-Os dating of the sulphide mineralisations gives a preliminary age of about
483 Ma. The productive zones in the alluvial fields are 0,5-5 m thick, and the gold content of
the alluvium is 5-30 g/t. Minor gold panning has been reported along several rivers in other
areas: Rio Chimulicamuli, Rio Lugenda, Rio Lureco.
Copper and nickel-copper: Slabs of finely laminated metasiltstone containing abundant
disseminated malachite and with extensive malachite (and locally azurite) coatings are found
50 km northwest of Marrupa on the north bank of the Rio Lureco. The secondary copper
mineralisation (>1 % Cu and ~100 g/t Ag) is clearly derived from disseminated copper
sulphides in the host rock. This poorly exposed area is worthy of follow-up, especially as this
mineralisation is similar to that seen in the Central African Copper Belt. Minor nickel-copper
mineralisations occur in mafic intrusives in various complexes, but these are not considered to
rpresent a major potential.
Iron and iron-titanium: Massive magnetite-ilmenite ore occurs in high-grade rocks near Lago
Niassa. Ilmenite-magnetite lenses and veins are found in fine-grained biotite gneiss and
massive magnetite-quartz forms minor hills in the southeast part of the mapped area. Thin and
extensive layers of massive magnetite have been investigated north of the Rio Lurio in the
eastern part of Cabo Delgado Province.
Enrichments of the heavy minerals, ilmenite, rutile and zircon are found all along the
coast in both aeolian and beach sand, although more frequently in the vicinity of the major
rivers. In the Murrubue deposits, 20 km south of Pemba, most heavy minerals occur in red
aeolian sand. The sand dunes are up to 30 m high. A small body, a few m thick, with 5-10 %
heavy minerals and a potential of up to 10 Mt has been investigated by Iluka Resources.
Special metals: Several alkaline intrusions of Neoproterozoic age, with enrichment of the
special metals; REE, U, Ta and Nb are located within the Unango Complex in the western part
of Niassa Province; these are Monte Naumale, Monte Chissindo and Rio Lucuisse. The most
common ore-bearing minerals in these are pyrochlore, columbite, zircon and columbotantalite.
Probably the most interesting of these is the Monte Naumale Syenite, in which a Na-pyroxeneamphibole rock contains, on average, about 400 ppm U and Th, 1000 ppm Nb, and 20-10,000
ppm Ta. Ore-bearing lenses with a thickness of 1-4 m, and lengths up to 100 m are recorded.
There is also a potential for special metals in pegmatites though this has yet to be documented
for the pegmatite fields in Niassa and Cabo Delgado Provinces.
Graphite: Graphite-bearing mica schist and gneiss are found in different tectonic complexes in
Cabo Delgado Province. Horizons up to several kilometres long and 10-100 m thick contain
fine- to coarse-grained graphite, commonly 5-20 % C. High-quality graphite is mainly
metamorphic, although minor local enrichments are related to tectonic activity. The Ancuabe
graphite mine, owned by Kenmare Resources PLC, was in operation from 1994 to 1999. A
reserve of 1 Mt of ore grading 10 % graphite was determined. Graphite-bearing mica gneiss is
medium-grained and banded comprising graphite, biotite, quartz and feldspar. Medium to
coarse graphite-flakes (3-8 mm) are enriched in 5-20 cm thick bands and lenses over a
thickness of 2-3 m. The graphite-bearing sequence has an undulating, nearly flat-lying foliation
and seems to comprise the top of an open antiform. Local enrichment of graphite and
thickening of the graphite-rich bands is observed in minor folds. Very coarse-grained graphite
occurs along quartz veins.
12
Carbonate minerals: Marble and limestone are registered in different sequences of

Mesoproterozoic to Mesozoic age. Mesoproterozoic (~1100 Ma) medium- to coarse- grained
marbles form major proportions of several complexes in Cabo Delgado Province. Pure calcite
marble comprises only minor parts. The marbles are commonly variably dolomitised as in the
well-known Montepuez marble, or comprise pure dolomite marble. A thin horizon of
magnesite has also been found. Small-scale lime production has been carried out from the
limestone of the Geci Group (590 Ma) in Niassa Province.
Quartz, quartzite: A few quartz bodies in both provinces may represent a potential resource for
silica production. Detailed studies of the chemistry and quality of the resources should be
carried out. Kyanite quartzites may have great value as a source of high-purity quartz.
Preliminary analysis of a sample from the Rio Levele deposit, 40 km southeast of Mavago,
shows very low values of combined Al+Ti+Li, < 45 ppm. This kyanite quartzite is several
kilometres long and more than 30 m thick, and includes minor amounts of muscovite,
plagioclase, titanite, rutile, zircon and lazulite.
Coal: The most extensive coal resources occur in the Karoo Supergroup in the southwest part
of the Maniamba Graben, in Niassa Province. Resource estimates up to 224 Mt have been
presented. The seams, 0,8-1 m thick, occur in the Ecca Group (K2 and K4).
Dimension stone: The most important dimension stone deposit in the area at present is the
marble 4 km north of Montepuez owned by the Marmonte Lda. Production exceeded 1000 m3
in 1986, but is now (2004) only 50 m3/year. Blocks are transported to Pemba, where the
company produces slabs of three qualities: white (branco), grey (cinzento) and mixed
(magram). The marble is commonly bedded on a dm-m scale, and locally includes minor
lenses or bands of amphibolite. Large-scale open to tight folding is common. Test quarrying
has been carried out on a marble close to Mazeze. The colour banding in this deposit makes the
rock very decorative, but its coarse grain-size is a problem for polishing. There is a great
potential for exploitation of other metamorphic and igneous rocks as dimension stone. Both
massive and decorative rocks are found. However, extensive exploitation is heavily dependent
on development of infrastructure and market potential.
Precious/semi-precious stones: Various precious and semi-precious stones are found in
northeastern Mozambique, most commonly tourmaline, beryl (aquamarine), garnet, corundum,
amazonite and crystalline quartz. They occur mostly in granitic pegmatite veins, but alluvial
and eluvial occurrences also exist. Among the more interesting areas for the pegmatites are
Marrupa, southeast of Mueda and Mirrote. Pigeon-blood coloured, corundum crystals up to 12
mm long and 20 mm across also occur in schistose, coarse-grained plagioclase-pyroxenebiotite rock east of Chiure.
Kimberlite: Kimberlites, 43 dykes and 4 pipes, that cut into Karoo sedimentary rocks were
found in the southwest part of the Maniamba Graben in the late 1970s. One of the pipes has
yielded a Rb/Sr age of around 138 Ma. Diamondiferous kimberlites have not been verified so
far. The samples studied by this project are macrocrystic hypabyssal Group Ia kimberlites,
based on their mineralogy, whole rock geochemistry and analyses of macrocrysts and
groundmass minerals. Several additional occurrences of kimberlite dykes and pipes are
indicated in the recently acquired airborne magnetic data. Further investigations of the whole
graben as well as its immediately adjacent basement are recommended. Rocks resembling
13
lamproites have been discovered in the Xixano Complex: such rocks can have a potential for
diamonds (as illustrated by the Argyle field in West Australia).
Hydrocarbons: Potential source rocks are considered to be present in the syn-rift and early drift
sequence throughout the Rovuma Basin, but little has been documented. Analyses of the
several seeps encountered in the basin point to two distinct types of oils, proving that there are
active petroleum systems. These are interpreted as having been derived from source rocks of
Jurassic and/or older age. The basin contains several intervals of good quality reservoir rocks.
The pre-late drift continental deposits (pre-Lower Cretaceous) found onshore in the northwest
Rovuma Basin are generally expected to show mostly low net-to-gross ratios due to diagenesis,
but the contemporaneous paralic and shallow marine clastics to the east and southeast are
expected to have fair to good reservoir potential, with moderate to minor reduction of porosity.
The Aptian-Albian succession comprises reservoir sands of good quality.
Summary of resource potential: Gold in the Niassa Gold belt is economically the most
significant known mineral resource in northeastern Mozambique today. The kimberlites of the
Maniamba graben have great potential if they are found to be diamond-bearing. Heavy
minerals, graphite, copper, special metals and high-purity quartz could also be of great
economic interest, while construction material and precious stones are important on a local
scale. Economically viable hydrocarbon fields, if they were to be discovered in the Rovuma
Basin could overshadow all other resources.
14
RESUMO
2.1 Geologia, geoqumica e geocronologia

Esta Notcia Explicativa apresenta os resultados de um mapeamento de reconhecimento do
Nordeste de Moambique, realizado durante 4 anos e constitui uma significativa reviso da
ideia que se fazia anteriormente da geologia desta rea. A Figura 2.1 apresenta uma
panormica das principais unidades geolgicas.
Figura 2.1: Panormica das principais unidades geolgicas do nordeste de Moambique.

Principais unidades Geolgicas:
Complexo de Ponta Messuli: Este complexo situa-se ao longo das margens do Lago Niassa,
sendo alguns dos seus componentes nicos nesta regio. As reas do norte contm gnaisse
migmattico de origem supracrustal, com cordierite e silimanite. A parte sul do Complexo de
Ponta Messuli dominada por gnaisse ocelado (augen gneiss). O Complexo de Ponta Messuli
a unidade mais antiga da regio com uma idade metamrfica Paleoproterozica de 1,95 Ga e
contm zirces detritais de, no mnimo, 207411 Ma. Modelos Sm/Nd tambm indicam a
participao de material Arqueano na formao deste complexo.
15
Complexo de Nampula: O Complexo de Nampula estruturalmente composto por blocos

crustais tectono-estratigrficos inferiores do Mesoproterozico no norte de Moambique.
Ocupa a parte sul de todas as folhas que definem o limite sul da rea descrita (Figura 2.1). As
unidades litodmicas e litoestratigrficas compreendem uma sequncia de gnaisses
supracrustais (Grupo de Molcu), que apresenta vrios graus de migmatizao, e um conjunto
de gnaisses granitides ainda mais antigos (Ciclo de Mocuba) datado de 1123-1148 Ma. Estas
rochas supracrustais e os granitides foram intrudidas por vrios corpos intrusivos intermdios
a cidos, presentemente ortognaisses (Ciclo de Culicui) datado de 1028 1087 Ma. Muitas das
unidades encontradas na regio esto altamente migmatizadas e os ortognaisses deste
complexo foram classificados como granitides do tipo I e A. Estas rochas do basamento
constituem cerca de 90% da rea de superfcie deste Complexo, sendo a percentagem restante
formada por duas unidades de gnaisses metassedimentares sobrepostas (os Grupos de
Mecuburi e do Alto Benfica), os quais foram depositados no Complexo de Nampula aps 630
Ma. O Grupo Alto Benfica contem zirces detritais que cobrem um vasto perodo que se
estende at 3,31 Ga. O Complexo de Nampula foi posteriormente intrudido durante o
Cmbrico por plutes, diques e lenis de granitides Pan-Africanos sintectnicos a
pstectnicos (Ciclo de Murrupula e de Malema), enquanto que a margem ocidental do mesmo
Complexo foi intrudido por uma srie de plutes, tampes, lenis e diques de sienitos e
nefelino-sienitos do Jurssico, representando a actividade alcalina ao longo do limite sul do
sistema de rift da frica Oriental.
Complexo de Unango: O Complexo de Unango domina a geologia da parte ocidental da
Provncia de Niassa (Figura 2.1) e estende-se desde a fronteira com a Tanznia, onde se
encontra parcialmente coberto pelas rochas do Karoo do Graben de Maniamba, at 150 30' S; e
desde o Lago Niassa e a fronteira com o Malawi a oeste at 360 30' E a nordeste de Mavago,
onde cavalgado pelo Complexo de Marrupa e coberto por uns Klippen composto pelos
Complexos de Muaquia e M'Sawize. A sul deste manto de cavalgamento, o Complexo de
Unango faz um contacto tectnico com o Complexo de Marrupa, tendo sido colocado
estruturalmente por cima do Complexo de Nampula durante a Orogenia Pan-Africana. A
fronteira entre estes dois complexos formada por uma srie complexa de zonas de
cisalhamento anastomticas de direco nordeste-sudoeste, raramente observadas em campo. O
Complexo de Unango dominado por ortognaisses entre cidos a intermdios, parcialmente
granulticos e parcialmente retrocedentes. Observa-se uma extensa migmatizao de carcter
varivel e alguns componentes do complexo apresentam pouca evidncia de terem sido
expostos a metamorfismo de fcies granulito. A maior parte das rochas granodiorticas so
granitos do tipo I e cerca de 50% dos granitos tm composio semelhante a rochas de tipo I
fraccionadas, enquanto que os restantese granitos so do tipo A, juntamente com rochas
sienticas. Rochas monzodiorticas a monzonticas deste complexo pertencem aos granitos
fraccionados de tipo I e A. Localmente, na regio oeste ao longo da fronteira com o Malawi,
predominam Paragnaisses de alto grau metamrfico. Muitas unidades do complexo esto
ligadas por elementos numa rede de zonas de cisalhamento anastomosado. A analse de dez
amostras de vrios ortognaisses do Complexo de Unango resultou numa idade de intruso que
vai de 106516 a 97533 Ma. Trs amostras de paragnaisses foram datadas por meio de
diversos mtodos, tendo-se chegado a metamorfismo Pan-Africano de fcies anfiboltico a
granultico entre 55313 e 5259 Ma.
Complexo de Marrupa: O Complexo de Marrupa uma das unidades tectono-estratigrficas
mais extensas do norte de Moambique (Figura 2.1). dominado por ortognaisses de
composio cida a intermdia, embora sejam subordinados aos ortognaisses e paragnaisses
mficos. Os gnaisses variam entre homogneos, finamente granulados at aos de granulao
16
grosseira, incluindo variedades bandeadas e migmatticas. Com base nas assembleias

mineralgicas presentes, as rochas parecem ter sofrido metamorfismo de fcies anfibolito, o
que difere das unidades adjacentes, as quais foram sujeitas ao metamorfismo de fcies
granulito. Os dados geoqumicos mostram que o complexo dominado por granitides
fraccionados e normais do tipo I, assim como, por rochas com clara afinidade com o tipo A.
Realizaram-se treze dataes em rochas do Complexo de Marrupa, a maioria das quais
granticas e gnaisses granticos e os protolitos mostraram idades de 968-1026 Ma (8-19 Ma),
enquanto que a sobreposio do metamorfismo (remetamorfismo) Pan-Africano com idades
de 521-562 Ma (5-15 Ma).
Complexo de Nairoto: O Complexo de Nairoto forma uma faixa com 15-30 km de largura com
uma orientao nor-nordeste sul-sudoeste que se estende apartir da parte central da folha
1139 (Mueda) para o sul ao longo do contacto entre as folhas 1238 (Xixano) e 1239 (Meluco).
A norte de Montepuez existe uma importante dobra com plano axial orientado para nornordeste sul-sudoeste a qual transforma a unidade para uma direco os-noroeste lssudeste. Para leste, o complexo contm uma faixa com 10-15 km de largura que atravessa as
folhas 1339 (Montepuez) e 1340 (Mecufi). Esta geometria faz com que o complexo apresentese como uma faixa em forma de arco que envolve o Complexo de Lalamo, com o qual faz um
contacto claramente tectnico. Os ortognaisses contm normalmente magnetite e a faixa
evidencia pronunciadas anomalias positivas nos dados aeromagnticos.
O Complexo de Nairoto consiste num ciclo de ortognaisses flsicos com graus variveis de
migmatizao, os quais do ponto de vista geoqumico so calcalcalinos com composies que
vo do grantico a tonaltico, podendo ser classificados como granitides normais do tipo I.
Predominam no complexo as variedades granticas a granodiorticas, encontrando-se tambm
algumas pequenas lentes de paragnaisse. No h indicao de que o grau metamrfico tenha
excedido o fcies anfibolito. Um gnaisse psamtico continha um zirco cuja idade de
cristalizao foi interpretada como sendo de 976 5 Ma, e o remetamorfismo de 579 10 Ma.
Foram registadas idades de intruso de 1044 44 e 1019 36 Ma para, respectivamente,
gnaisse biotitico e anfibolito.
Complexo de Meluco: O Complexo de Meluco aparece em duas grandes estruturas em forma
de Domo (cpula oval) na parte sudoeste da folha 1239 (Meluco) (Figura 2.1)e a maior destas
duas estruturas continua na folha 1240 (Quissanga-Pemba). Trs estruturas muito mais
pequenas e restritas ocorrem nas folhas 1339 (Montepuez) e 1340 (Mecufi). O Complexo de
Meluco formado por ortognaisses de composio geralmente grantica a granodiortica, com
rochas tonalticas como componente subordinado. Os dados geofsicos das duas grandes
estruturas em forma de Domo apresentam um padro dobrado bastante irregular, o que
contrasta com as rochas supracrustais do Complexo de Lalamo sua volta, as quais, tm um
padro muito bandeado que parece envolver o Complexo de Meluco. Torna-se assim, plausvel
a ideia de que o Complexo de Meluco a base das rochas supracrustais. Nos stios em que se
observou contacto entre os complexos, este tem a forma dum cavalgamento, com a rochas do
Complexo de Lalamo lanadas sobre o Complexo de Meluco, num movimento "do topo para
sul". Dados geoqumicos sobre o gnaisse granodiortico e gnaisse grantico deste Complexo
indicam um carcter calcalcalino de alto K, sendo as rochas classificadas como granitides
fraccionados do tipo I. A abbada ocidental do granito tem uma idade de intruso de 947r21
Ma. O granito mais a leste tem aproximadamente a mesma idade de intruso (946r12 Ma) e
uma amostra desta rocha deu a idade do remetamorfismo de 585r13 Ma.
Complexo de Mugeba: O Complexo de Mugeba forma um klippe cuja parte mais ocidental se
encontra pouco exposta no canto sudeste da folha 1636 (Mocuba). Este complexo, consiste
17
duma srie de gnaisses granulticos com ortognaisses subjacentes que variam de milonticos a
flaser os quais formam a base da estrutura.
Complexo de Xixano: A sua forma radiomtrica muito e bem distinta facilitou o
reconhecimento deste Complexo como uma nova unidade tectono-estratigrfica. Estende-se
desde a fronteira com a Tanznia, a leste do Rio Lugenda, at faixa do Lrio, e inclui dois
outliers (corpos isolados cercados por rochas mais antigas) dentro do Complexo de Marrupa,
nas folhas 1437 (Malema) e 1337 (Marrupa), sendo um deles um grande corpo com orientao
norte-sul perto de Nipepe e o outro, uma massa isolada para oeste, na rea do Monte Macicoro.
Existe ainda o registo duma terceira massa pequena em Tele, folha 1338 (Namuno). A maior
parte deste complexo constituda por rochas metasupracrustais, envolvendo
predominantemente rochas mficas gneas e granulticas, que formam o ncleo de um sinforme
regional com orientao nor-nordeste sul-sudoeste. Os paragnaisses incluem vrios tipos de
mica-gnaisses e xistos, gnaisse feldsptico, metagrs, quartzito e mrmore. Ocorrem ainda
ortognaisses flsicos juntamente com os paragnaisses, principalmente na parte norte e leste
deste complexo. O grau metamrfico do Complexo de Xixano predominantemente de fcies
anfibolitico, embora haja tambm rochas de fcies granulito dentro das lentes tectnicas. O
contacto com o subjacente Complexo de Marrupa a oeste, apresenta-se como uma importante
zona de cisalhamento que sofreu subsequentemente uma dobra contra a faixa do Lrio a sul. A
zona de cisalhamento que forma o contacto com o Complexo de Montepuez a leste tambm
apresenta grandes dobras. Uma importante zona de cisalhamento separa tambm o Complexo
de Xixano do Complexo de Nairoto, a leste.
A rocha datada como a mais antiga no Complexo de Xixano um metariolito
ligeiramente deformado (vide folha 1338 Namuno), o que fornece uma idade exacta de
extruso de 81810 Ma. Obteve-se idade semelhante, 79944 Ma, a partir de um gnaisse
grantico situado mais a nordeste do complexo. A idade de intruso de um gnaisse enderbtico
de uma lente tectnica da parte nordeste da folha 1238 (Xixano) de 74216 Ma e a idade do
metamorfismo de fcies ganulito registada por um granulito bandeado, situado na parte norte
da folha 1338 (Namuno) de 7354 Ma.
Complexo de Muaquia: Este complexo aparece como o ponto de unio de 4 folhas: 1336
(Majune), 1337 (Marrupa), 1236 (Mavago) e 1237 (Mecula). um complexo bastante
heterogneo o qual Inclui uma vasta gama de ortognaisses cidos a intermdios, bem como
lentes e bandas de paragnaisse, incluindo quartzito, xistos com duas micas ricos em quartzo,
anfibolito e rocha calco-silicatada. As suas texturas so principalmente blastomilonticas e
milonticas, aumentando o grau de deformao com a aproximao da fronteira com o
Complexo de Unango a oeste. As rochas apresentam evidncias descontnuas de antigos
eventos metamrficos de alta presso.
Complexo de M'Sawize: O Complexo de M'Sawize encontra-se quase todo nas folhas 1236
(Mavago) e 1237 (Mecula) sobrepondo-se ao Complexo de Muaquia, que o envolve
parcialmente (Figura 2.1). O Complexo de M'Sawize inclui os seguintes tipos de rochas:
Gnaisse granodiortico a gabrico, metatonalito, metagabro com anfibolito e migmatito
bandeado com pouco granito migmttico. Este Complexo sobrepe-se a falhas e zonas de
cisalhamento relacionadas com movimento extensional. Um tonalito deste Complexo
evidenciou uma idade de 640+4 Ma. Ao contrrio do que acontece com outros complexos
desta regio, o Complexo de M'Sawize dominado por rochas mficas a intermdias do tipo I.
18
Complexo de Lalamo: O Complexo de Lalamo est situado a leste e norte do Complexo de

Nairoto. Sobrepem-se-lhe rochas sedimentares de idade Cenozica Mesozica da Bacia do
Rovuma (Figura 2.1). Consiste predominantemente de vrias rochas metasurpacrustais, tais
como: Gnaisse biottico, metagrs, quartzito, mrmore, anfibolito e rochas conglomeradas
metagneas de composio grantica a ultrabsica. A generalidade das rochas do Complexo de
Lalano sofreu um metamorfismo de grau anfiboltico. O contacto ocidental com o Complexo
de Nairoto formado por uma zona de cisalhamento, ao longo da qual um movimento para a
direita separou as vrias unidades do Complexo de Lalamo. As litologias deste complexo so
bastante semelhantes s do Complexo de Montepuez , encontrando-se os dois complexos
separados pelo Complexo de Nairoto, excepto no extremo leste onde o contacto entre eles
uma zona de cisalhamento. por apresentar um caracter tectnico completamente diferente
que so apresentados no mapa como dois complexos distintos. Observou-se que o Complexo
de Lalamo foi lanado para cima do Complexo de Meluco, o qual poder representar o
embasamento das rochas supracrustais. Um gnaisse grantico da parte norte-centro da folha
1239 (Meluco) aponta para uma idade de intruso de 69613 Ma, o que indica que as rochas
do Complexo de Lalamo so mais jovens do que as do Complexo de Meluco.
Grupos de Alto Benfica e Mecuburi:
O Grupo de Alto Benfica um pacote quartztico metassedimentar estratificado, sobreposto e
restrito ao embasamento Mesoproterozico do Complexo de Nampula, o qual, ocorre numa
srie de afloramentos estreitos, em forma de lentes, na regio volta de Alto Benfica,
especificamente na parte centro-sul da folha 1636 (Lugela-Mocuba) e na parte mais a leste da
folha 1635 (Milange). A litologia principal deste grupo metaconglomertica suportado pela
matriz quartzito feldsptico de gro mdio a grosseiro contendo clastos de granitos biotticos e
seixos de gnaisse leucograntico com feldspato potassico rosa.
O Grupo de Mecuburi aparece numa rea de ~500 km2, folha 1438 (Ribau-Mecuburi). Os
contactos do Grupo de Mecuburi com os gnaisses circundantes do Complexo de Nampula no
se encontram expostos, mas existem provas circunstanciais que apontam para o facto de o
contacto ser inconsistente e no tectnico, seno vejamos: 1) Este Grupo parece sobrepor-se
regionalmente e galgar localmente diferentes unidades do Complexo de Nampula , 2) No se
observou evidncias de cisalhamento nos contactos, mesmo nos locais que ficam a apenas
algumas dezenas de metros dos contactos observados, 3) As Unidades conglomerticas
grosseiras contm clastos do tamanho de pedregulhos, que podem estar relacionados com
litologias do vizinho e subjacente Complexo de Nampula. As Principais litologias deste grupo
so: Metaconglomerado gnaissico com arenito meta-arcsico grosseiro e gnaisse biottico,
localmente conglomertico e com ndulos de silimanite.
Complexo de Montepuez: O Complexo de Montepuez constitui uma unidade em forma de
cunha, com paragnaisses e ortognaisses fortemente deformados na parte sueste da rea
mapeada. Este complexo composto por ortognaisses que vo de granticos a anfibolticos no
que respeita composio, e paragnaisses incluindo principalmente quartzito, meta-arcose,
mrmore, gnaisse quartzo-feldsptico e gnaisse biottico. As rochas apresentam-se fortemente
deformadas em dobras apertadas e isoclnicas, que foram posteriormente cortadas por uma
srie de zonas de cisalhamento com orientao geral de nordeste-sudoeste. A forte deformao
torna a sucesso litolgica muito complexa, com grandes variaes em todas as escalas, tanto
dentro assim como entre as litologias que compem o complexo. O contacto das rochas
experimentou de uma maneira geral um metamorfismo de grau anfiboltico. Um leucossoma
dum paragnaisse da parte ocidental deste complexo foi datado de 942r14 Ma com um
remetamorfismo de 599r10 Ma. A datao quimioestratigrfica dos mrmores deste Complexo
sugere que foram depositados entre 1100 e 1050 Ma.
19
Complexo de Ocua: O Complexo de Ocua uma mistura tectnica, composta

predominantemente por litologias granulticas. Situa-se entre os Complexos de Nampula e
Montepuez, a leste, nas folhas 1339 (Montepuez) e 1340 (Mecufi). Este complexo Forma o
ncleo de uma faixa de cisalhamento com 25-30 km de largura, conhecida como a faixa do
Lrio, que compreende litologias fortemente deformadas e frequentemente milonticas. Estas
litologias so gnaisses granulticos de carcter flsico e mfico, ortognaisses de composio
grantica a anfiboltica, e paragnaisses, incluindo gnaisse biottico, gnaisse quartzo-feldsptico,
quartzito e meta-arenito. As estruturas que se vem melhor nos dados aeromagnticos e
radiomtricos relativos faixa do Lrio so um bandeamento litolgico com um mergulho
moderado para noroeste orientados para sudoeste-nordeste e dobras isoclinais megascpicas
com superfcies axiais moderadamente reclinadas e paralelas a esta direco. A faixa do Lrio
desaparece progressivamente para sudoeste no Complexo de Marrupa e, em menor extenso,
no Complexo de Nampula onde no se apresenta dobrado. Mais para sudoeste, nas folhas
1535-6 (Insaca-Guru) e 1636 (Milange), este complexo forma uma faixa composta por uma
srie de corpos, camadas e lentes, em todas as escalas, que se concentram ao longo da zona
tectnica que separa os Complexos de Nampula e Unango cuja a orientao nordestesudoeste. Assim, pode se concluir que o Complexo de Ocua ocorre com mais frequncia na
zona de contacto cisalhado, aparecendo tambm envolvido nos Complexos de Nampula e
Unango.
O Complexo de Ocua provavelmente uma unidade composta, contendo fatias das
unidades rochosas adjacentes, deformadas, transpostas e desmembradas durante eventos
tectnicos Pan-Africanos, e no uma unidade rochosa originalmente independente.
Litologicamente, a faixa do Lrio pode ser considerada como contendo uma mistura tectnica
que inclui granulitos e gnaisses cisalhados e metassedimentos. A diviso tradicional em
gnaisses "supracrustais" e "intrusivos" no pode ser feita com confiana no que se refere a
grande parte deste complexo. O metamorfismo de fcies anfibolito a granulito e a deformao
do Complexo de Ocua devero ter ocorrido entre 578 10 e 540 7 Ma.
Grupo de Txitonga: O Grupo de Txitonga fica situado entre o Complexo de Ponta Messuli a
oeste e o Supergrupo de Karoo a leste. Tem 10-25 km de largura e ocupa uma rea alta e
montanhosa que se estende desde a fronteira com a Tanznia at ao sul de Cobu no Lago
Niassa, numa distncia de quase 100 km. Este Grupo dominado por rochas
metassedimentares, principalmente metagrauvaques, metagrs, xisto de quartzo-mica e xisto
rico em clorite. Na parte norte desta unidade h numerosos corpos de meta-gabro, nefrita, xisto
verde e pequenas rochas flsicas metavulcnicas. No h indicao de que as condies
metamrficas tenham variado ao longo da extenso deste Grupo. Nas reas do norte, o grau
metamrfico pode no ter excedido o fcies xisto verde entretanto foram encontradas granadas
e estaurolites na rea de Cobu, o que indica um fcies anfiboltico. Um evento retrogressivo
tardio afectou as litologias de Txitonga e a maioria das litologias de Ponta Messuli, dando
origem a sericitazao regional e carbonatizao local. neste Grupo onde ocorre a mais
importante Faixa de Ouro da provncia de Niassa. Um prfiro quartzo-feldsptico deste Grupo
foi datado de 71520 Ma, tendo a datao Re-Os de sulfuretos da Faixa de Ouro produzido
uma idade de ~483 Ma.
Grupo de Geci: O Grupo de Geci aparece sob a forma de vrias lentes tectonicamente
dissecadas, intensamente cisalhadas, dobradas e milonitizadas nas rochas granulticas do
Complexo de Unango, a noroeste de Lichinga. As rochas dominantes so calcarenitos,
dolarenitos, calcito com suporte de matriz e brechas carbonticas com suporte de clasto de
20
dolomite. H stios em que as caractersticas primrias de deposio se encontram bem

preservadas. As ratios 87Sr/86Sr e G13C menos alteradas sugerem uma idade aparente de
deposio de 590-585 ou 630-625 Ma, o que oferece um limite de idade mais baixo para
justaposio das rochas de baixo grau do Grupo de Geci e das rochas de fcies granulito do
Complexo de Unango.
Intruses do Neoproterozico ao Paleozico: Observou-se uma grande variedade de rochas
gneas que no fazem parte integral dos complexos de gnaisses do Meso ao Neoproterozico.
A sua idade estende-se do Neoproterozico ao Jurssico, embora predominem intruses PanAfricanas sintectnicas a postectnicas. Algumas destas intruses so claramente relacionadas
e compreendem ciclos de intruso distintos que Incluem:
x As intruses alcalinas do Monte Naumale e Monte Chissindo (7998 Ma) no Complexo de
Unango: os dois corpos tm potencial para metais especiais de vrios tipos.
x O Ciclo do Monte Miruei de lentes de gnaisse grantico na parte sueste do Complexo de
Unango, datado de 74920 Ma.
x O Ciclo de Murrupula, situado na rea sul das folhas 1437 (Malema) e 1438 (RibauMecuburi), formado por corpos sintectnicos mais antigos em forma de lenol de
ortognaisse grantico biottico foliado e por intruses mais recentes de granito nodeformado a ligeiramente deformado.
x O Ciclo de Malema, composto por corpos Pan-Africanos monzonticos, sienticos e
granticos, bem como por rochas charnockticas na parte sul da rea mapeada. Nas folhas
1437 (Malema) e 1438 (Ribau-Mecuburi), este ciclo contm sete plutes sub-circulares a
elpticos, incluindo trs complexos granitides anelares zonados ao longo de uma linha
com orientao NNE paralela faixa do Lrio.
x O Ciclo do Niassa, composto por vrias intruses Pan-Africanas granticas a sienticas
que formam notveis montes desde Meponda no norte, continuando para sueste ao longo da
fronteira com o Malawi, at ao sul de Mandimba. Estas intruses deram idades de 5074 e
51435 Ma. Foram identificados quatro complexos anelares principais nas folhas 1334
(Meponda) e 1335 (Lichinga), nomeadamente o Monte Metonia, Monte Livigire, Monte
Nicucule e Monte Chande. Exceptuando o Monte Chande que formado por sienito
alcalino volta de um ncleo granitico alcalino, os outros montes so de composio
predominantemente sientica. Os montes mais altos, Monte Lissiete e Serra Lipane na folha
1435 (Mandimba), sobrepem-se a granitos "tardios" e sienitos associados.
Supergrupo do Karoo: Os estratos do Karoo do graben de Maniamba no noroeste da Provncia
do Niassa (vide Figura 2.1) incluem uma sequncia inferior com camadas de carvo de idade
Prmica atribuda ao Grupo Ecca. Os sobrepostos sedimentos siliciclsticos do Karoo superior
so provavelmente de idade Prmico/Trissico superior ao Jurssico. O sistema de graben deste
supergrupo foi desenvolvido por rifting atravs dos depsitos do Karoo e atinge cerca de 10 km
de profundidade no seu centro. Foram encontrados pequenos blocos de sedimentos do karoo
tectonicamente ligados, sendo dois a noroeste da provncia de Cabo Delgado, dois a este e
sudeste de Lichinga e mais dois na folha 1336 (Majune).
Kimberlitos: Os kimberlitos ocorrem como corpos isomtricos e diques que atingem mais de 3
m de espessura na parte sul do graben de Maniamba. Esto destribuidos ao longo de quatro
zonas com orientao noroeste-sudeste, e uma zona de orientao ls-nordeste os-sudoeste.
Com base na sua mineralogia e na geoqumica total da rocha classificam-se em kimberlitos
macrocristalinos hipabissais do Grupo Ia. Dados minerais e dos istopos de Sr confirmam a
classificao destes kimberlitos no Grupo I. Um iscrono Rb-Sr do mineral flogopito
proporcionou uma idade estimada do Cretcio Inferior de 138 8,5 Ma para a intuso de um
21
dos corpos isomtricos. Dados geofsicos adquiridos em 2005 indicam que os kimberlitos
tambm podero ser encontrados mais para norte no graben.
Bacia do Rovuma: A histria da Bacia do Rovuma encontra-se directamente ligada ao
desmembramento progressivo da parte sul de Gondwana. A sucesso sedimentar da bacia pode
ser dividida em cinco mega sequncias tectono-estratigrficas, as quais reflectem as diferentes
fases de desmembramento do Gondwana: Pr-rift, durante o Prmico-Trissico, sin-rift entre o
Trissico e o Jurssico Inferior, depsitos de gelo antigos durante o Jurssico Mdio-Cretceo
Mdio, depsitos de gelo recentes entre o Cretceo Mdio e o Oligocnio, e progradao
deltaica entre o Oligocnio e o presente. A litostratigrafia da Bacia foi reavaliada com base
nos resultados obtidos em campo e em dados petrogrficos e micropaleontolgicos, luz do
desenvolvimento tectnico acima mencionado. Foram registadas infiltraes de petrleo em
vrias zonas da bacia, havendo interesse crescente no potencial de hidrocarbonetos desta rea.
2.2 Classificao geoqumica
As amostras recolhidas para fins de anlises geoqumicas incluem principalmente rochas
metagneas de fcies anfiboltico a granultico, e so representativas dos diferentes tipos de
rochas dos vrios complexos e unidades que ocorrem na rea investigada. A Tabela 2.1
resume os principais parmetros da composio sendo que dentro de cada complexo h uma
variao considervel entre litologias subordinadas mficas a ultramficas e uma grande
diversidade de rochas intermdias a cidas.
As rochas granticas a charnockticas dos Complexos de Unango, Marrupa, Nampula,
Nairoto, Meluco, Lalamo e Montepuez parecem ser geralmente semelhantes em composio e
consistem principalmente de rochas metaluminosas clco-alcalinas de mdio a alto Potssio
(rochas shoshonticas). Todos estes complexos contm rochas subordinadas mficas a
ultramficas. Os Complexos de Xixano, Muaquia, M'Sawize e Ocua revelam, pelo contrrio,
abundantes ortognaisses mficos a intermdios de baixo K, assim como alguns anfibiolitos. No
Complexo de Xixano, as rochas evoludas parecem ter uma distribuio bimodal, incluindo
tonalito de baixo K e granito de alto K.
De uma maneira geral, as rochas mficas magnsicas representam adies relativamente
recentes crusta, enquanto que a maioria das rochas granticas a charnockticas de alto K
representa provavelmente um grau significativo de reciclagem da crusta anteriormente
formada. Rochas plutnicas deste tipo encontram-se normalmente situadas em arcos
continentais relativamente desenvolvidos e sob a forma de grandes batlitos ps-colises,
resultantes de acreo de grupos de estratos. As rochas intrudidas sintectnicas a tarditectnicas, incluindo os complexos de forma circular da Srie de Niassa, so calcoalcalinas a
shoshonticas de alto K a altamente alcalinas, e exibem valores muito elevados de vrios
microelementos (ex: Zr, Ba, Sr e LREE). Os complexos alcalinos evoludos (sienitos) esto
geralmente associados aos produtos do magmatismo ps-coliso e/ou magmatismo
anorognico. Os dados geoqumicos apresentado abaixo (Tabela 2.1) suportam o modelo
composicional do terreno, mostrando o contraste geolgico e geoqumico (Figura 2.2),
principalmente entre os nveis flsicos tectnico-estatigrficos mais baixos, (Complexos de
Ponta Messuli a Meluco) e os complexos que se lhes sobrepem e que so significativamente
mais jovens, reunidos durante a orogenia Pan-Africana (Complexos de Xixano a Lalamo).
22
Complexo/Ciclo
Classificao geral
SiO2
(wt %)
60,9 77,5
K2O
(wt %)
4,5 7,7
Ciclo do Niassa
14
Principalmente tipo A
shoshontica
Ciclo de Malema
16
Principalmente tipo A
shoshontica
52,4 75,0
1,9 6,2
Outras caractersticas
Elementos LREE e
HFS elevados
Elementos LREE e
HFS elevados
Ciclo de Murrupula
clcio-alcalina de alto K a
shoshontica
54,8 74,9
2,0 5,7
Plutes
neoproterozicos,
indiferenciados
Grupo de Txitonga
17
clcio-alcalinos de alto K
a shoshonticos
46,2 76,8
0,1 6,7
Zr, Ba, Sr e LREE

elevados/variveis
47,0 75,9
0,4 5,9
Ba e LREE
parcialmente elevados
Complexo de Ocua
25
rochas mficas de baixo K

a rochas intermdias de
alto K
Rochas metaluminosas
ultramficas clcioalcalinas de baixo a mdio K
Clcio-alcalino de mdio
a alto K
a alto K
39,8 75,3
0,2 8,5
Predominantemente
mficas a intermdias
43,3 76,0
0,1 4,7
36,1 76,4
0,01 5,4
Clcio-alcalino de baixo
K
Clcio-alcalino de baixo a
mdio K
Clcio-alcalino de baixo
K e clcio-alcalino de alto
K
Clcio-alcalino de alto K
45,0 63,5
0,3 1,2
44,9 78,2
0,1 3,5
39,7 77,7
0,1 5,6
Predominantemente
intermdio a cido
Zr, Ba, Sr
e LREE parcialmente
elevados
Predominantemente
mfico a intermdio
Predominantemente
mfico a intermdio
Rochas mficas
abundantes. Tonalito e
granito
66,8 68,7
4,0 4,9
K
a alto K
60,3 70,4
1,2 3,3
42,3 78,9
0,3 6,1
a alto K
a alto K
43,1 78,4
0,8 6,9
49,7 77,2
0,6 7,3
Complexo de
Montepuez
Complexo de
Lalamo
Complexo de
M'Sawise
Complexo de
Muaquia
Complexo de
Xixano
Complexo de
Meluco
Complexo de
Nairoto
Complexo de
Marrupa
Complexo de
Unango
Complexo de
Nampula
Complexo de Ponta
Messuli
9
19
6
9
47
4
6
81
125
44
Principalmente
intermdio a flsico;
contedo de Ba
geralmente elevado
Composio muito
variada
Zr, Ba, Sr
e LREE parcialmente
elevados
Granadiorito e anfibiolito
clcio-alcalinos mficos
Tabela 2.1: Resumo das caractersticas de composio dos principais grupos de rochas (N =
no. de amostras).
2.3 Geocronologia, metamorfismo e tectnica do Pr-Karoo
Complexos gnissicos de oeste para leste (Figura 2.1):
x Complexo de Ponta Messuli, ao longo do Lago Niassa, formada por um embasamento
paleoproterozico de alto grau com 1,95 Ga. O seu contacto com o grupo de Txitonga,
dominado por metassedimentos de baixo grau, tectnico, mas desconhece-se se se trata de
um Cavalgamento ou de uma no-conformidade tectonizada.
x Os Complexos de Unango, Marrupa e Nampula consistem principalmente de gnaisses
granitides de 1,1-1,0 Ga, associados a lascas de metasedimentos. Estes complexos foram
23
x
x
x
x
x
afectados por metamorfismo Pan-Africano entre 560 e 520 Ma, geralmente em fcies
granulito no Complexo de Unango. Os Complexos de Unango e Nampula apresentam vasto
plutonismo grantico Pan-Africano. Os Complexos de Marrupa e Unango encontram-se
justapostos ao longo de contactos tectnicos de inclinao noroeste, o que interpretamos
como uma sequncia imbricada do topo para noroeste.
O Complexo de Xixano inclui lentes de granulitos justapostas a vrias rochas
metassedimentares ao longo das zonas de cisalhamento de fcies xisto verde a anfibolito.
O metamorfismo do fcies granulito data de 735 4 Ma.
Os Complexos de Lalamo e Montepuez incluem abundantes metassedimentos e rochas
flsicas metavulcnicas. Dados disponveis para o Complexo de Montepuez sugerem
depsito de unidades de mrmore entre 1100 e 1050 Ma (datao quimio-estratigrfica) e
depsito de sedimentos clsticos aps 942 14 Ma (idade de um zirco de detrito).
O Grupo Geci mantm, em parte, caractersticas primrias de depsito e composio
isotpica primria. Dados qumio-estratigrficos sugerem dois intervalos aparentes da
idade do depsito: 590-585 e/ou 630-625 Ma. O Grupo Geci, com metamorfismo em fcies
xisto verde, ficou justaposto ao Complexo de Unango que de um grau muito mais
elevado, como resultado de cisalhamento Pan-Africano tardio.
Os metasedimentos dos Grupos Alto Benfica e Mecuburi foram depositados em pequenos
grabens em a600 Ma. Sofreram posteriormente deformao interna, tendo sido
metamorfisados em grau silimanita durante o evento Pan-Africano.
A faixa do Lrio que ocorre na parte leste da regio mapeada, separa o Complexo de
Nampula do complexo de Marrupa ao sul e do complexo de Montepuez ao norte. Tem um
ncleo de lentes de ganulito diminuindo de abundncia para oeste e de leucognaisses de
cisalhamento elevado.
Estas litologias foram atribudas ao Complexo de Ocua
recentemente estabelecido. O metamorfismo de fcies ganulito e a deformao datam de
580 e 530 Ma. A faixa do Lrio nem sempre corresponde a uma grande ruptura litolgica
entre os Complexos de Nampula, Marrupa e Montepuez, pelo que no a intepretamos como
represantando uma zona de sutura Pan-Africana.
Calcula-se que a sequncia de eventos tectnicos se tenha realizado da seguinte maneira:

x Regista-se um evento metamrfico de fcies granulito a 735 4 Ma no Complexo de
Xixano. A conservao destes granulitos sugere uma fase de extenso da crusta com
orientao noroeste-sudeste aps 735 Ma, a qual responsvel pela sua exumao parcial.
x As estruturas do sector ocidental da faixa do Lrio (rea de Ribau-Malema) diferem
notavelmente das observadas no sector oriental (regio de Montepuez) e so frequentes as
dobras apertadas a isoclinais com planos axiais com mergulho nor-noroeste e eixos
fracamente inclinados, frequentemente associadas a lineaes que se estendem em
mergulho. Estas caractersticas so chamadas "Proto-Lrio". No se puderam identificar
indicadores claramente cinemticos, o que exclui a atribuio destas estruturas a uma fase
tectnica especfica, no entanto, o evento Proto-Lrio pode ser considerado responsvel
pela exumao de granulitos Pan-Africanos primitivos. Os granulitos mais jovens foram
registados no Klippe de Mugeba, ao sul da Faixa do Lrio, tendo uma idade publicada de
cerca de 614 8 Ma. Assim, o evento tectnico do Proto-Lrio provavelmente posterior a
615 Ma.
x Um episdio ps-615 Ma, com assentamento orientado do topo para noroeste justaps-se s
fatias tectnicas distintas tais como: Complexos de Ponta Messuli, Txitonga, Unango,
Marrupa, Muaquia, M'Sawize e Xixano, alistados de oeste para leste com nvel estrutural
crescente no nappe stack. Observaes feitas em campo apoiam a origem tectnica dos
contactos do terreno e confirmam a sua cinemtica em direco a noroeste. Enquanto o
Complexo de Unango mostra um grau metamrfico de fcies granulito com Presses
24
registada at 15,3 kbar, os Complexos de Marrupa e Xixano que se lhe sobrepem mostram
condies de fcies anfibolito durante este evento.
x Os dados geofsicos de alta resoluo permitem a identificao de um conjunto de
dobras entre abertas e apertadas com orientao este/ls-nordeste oeste/os-sudoeste
que se estendem desde a fronteira com a Tanznia para sul, at faixa do Lrio e at
mais para Sul desta, no Complexo de Nampula. Os eixos das dobras mergulham
moderadamente para oeste/os-sudoeste. Observaes de campo confirmam a
geometria das dobras e a sua importncia. A faixa do Lrio (especialmente o seu sector
oriental) faz parte deste enquadramento geomtrico, com a sua foliao milontica
dobrada isoclinicamente volta de eixos de orientao este/ls-nordeste oeste/osnoroeste. Esta faixa sofreu forte aplanamento com os corpos granilitos sofrendo grande
atenuao, segmentao e retrocesso,
Figura 2.2: Panormica tectono-estratigrfica das unidades proterozicas do Nordeste de

Moambique. Os sedimentos do Karoo e os sedimentos do Jurssico-Neognico da bacia do
Rovuma sobrepem-se aos complexos de gnaisses com falta de conformidade. As linhas
serreadas representam os limites tectnicos.
25
resultantes da extrema tenso de cisalhamento que afectou toda a regio. As dobras

isoclinais que caracterizam a faixa atingiram uma fase de endurecimento da tenso, o
que resultou na acomodao da tenso a escala crustal de conjuntos de zonas
conjugadas de cisalhamento dcteis. Estas podem ser identificadas desde a escala de
afloramento at escala regional com base em dados geofsicos. O sector oriental da
faixa do Lrio, onde a tendncia estrutural geral passa a seguir uma orientao esteoeste, reflecte o forte control local de uma zona de cisalhamento dctil com orientao
este-oeste. A acomodao de tenses na faixa do Lrio (por meio de dobras isoclinais e
zonas de cisalhamento conjugadas) mais intensa do que nos blocos circundantes
(constituidas de dobras abertas a apertadas e zonas de cisalhamento conjugadas) devido
existncia da estrutura Proto-Lrio que funcionou como uma zona de fraqueza
mecnica, levando acomodao preferencial da tenso. Entretanto existem provas da
compresso regional com orientao sul/sul-sudeste - norte/nor-noroeste em toda a
regio, causando no s as dobras com orientao este/ls-nordeste oeste/ossudoeste acima mencionadas, mas tambm intensa renovao estrutural das
caractersticas tectnicas j existentes. Resultados geocronolgicos restringem a idade
da compresso regional entre 580 e 530 Ma. Registam-se condies metamrficas de
fcies granulito de alta presso na Faixa do Lrio. As condies de pico metamrfico
foram seguidas por uma fase de descompresso quase isotrmica.
x Idades de 530 Ma para monazitos milonticos, bem como estruturas de extenso topo noroeste, limitam uma fase renovada de extenso da crusta co-axial com o evento
anterior de compresso. Foram encontradas provas em campo da defleco de
estruturas de extenso e destas terem seccionado dobras do anterior evento de
compresso no sector oriental da Faixa do Lrio, bem como a norte deste,
especificamente na fronteira com a Tanznia.
x Granitos Pan-Africanos so vulgares e seguem orientaes estruturais especficas.
Complexos circulares intrudidos em granitos alcalinos dentro da Faixa do Lrio foram
atribudos Srie de Malema. A localizao destes complexos magmticos foi
provavelmente facilitada pelo adelgaamento geral da crusta iniciado a 530Ma.
x Zonas de cisalhamento sinistral com orientao nordeste-sudoeste a noroeste da Faixa
do Lrio registam idades Pan-Africanas entre 480-445 Ma. Interpretamos estas zonas
como sendo rampas laterais que definem as bordas ocidentais dos blocos deslocados
que acomodavam o adelgaamento geral da crusta.
2.4 Recursos minerais e seu potencial
Ouro: A Faixa de Ouro do Niassa (NGB = Niassa Gold Belt) a mais importante zona de
ocorrncia de Ouro da regio norte, onde, tem sido feita a minerao artesanal de ouro aluvial e
primrio em veios de quartzo desde 1990 ao longo do Lago Niassa, a partir da fronteira com a
Tanznia em direco a Cobu no Sul numa extenso de 90 km de comprimento na direco
norte-sul e at 25 km de largura na direco este-oeste. Calcula-se que a produo total de ouro
seja de 5-12 t/ano (Lchelt 2004). As reas mais importantes onde se realiza a extraco de
ouro incluem actualmente Caguru, Long Bay/Miazini, M'Papa, 0A e M'Popo (0D) na parte
norte da faixa.
O ouro primrio encontra-se em veios de quartzo situados em rochas
metassedimentares de baixo grau e diques mficos associados ao Grupo Neoproterozico de
Txitonga. Estes veios esto ligados a zonas de cisalhamento com orientao norte-sul a
nordeste-sudoeste provavelmente da idade Ordoviciana, relacionadas com a justaposio da
NGB como uma lasca tectnica extica contra a borda ocidental do da srie de rochas do
26
Complexo de Unango. A datao Re-Os das mineralizaes dos sulfuretos aponta para uma
idade preliminar de cerca de 483 Ma. As zonas produtivas dos campos aluviais tm 0,5 - 5 m
de espessura, sendo o teor de ouro do aluvio de 5-30 g/t. Regista-se o garimpo de ouro em
pequena escala ao longo de outros rios tais como: Rio Chimulicamuli, Rio Lugenda, Rio
Lureco.
Cobre e nquel-cobre: Pores finamente laminadas de metagrs, contendo abundante
malaquite disseminada e um extenso revestimento de malaquite (localmente azurite), foram
identificadas a 50 km a nordoeste de Marrupa na margem norte do Rio Lureco. A
mineralizao secundria do cobre (> 1 % Cu e ~100 g/t Ag) claramente derivada de
sulfuretos de cobre disseminados na rocha hospedeira. Esta rea deficientemente exposta deve
ser objecto de estudo mais aprofundado, especialmente porque esta mineralizao semelhante
existente na Faixa de Cobre da frica Central. Mineralizaes insignificantes de nquelcobre ocorrem em intruses mficas em vrios complexos que no representam um grande
potencial.
Ferro e ferro-titnio: um minrio macio de magnetite-ilmenite que aparece em rochas de
alto grau perto do Lago Niassa. Encontram-se lentes de ilmenite-magnetite em gnaisse
biottico finamente granulado, havendo pequenas colinas de quartzo-magnetite macio no
sudeste da rea estudada. Camadas finas e extensas de magnetite macia foram objecto de
investigao a norte do Rio Lrio na zona oriental da Provncia de Cabo Delgado.
Existem enriquecimentos de metais pesados, ilmenite, rutilo e zirco ao longo de toda a
costa, tanto em praias elicas como de areia, embora com maior frequncia na proximidade dos
rios principais. Nos depsitos de Murrubue, 20 km a sul de Pemba, a maioria dos metais
pesados ocorre em areia elica vermelha. As dunas de areia chegam a atingir 30 m de altura.
Iluka Resources investigou um pequeno corpo de alguns metros de espessura e 5-10% HM
como tendo um potencial de 10 Mt de minerais pesados .
Metais especiais: Observam-se vrias intruses alcalinas da idade do Neoproterozico, com
enriquecimento de metais especiais (REE, U, Ta e Nb) no Complexo de Unango na parte oeste
da Provncia de Niassa com destaque para o Monte Naumale, Monte Chissindo e Rio Lucuisse.
Os minerais mais comuns que contm minrio so pirocloro, columbite, zirco e
columbotantalite. De todos provavelmente o mais interessante o sienito do Monte Naumale,
no qual uma rocha Na-piroxeno-anfibolo contm em mdia cerca de 400 ppm U e Th, 1000
ppm Nb e 20-10.000 ppm de Ta. Foram registadas lentes de minrio com uma espessura de 1-4
m e comprimentos de at 100 m. Existe tambm um potencial de metais especiais em
pegamititos, mas necessrio que sejam documentadas as ocorrncias dos campos
pegmatticos das Provncias de Niassa e Cabo Delgado.
Grafite: Encontram-se mica-xistos e gnaisses contendo grafite em vrios complexos tectnicos
da Provncia de Cabo Delgado. Horizontes com vrios km de comprimento e 10-100 m de
espessura contm grafite com gros entre finos a grosseiros, geralmente com 5-20 % C. A
grafite de alta qualidade de uma maneira geral metamrfica, embora pequenos
enriquecimentos locais estejam relacionados com actividade tectnica. A mina de grafite de
Ancuabe, propriedade de Kenmare Resources PLC, esteve em operao entre 1994 e 1999,
tendo-se determinado uma reserva de 1 Mt de grafite com um grau de minrio de 10 %.
Tambm se encontram Gnaisses micaceos contendo grafite de gro mdio e bandas compostas
de grafite, biotite, quartzo e feldspato. Flocos mdios a grosseiros de grafite (de 3-8 mm) so
enriquecidos em bandas de 5-20 cm de espessura e lentes com acima de 2-3 m de espessura.
27
A sequncia contendo grafite apresenta uma foliao ondulante, quase plana, e parece cobrir o
topo de um antiforme aberto. Observa-se o enriquecimento local de grafite e o aumento da
espessura de faixas ricas em grafite em pequenas dobras e ao longo dos veios de Quartzo
observou-se uma Grafite de gro grosseiro.
Minerais carbonticos: H registo de mrmore e calcrio em diferentes sequncias da idade
Mezoproterozica e Mesozica. Mrmores Mesoproterozicos (a1100 Ma) de gro mdio a
grosseiro formam grande parte de vrios complexos da Provncia de Cabo Delgado. O
mrmore de calcite pura apenas representa pequena percentagem. Os mrmores apresentam em
geral dolomitizao varivel, como por exemplo o famoso mrmore de Montepuez, ou contm
puro mrmore dolomtico. Foi tambm observada na rego a ocorrncia de um fino horizonte
de magnesite. Actualmente produz-se cal em pequena escala apartir do calcrio do Grupo Geci
(590 Ma) na Provncia de Niassa.
Quartzo, quartzite: Alguns corpos de quartzo nas duas provncias podem representar uma fonte
potencial para a produo de slica. Devero realizar-se estudos detalhados da composio
qumica e qualidade destes recursos. Os quartzitos sienitcos podem ter grande valor como
fonte de quartzo puro. A anlise preliminar de uma amostra do depsito do Rio Levele, a 40
km a sudeste de Mavago, apresenta valores muito baixos da combinao Al+Ti+Li < 45 ppm.
Esta quartzite sientica tem vrios km de comprimento e mais de 30 m de espessura e contm
pequenas quantidades de muscovite, plagioclase, titanito, rutilo, zirco e lazulite.
Carvo: Os recursos de carvo mais extensos ocorrem no Supergrupo do Karoo na zona
sudoeste do Graben de Maniamba, a noroeste da Provncia de Niassa. Existem estimativas
destes recursos de at 224 Mt. Os veios, com 0,8-1 m de espessura, ocorrem no Grupo Ecca
(K2 e K4).
Pedra para construo: O depsito de pedra para construo mais importante desta rea
actualmente o mrmore existente a 4 km a norte de Montepuez, propriedade da Marmonte Lda.
A produo ultrapassou 1000 m3 em 1986, mas atinge actualmente (2004) apenas 50 m3/ano.
Os blocos so transportados para Pemba, onde a companhia produz lajes de trs qualidades:
branco, cinzento e a 3a composta de bandas brancas e cinzento. O mrmore apresenta-se
geralmente em camadas numa escala de decimetros a metros e localmente inclui pequenas
lentes ou faixas de anfibiolito. vulgar a ocorrncia em larga escala de dobras abertas a
apertadas. As faixas de cores que caracterizam este depsito tornam a rocha muito decorativa,
mas a sua granulao grosseira cria problemas no que se refere ao seu polimento. Existe grande
potencial para a explorao de outras rochas metamrficas e gneas para fins de construo.
H rochas macias e decorativas, no entanto, a explorao em larga escala depende
grandemente do desenvolvimento de infraestruturas e do potencial do mercado.
Pedras preciosas/semi-preciosas: H vrias pedras preciosas e semi-preciosas no nordeste de
Moambique, principalmente turmalina, gua marinha, granada, corundo, amazonite e quartzo
cristalino. Estas pedras encontram-se principalmente em veios granticos pegmatticos, embora
tambm se observem ocorrncias aluviais e eluviais. Marrupa, a sudeste de Mueda e Mirrote
so algumas das reas mais interessantes no que se refere a pegmatitos. Cristais de corundum
da cor de sangue de pomba, com cerca de 12 mm de comprimento e 20 mm de largura, podem
ser vistos em rocha de plagioclase-piroxeno-biotito xistosa, de gro grosseiro, a este de Chiure.
Kimberlito: Foram encontrados no sudoeste do Graben de Maniamba no fim da dcada de 70,
43 diques e 4 chamins kimberliticos que penetram nas rochas sedimentares do Karoo. Uma
28
das chamins tem cerca de 138 Ma. At ao momento ainda no se confirmou a existncia de
kimberlitos diamantferos. Com base na sua mineralogia, geoqumica total da rocha e nas
anlises de macrocristais e minerais da base cristalina, as amostras estudadas por este projecto
foram classificadas de kimberlitos macrocristalinos hipabissais do Grupo Ia. Esto indicadas
vrias ocorrncias adicionais de diques e chamins de kimberlitos nos dados magnticos areos
recentemente adquiridos. Recomenda-se a realizao de mais investigaes de toda a rea do
graben do Karoo, bem como do seu embasamento imediatamente adjacente. Foram descobertas
rochas parecidas com lamproitos no Complexo de Xixano. Essas rochas podem representar um
potencial de diamantes (como acontece no campo Argyle no W da Austrlia).
Hidrocarbonetos: Potenciais rochas-mes devero estar presentes na sequncia de sin-rift e
depsitos de gelo antigos em toda a Bacia do Rovuma, mas esto pouco documentadas.
Anlises das vrias infiltraes encontradas na bacia apontam para dois tipos de petrleo
distintos, o que prova a existncia de sistemas de petrleo activos, que devero ser derivados
de rochas-mes da idade Jurssica ou de idade mais antiga. A bacia contm vrios intervalos de
rochas reservatrio de boa qualidade. Os depsitos continentais de gelo mais recentes (prCretceo Inferior) encontrados onshore a noroeste da Bacia do Rovuma devero apresentar
ratios lquido-a-bruto na sua maioria baixas devido a diagnese, mas os clstos
contemporneos e os marinhos de guas pouco profundas para leste e sueste da bacia, devero
apresentar potencial de reservatrio entre razovel a bom, com reduo de porosidade entre
moderada a reduzida. A sucesso Aptiana-Albiana contm areias reservatrio de boa
qualidade.
Resumo do potencial dos recursos: O ouro da Faixa de Ouro do Niassa , do ponto de vista
econmico, o recurso mineral mais importante que se conhece hoje em dia no nordeste de
Moambique. Os kimberlitos do graben de Maniamba constituem grande potencial, se se
provar que so diamantferos. Minerais pesados como a grafite, cobre, metais especiais e
quartzo de grande pureza tambm podero ter grande interesse de ordem econmica, enquanto
os materiais de construo e as pedras preciosas so importantes localmente. Campos de
hidrocarbonetos economicamente viveis eventualmente descobertos na Bacia do Rovuma
podero pr na sombra os restantes recursos.
29
INTRODUCTION
3.1 Project background

The mining policy of the Government of Mozambique focuses on the promotion of private
investments to develop the mining sector, based on the favourable geological environment and
mining potential of the country. As part of this policy, the Ministry of Mineral Resources and
Energy (MIREME), through the National Directorate of Geology (DNG), established a
programme aimed at development of the geoscientific infrastructure of the country in support
of mining investment promotion, and the sustainable social and economic development of the
country. The programme is entitled the Mineral Resources Management Capacity Building
Project (MRMP): it is supported by the Ministry itself, the World Bank, the Nordic
Development Fund, the African Development Bank and the government of South Africa.
The MRMP consists of five components, one of which is entitled: Geological
Infrastructure. The availability of basic geological information is an important component
within this infrastructure: this is reflected within the structure of the component, which itself
consists of ten projects. Geological Mapping is one of the largest of the ten projects: it has
been designed so as to have professional interaction with two others, Airborne Geophysics
and Minerals Information System (MIS).
Geological Mapping aims at producing a new coverage of the whole country at a scale
of 1.250,000, with prioritised areas covered at 1:50,000. This project itself consists of four
main contracts and two extension contracts. The areas covered by the contracts are shown in
Figure 3.1. The contracts covering areas A, B, Bx and C were funded by the Nordic
Development Fund: the contract covering area Ax was funded by the World Bank and the
contract covering area D was funded by the government of South Africa. Significant parts of
most of these areas were covered with modern airborne geophysical measurements in two
contracts in the course of the MRMP. The MIS had a coordinating role in relation to the
format of the data collected and its storage.
This map description results from the Lot 1 and Lot 1 Extension contracts (areas A and
Ax respectively in Figure 3.1), which were implemented by a consortium consisting of
Norconsult International of Norway, as lead agency, the Geological Survey of Norway (NGU),
the British Geological Survey (BGS), Eteng Lda of Maputo as Mozambican partner, and
ProCaptura of Norway.
3.2
Historical Overview
The earliest work specifically on the geology of Mozambique was written in 1918 by
Arthur Holmes, but Holmes is, in this context, much better known for his landmark paper in
1951, in which he developed the concept of the Mozambique belt, a high-grade north-southtrending orogenic belt on the eastern margins of the Tanzania and Kalahari cratons. Holmes
(1951), as one of the pioneers of radiometric age dating, indicated an age of about 1,300 Ma
for the belt, on the basis of U-Pb dating of zircons. Subsequent geochronological data (Rb-Sr
and K-Ar) from the belt as a whole led Kennedy (1964) to the conclusion that the belt resulted
from a much younger orogeny, called the "Pan-African" at 500 600 Ma. Subsequent
developments in geochronology (see below) have led to a revised understanding of the abovementioned determinations but the concepts of the Mozambique belt and the Pan-African
Orogeny have stood the tests of later research in the region. Pinna et al. (1993), based on
fieldwork in northern Mozambique in the 1980s, concluded that the Mozambican belt in that
30
Figure 3.1:Regional
distribution of contracts within
the Geological Mapping
project.
region was the product of two orogenies, a high-grade Neoproterozoic orogeny, called the
Mozambican orogeny, which they believed occurred between 1,100 and 850 Ma, ending with
continent-continent collision, and a later, primarily tectonic Pan-African event.
Both concepts were provided with a new tectonic context by the understanding of plate
tectonics, which developed in the latter part of the 20th century, not least due to increasingly
sophisticated palaeomagnetic studies, including the work of Hoffman (1991), Meert (2002) and
Condie (2003), as well as numerous other papers cited by these authors. Most authors now
concur, in general, with the view expounded by Shackleton (1996), that the Pan-African event
involved the amalgamation of East and West Gondwana along the Mozambique belt, a locus
along which there was a precursor Mozambique Ocean, formed after the break-up of Rodinia
which began at about 850 Ma but which extended as a process until 600 Ma (Condie 2003). It
should be noted that Shackleton (op. cit.) indicated that the possible suture along which the
amalgamation took place trended north-south, just east of Lago Niassa.
3.3 Studies within Niassa, Cabo Delgado, Nampula and Zambezia Provinces
Previous geological studies in the project areas are of a limited extent, mainly focused on
mineral deposits. Regional geological reconnaissances have been carried out in two periods by
teams from the Bureau de Recherches Gologiques et Minires (BRGM), in the early 1970s
and a decade later. Teams from the former Soviet Union and other "Eastern block" states also
studied parts of the area, also in the 1980s. Much of this work is described in open-file reports
(e.g. Jourde and Wolff, 1974), not all of which are to be found in the archives of the National
Directorate of Geology (DNG) in Maputo. The BRGM work included extensive geophysical
and geochemical studies of prioritised mineralised areas and reconnaissance geological
mapping: the latter resulted in a series of compilations at 1.250,000, which are available at
DNG. Relatively detailed mapping was done in the southerb part of the area, around Alto
Ligonha by Costa et al. (1983).
The key publication, in which the understanding of the pre-Karoo geology based on
these studies is presented, is by Pinna et al. (1993). This work, which has also been
fundamental for all subsequent small-scale compilations of the geology of the area, presents a
synthesis of the geology north of 170 S and east of 340 E. It includes petrographic and chemical
31
data for an area of approximately 300,000 km2 and a significant number of radiometric ages,
mainly based on Rb-Sr data by the authors and by Jourde and Wolff (1974). The model
developed by Pinna et al. (1993) involves the following sequence of events:
x 1100 850 Ma: Massive plutonic activity, granulite facies metamorphism and nappe
tectonics in the Mozambican orogeny. The orogenic belt includes limited supracrustal
successions of marine provenance. The orogeny was considered to have a "migmatitic
foreland".
x 900 538 Ma: Deposition of metasediments, some units with a possible glacial affinity,
correlated with the Katangan Supergroup.
x ~550 Ma: Pan-African retrograde metamorphism and tectonics in an intra-continental
environment.
It is important to note that the model summarised above formed the basis for a
lithostratigraphic understanding, which was central to the manner in which this part of the
1.1,000,000 geological map of Mozambique (Pinna and Marteau 1987) and all subsequent
small-scale compilations (e.g. Lchelt 1993; Marques et al. 2000, Lchelt 2004) were
compiled. It is also a key element in various overviews of the geology of parts or the whole of
Mozambique (Lchelt and Daudi, 1999; Marques, 2002). A number of studies have contributed
to an understanding of the Karoo of the Maniamba Graben. These include Borges et al. (1953)
and more recently Verniers et al. (1989).
Soviet geologists (BIC) in the early 1980s subdivided the Carboniferous-Jurassic
sediments into Upper and Lower Karoo (Alekseev, 1983; Oberreuter and Pilale, 1998) and
mapped a coal seam in the Lower Karoo. Detailed work on the Maniamba Graben was carried
out by Verniers et al., (1989).
Mroz (1983) conducted more detailed follow-up studies of geophysical anomalies in
several areas regarded as having a potential for mineral resources. The kimberlites of the
Maniamba Graben were extensively studied, mainly by a Soviet team in the 1980s, as reported
by Oberreuter and Pilale (1998); Jakovenko et al., 1979; Karakoulov, 1983, Karakoulov,
1984).
Other teams from East European countries and France investigated most of the known
deposits of significance during the 1980s (e.g. Mroz (1982, 1983) and Brodoimpex (1985a) on
the rare metals of the Mt. Naumale syenite; Drozdov et al (1983) on the rare metals of the Mt.
Chissindo syenite; Stanev and Guergov (1984) on the Montepuez marbles; various authors,
including Bulgargeomin (1989) and Saranga (1997) have described graphite occurrences in the
area, but little has been published on the Ancuabe Mine, which was in operation until 1999 and
is now on care and maintenance. Extensive unpublished mapping of the gold-bearing regions
of the Niassa Supracrustal belt (now called Txitonga Group) was carried out by DNG between
1999 and 2001.
The work of Jamal (2005) is one of the most important contributions to understanding
the geology of the eastern part of the area described in this explanation. Jamal's thesis aims to
unravel the tectonics and geochronology of the southern part of Cabo Delgado Province. The
team have been given access to his geochronological data, most of which is unpublished: these
data are considered in detail in Chapter 11, Geochronology.
32
3.4 Regional studies from neighbouring countries

Reconnaissance level mapping at a scale of 1:100,000 has been carried out in most of southern
Tanzania but no documentation other than the maps themselves has been found. The level of
detail in the maps is such that they do not add to the understanding given by the BRGM maps
from south of the border. Bloomfield (1968) gives a thorough overview of the pre-Karoo
geology of Malawi: this and other studies of the geology of southern Malawi are valuable for
an understanding of the geology in the area along the Mozambican side of the border with
Malawi.
Numerous papers published within the last eight years have presented modern
geochronological data from areas, which are contiguous to northeastern Mozambique or which
are geologically relevant to our understanding of the area. A. Krner and S. Muhongo and coworkers have made major contributions (Krner et al. 1997; Krner, 2001; Krner et al. 2003;
Muhongo et al. 2001; Muhongo et al. 2003; Ring et al. 2002). Jamal et al. (1999) have
published U-Pb dates from the Lurio belt, which are compatible with the conclusions reached
by Krner, Muhongo and co-workers summarised below. Most of these studies involved the
use of precise methods for U-Pb dating of zircons, supplemented in some cases by Nd
geochronology. The results are well summarised by Muhongo et al. (2003): "The peak of highgrade metamorphism in northern Mozambique is now well constrained at ca. 615 ma, using
single zircon evaporation and SHRIMP techniques (Krner et al 1997). The same techniques
were used to provide zircon ages of ca. 571 541 Ma for the long-lasting high-grade
metamorphism in southern Malawi (Krner et al 2001a). Thus, we can today conclude, based
on the available isotopic data, that there is as yet no convincing evidence for Mesoproterozoic
(Kibaran) deformation and metamorphism in the Mozambique orogenic belt of East Africa."
This indicates that the lithostratigraphic models employed for northern Mozambique, at least
for the area north of the Lurio belt must be considerably revised. It could also be legitimately
concluded that erection of a lithostratigraphy in an area dominated by granulite facies
orthogneisses, in part highly deformed, on the basis of outdated geochronological methods,
was, at least, premature and, in fact, contrary to established principles for the use of
lithostratigraphic terminology.
Three recent papers have compiled geochronological and, in two cases, other data, from the
Mozambique belt:
x Krner (2001) considered U-Pb zircon and Nd data from Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi
and Madagascar, viewing the data in a plate-tectonic context. He considered that, with the
possible exception of northern Mozambique, there was "little evidence for the production
of significant volumes of ~1300 to ~1000 Ma (Kibaran or Grenvillian-age) continental
crust" in the Mozambique belt, nor could he see evidence of high-grade Kibaran
metamorphism. He concluded that the high-grade metamorphism was, as indicated above,
an exclusively Pan-African event. Krner considered that the Mozambique belt formed, not
through a simple collision between East and West Gondwana, but by the accretion of
several crustal blocks.
x Grantham et al. (2003), considered geochronological, petrological and structural data from
Tanzania, Mozambique, Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka, Natal and Dronning Maud Land
(juxtaposed in Gondwana): these authors reached conclusions similar to those of Krner
(2001) as regards the development of the crust in northern Mozambique, but concluded that
there was sound evidence for crustal genesis through calc-alkaline magmatism in the
Kibaran.
x Meert (2003) described plate-tectonic processes on a larger scale than the above authors,
with the additional element of paleomagnetic data. His conclusions place northern
33
Mozambique at the intersection of the "East African Orogen", formed in the period ~750
620 Ma due to continent-continent collision between, in effect, crustal blocks belonging to
what became East and West Gondwana, and a later "Kuunga Orogeny" formed due to the
collision of the above plate with Australia, East Antarctica and the Kalahari Craton.
3.5 Overviews of the mineral resources in the region
A number of published and unpublished works describe the mineral resources of the region and
their potential. These include: Gold deposits in Mozambique (Hunting Geology and
Geophysics Ltd., 1988a), Rare metal and rare earth deposits in Mozambique (Hunting Geology
and Geophysics Ltd., 1988b), Notica explicative de carta de jazigos e ocorrncias minerais de
Moambique. 1:1,000,000. (Lchelt, 1988), Industrial minerals of Mozambique. (Clek, 1989),
Noticia explicative da carta de jazigos e ocorrncias de minerais no metalcos. (Ledder, 1987),
Recursos minerais da Republica de Moambique. (Afonso and Marques, 1998), Mining
Journal Country Supplement, Mozambique (Mining Journal, 2000), Mineral Resources
Development and Investment Opportunities. (Ministry of Mineral Resources and Energy of
Mozambique, 2000), Diamonds in Mozambique, Potential Areas. (Ministry of Mineral
Resources and Energy of Mozambique, 2000), Mineral resources potential of Mozambique.
(Marques, 2002) and The Geology and Mineral Resources of Mozambique (Lchelt 2004).
These sources document the presence of a wide range of mineral resources of which
perhaps the most important are the gold mineralisations in the Niassa Gold Belt, a range of
special metals in alkaline intrusions in Niassa Province, the heavy-mineral sands (ilmenite,
rutile and zircon) on the coast of Cabo Delgado Province, and graphite mineralisations and the
Montepuez marbles in Cabo Delgado Province. Active exploitation of these resources was
confined, in the period of our fieldwork, to artisanal gold mining in the Niassa Gold Belt and
quarrying of marble as dimension stone in the Montepuez area. In addition to these deposits,
the existence of kimberlites in the Maniamba Graben in Niassa Province has been well
documented and a new phase of assessment of the hydrocarbon potential of the Rovuma Basin
is about to commence.
The reconnaissance nature of the project reported herein has not permitted detailed
study of the mineralizations on which data has been collected. With this proviso, the project
has had the aim of discovering new deposits or deposit-types wherever possible, and of
creating a new understand of the geological framework in which these are found. This can
contribute to an assessment of the mineral potential of the area. The following could be
considered to be key topics:
x The lithostratigraphic framework of the Rovuma Basin as an aid in assessment of its
hydrocarbon potential.
x The geological framework for the gold mineralisations in the Niassa Gold Belt.
x Further data on the kimberlites of the Maniamba Graben and on the potential for new
discoveries of kimberlites.
3.6 Critical questions on the geology of the region

Preparatory work led to the definition of a number of questions, which could be asked on the
basis of prior work. Some of the most important are:
x What is the significance of the Mozambican Orogeny in terms of crustal genesis and
metamorphism?
x What is the nature of the Pan-African Orogeny in terms of crustal genesis, structural
development and metamorphism?
34
x Can we see evidence for the Kunga Orogeny as defined by Meert (2003)?
x What is the significance of the Lurio belt? Is it related to a separate orogenic event?
x To what extent is it possible to define lithostratigraphical relationships between the major
units in the region?
x Can a reconnaissance study of this kind contribute to real progress in an assessment of the
mineral potential of the region?
This explanation is based on a large volume of new data and on re-interpretation of existing
data. The new data include:
x Approximately 15,000 field observations.
x Petrographic data from ~1, 565 thin sections (of which 350 from other projects).
x Over 550 rock analyses for both major and trace elements.
x Over 1,800 mineral analyses.
x Over 60 high-quality radiometric dates.
These data allow us to answer some of the above questions and bring us closer to an answer to
the others.
35
GEOGRAPHY OF THE REGION
4.1 Physical geography

The physiography of Niassa Province is dominated by the Planalto de Lichinga, a high plateau,
which is bounded on the west by an abrupt block-faulted escarpment along Lago Niassa. The
lake lies at ca. 470 m.a.s.l. and the plateau, in the Lichinga area, at between 1,000 and 1,200
m.a.s.l. In a very general sense the mean level of the highland falls to both the north to the
border with Tanzania and to the east, to levels of 500 700 m.a.s.l. Numerous peaks rise above
the plateau, the highest being Monte Txitonga (1,848 m.a.s.l.) in the far northwest of the
province but there are numerous peaks at over 1,500 m.a.s.l., especially in the area north of
Chiconono. There are, even in the areas with gentle topography, occasional inselbergs, usually
related to geological features, such as Monte Unango, which forms an isolated peak rising 600
m above the surrounding area to a height of 1,578 m.a.s.l. The extensive areas of Karoo rocks
in the Maniamba Graben are topographically quite featureless.
The hills and plateau extend eastwards from Niassa into Cabo Delgado Province,
broken by the flood plain of the major rivers, the Rio Lugenda, Rio Messalo and Rio Lurio, up
to the coastal plain, which is underlain by the Mesozoic-Cenozoic rocks of the Rovuma Basin
(see Chapter 6.21). Much of the westernmost part of Nampula Province, which is covered in
this explanation, has a rugged topography, dominated by steep-sided mountains with little or
no vegetation. The area along the border with Malawi, in the western part of Zambesia
Province is characterised by low-lying topography associated with the flood plains of major
rivers, and with the lakes in the Rift Valley. The plains are broken by inselbergs.
The watershed between Lago Niassa and the Indian Ocean lies, for most of its length,
within 20-40 km of Lago Niassa (see Figure 4.1). Most of the drainage in the region is towards
the Rio Rovuma, which forms the border between Mozambique and Tanzania, except for the
westernmost 50 km. Among the major tributaries, which flow northeastwards to the Rio
Rovuma are the Rio Lucheringo, which rises close to Lichinga, and the Rio Lugenda, the
headwaters of which are on the border with Malawi south-southeast of Lichinga. The extent to
which the major rivers are navigable, e.g. by canoe or rubber boat, probably varies from year to
year, but both the Rovuma and Lugenda were still navigable by canoe for long stretches
towards the end of the dry season in 2003. The only rivers in Cabo Delgado which have a
regular flow through the dry season are the Rio Lugenda on the border with Niassa Province
and the Rio Lurio, on the border with Nampula Province: both of these rivers have catchments
which extend to the westernmost part of this region.
The mean monthly temperatures in Lichinga vary from minima of < 100 C and maxima
of > 24 C in the winter months of June August, to minima of < 150 C in December April
and maxima of > 280 C in October December. The mean monthly temperatures in Pemba
vary from minima of < 200 C and maxima of > 270 C in the winter months of June August, to
minima of c. 230 C and maxima of > 300 C in December March. The peak of the rainy
season, lasts from December to March throughout the area, with > 200 mm/month in Lichinga
and 100 - 200 mm/month in Pemba. The period in which fieldwork is practical is thus from
May to October. In the first months of this period elephant grass is a practical hindrance to
field operations, not least as it conceals outcrop, but also because it makes walking more timeconsuming. In the latter part of the period local practice is to burn extensive areas of
vegetation, thus revealing outcrops: this makes walking much easier, but occasionally there
were hazardous bush fires.
0
36
Figure 4.1: Map of northeastern Mozambique, showing the different districts: the total Lot 1
area is north and west of the red line.
4.2 Communications and infrastructure
Modern regional maps, such as that of the three northernmost provinces issued by DINAGECA
(1999) at a scale of 1.1,000,000, give a misleading impression of the road network in the
province. This applies to both the quality of the roads and, in some areas, to their location.
Major improvements were made to several of the main roads during the lifetime of this project
and this work is undoubtedly continuing. The main road east from Lichinga to Pemba via
Marrupa was being developed to year-round quality during 2004 and 2005. The main road
from Cuamba to Nampula was still, at the close of our fieldwork in 2005, of very poor
standard.
The main roads leading northwards from Lichinga to Maniamba, to the Tanzanian border
via Unango and Macaloge and via Mavago, and to the Malawian border via Massangulo and
Mandimba are mainly of good quality and did not (in 2003) require the use of 4 x 4 vehicles.
This also applies to the road from Metangula to Cobu, except for the last 20-30 km. The
quality of the main road from Mavago to Matondovela is highly variable, and requires the use
of 4 x 4 vehicles due to missing bridges northeast of M'Sawize. The Niassa Wildlife Reserve
has a good network of roads, most of which do not require 4 x 4 vehicles. The standard of
roads at all levels is generally higher in Cabo Delgado than in Niassa, presumably due to the
greater population density and demand There are extensive networks of tracks, many of them
37
driveable with a 4 x 4 vehicle, in areas in which there is extensive agriculture and, in parts of
Cabo Delgado, where there have been extensive lumber operations.
The area has major airports at Lichinga and Pemba, served by regular routes to/from
Maputo and Nampula, and, in the case of Pemba, to/from Dar-es-Salaam: the airfield at
Cuamba also has scheduled services to/from Nampula. There are also numerous airstrips,
which can be used by small aircraft and helicopters. The team's experience in using a
helicopter for access to remote areas in October 2003 and late September 2004 indicates that it
is it is possible to visit all but the most densely forested or rugged areas with the aid of a
helicopter in the latter part of the dry season.
4.3 Topographic maps
Northern Mozambique is covered by topographic maps at scales of 1:250,000 and 1:50,000
(the latter exist only west of 360 E for all sheets except one south of 140 S). Maps at 1:50,000
scale are available in digital format west of 360 E and north of 140 S. The 1:250,000 scale maps
are of variable quality. Most of the sheets have been issued within the last six years but appear
to have incorporated data, which is not reliable. The sheets west of 360 E are of a higher quality
than those to the east. The digital 1:50,000 sheets are of good quality in most respects but are
not well georeferenced and several names are misplaced. Certain of the 1:250,000 sheets, e.g.
1235 Mavago, have serious deficiencies. These include:
x "Main" roads that no longer exist as such.
x Roads that do exist are not shown.
x Major centres of population misplaced by 20-30 km (e.g. Mavago and M'Sawize).
x Other centres of population not shown.
38
METHODOLOGIES AND PROCEDURES
5.1 Existing data sets

5.1.1 Topographic base maps
Digital 1:250,000 topographic maps were created, using the 1:250,000 paper topographic
maps. Once digitised, the maps were "rubber-sheeted" to match ortho-rectified Landsat 5
imagery (see next section). The "rubber-sheeting" was accomplished by matching the drainage
network with that visible in the Landsat scenes. The assumption was then made that all themes
in the topographic maps were properly aligned with each other, and therefore could be warped
in the same manner. In some cases, obvious offsets between the themes were corrected before
the maps were warped. In a few instances, obvious errors in the topographic curves were
corrected after the warping (i.e. misplaced mountains).
5.1.2 Remote sensing
Landsat 7 imagery supplied by CENACARTA was georeferenced using existing topographic
data. Since these data were of poor quality, the Landsat 7 scenes had spatial errors and did not
align with each other with sufficient accuracy. Ortho-rectified Landsat 5 imagery, processed by
Earth Satellite Corporation, was downloaded from the Global Land Cover Facility at the
University of Maryland: (http://www.landcover.org/index.shtml). The Landsat 7 imagery was
then warped to match the Landsat 5 imagery. Several mosaics covering the whole area were
created using different band combinations. Landsat 5 data was used where the Landsat 7 scenes
had dense cloud cover. In addition, Landsat 5 was used in the area where Landsat 7 data was
not supplied.
A digital, regional interpretation was carried out at a scale of 1:750,000, identifying all
visible major contacts, faults, folds and foliation trends. This interpretation was later calibrated
against geophysical data. Further interpretation was carried out at a scale of 1:250,000. This
was an interactive process in which interpretations of the geophysical data sets and existing
geological maps were used to create a new interpretation of each 1:250,000 sheet (in digital
form).
5.1.3 Potential field data
The coverage of geophysical data in the area covered here includes a compilation of older,
high-altitude data covering the whole area, and recent high-density aeromagnetic and
radiometric data covering > 50% of the project area, received late in 2005 (Figure 5.1). A
regional-scale (1:750,000) interpretation map of the older data set included: Areas with banded
anomaly patterns (reflecting supracrustal rocks), with irregular anomaly patterns (intrusives
and orthogneisses), discordant, linear magnetic anomalies (reflecting dykes) and offsets in the
anomaly pattern (shear zones and faults). Interpretation continued at 1:250,000 scale in an
interactive process in which the above interpretations were being used with other data sets to
create a new interpretation of each 1:250,000 sheet.
A systematic interpretation of the new data sets (see Report B3 and Chapter 8) has been
used in reinterpretation and finalisation of the bedrock maps. The data covering the Maniamba
Graben have been interpreted with the particular aims of elucidating the structure and depth of
the graben and of defining anomalies, which could be due to previously undiscovered
kimberlites (see Chapters 8 and 14).
39
Figure 5.1: Map showing the extent of new airborne radiometric and aeromagnetic coverage
in the Lot 1 and Lot 1 Extension areas (blocks 4, 5, 6, B and a small part of A).The older
aeromagnetic data are shown by the colour shading.
5.1.4 Geological and structural interpretation
All pre-existing 1:250,000 scale maps obtained were digitalised. In order to facilitate digital
manipulation of the maps the original codes for the lithological units (which involve both
Greek and Latin alphabets, super- and subscripts) were replaced by purely numerical codes.
These tasks were necessary steps in achieving full utilisation and assessment of the pre-existing
1:250,000 scale geological maps in a digital environment. The availability of these maps as a
"product" is very much a by-product, involving minimal marginal effort.
Based on the above-mentioned individual interpretations of the satellite imagery,
geophysical data and existing maps at 1:250,000 and 1:1,000,000 scales, the team prepared
detailed integrated interpretations at 1:250,000 scale, involving practitioners with skills in the
separate fields working together, with hard copies, and then at computer screens.
40
5.1.5 Mineral resource maps

The basis for the compilation of the mineral resource database was a partial database supplied
by the Council for Geoscience (CGS) of S. Africa, an unpublished manuscript by Marques
(2002) and sources listed in Chapter 3. Additional information has been compiled from several
national maps and in publications including: Metallogenetic map of Mozambique, scale.
1:1,000,000 (Lchelt 1993), Non-metallic deposits and occurrences in Mozambique, scale
1:1,000,000 (Ledder et al. 1993) and Map of mineral deposits and occurrences in Mozambique,
scale 1:1,000,000 (Marques et al. 2000).
5.2 Fieldwork
Fieldwork in the Lot 1 area (A on Figure 3.1) was carried out in five periods, the first two, in
the western part of Niassa province in 2003, and the last, in the eastern part of Cabo Delgado
Province, in September-October 2005. Helicopters were used for access to remote areas in
northern parts of Niassa Province in two brief periods in October 2003 and October-September
2004. Fieldwork in the Lot 1 Extension area (Ax on Figure 3.1) was carried out in two periods,
July-August in 2004 (the southwesternmost area) and June-July in 2005 (the two eastern
sheets). The total length of the field periods in the Lot 1 area was 29 weeks and in the Lot 1
extension area 12 weeks. Practical aspects of the implementation of the fieldwork are
considered in more detail in the Project Finalisation Report.
5.3 Sample and data processing
Most of the thin sections were prepared at the Geological Survey of Norway (NGU), at which
most of the geochemical analyses and much of the mineralogical and geochronological work
was also carried out. Numerous laboratories have been involved in other tasks, many of them
of a specialist nature. These include:
x
SINTEF Petroleum Research, Trondheim (palynology)
x
Institute for Geosciences, University of Oslo (microprobe analyses)
x
ACME Analytical Laboratories (ICP-ES analysis of 30 trace elements, including noble
metals, in selected, sulphide-bearing samples)
x
NORDSIM Laboratory. Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm (SIMS
analysis of U-Pb in zircons)
x
Curtin University of Technology, Perth (SHRIMP analysis of U-Pb in zircons)
x
Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre, Glasgow (O-, C-isotope analyses
of carbonates)
x
Institute of Precambrian Geology and Geochronology, Russian Academy of Sciences,
St. Petersburg (Rb-, Sr-isotope analyses of carbonates)
x
AIRIE Program, Colorado State University, Boulder (Re-Os dating of sulphides)
All the analytical methods are described in Appendix 1.
5.4 Map compilation
The main lithologies have been determined from field observations, petrographical and
geochemical analysis, geophysical and satellite data. The lines to subdivide the different
lithologies and tectonic units have been digitised as shapefiles on the computer screen by use
of ArcGIS 9.1 with all the necessary background materials as satellite images, observation
points, topographic maps and geophysical data to adjust the geological boundaries in the most
appropriate way. The shapefiles have been imported to polygonal coverages, and the polygons
have been coded according to the different lithologies. The lines have been given codes
showing whether they represent normal geological boundaries, brittle or ductile faults or thin
dykes. The structural observations have been extracted from the geological database for
observation points and imported as point coverage before being plotted on the maps. To
41
improve readability only 25% of the structural observations have been shown, and thus the
'Observation points' include observation points both with and without structural data.
Mineral resource data have been extracted from the mineral resource database, and
individual deposits are numbered from 1 to n when plotted on each sheet compilation. Tables
with analytical data from key deposits are shown in Chapter 13, Mineral resources. Separate
maps highlighting areas of perceived resource potential has been produced.
42
6
6.1
LITHODEMIC AND LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNITS

Introduction
6.1.1 Overview of the geology

This sub-chapter will provide an overview of the geology described in the remainder of the
chapter and the reasoning behind the terminology followed. The overview, inevitably, gives a
premature glimpse of some of the main conclusions of the explanation as a whole, but this is
necessary as a basis for justifying the terminology adopted.
Figure 6.1: Overview of the main geological units in northeastern Mozambique.

The Proterozoic rocks are divided into a number of gneiss complexes on the basis of
their lithologies, metamorphic grade, structures, tectonic relationships and ages (Figure 6.1).
Permo-Jurassic Karoo sediments (mainly in the northwest), and the Jurassic-Neogene
sediments of the Rovuma Basin in the east overlie the gneiss complexes. Pan-African alkaline
intrusions of the Niassa Suite are present in a northwest-southeast-trending belt south and west
of Lichinga, especially intruding the Unango Complex, whereas intrusions of the Malema and
Murrupula Suites occur in northeast-southwest-trending belts east of Cuamba. The gneiss
43
complexes range from Palaeo- to Neoproterozoic in age, and were juxtaposed along tectonic
contacts during the Pan-African Orogeny.
Table 6.1 Overview of the Proterozoic units in northern Mozambique. The Karoo sediments
and Jurassic-Neogene sediments of the Rovuma Basin overly the gneiss complexes
unconformably. Tectonic boundaries are shown by the saw-tooth lines.
The major lithologies of, and tectonic relationships between the complexes are shown
in Table 6.1. Many of the complexes are lithologically diverse, containing both various ortho-
44
and paragneisses. The Nampula, Marrupa, Nairoto and Meluco Complexes are dominated by
orthogneisses of felsic to intermediate compositions. Granulitic rocks, including charnockites,
occur in the Unango, M'Sawize, Xixano and the Ocua Complexes. The Ocua Complex consists
mainly of the former Lurio Supergroup (Pinna et al., 1993). The Neoproterozoic Geci and
Txitonga Groups are dominated by metasupracrustal rocks. All the complexes lying
tectonostratigraphically below the Txitonga and Geci Groups have been exposed to
amphibolite- or granulite-facies metamorphism (and retrogression therefrom) and, in many
cases, regionally extensive migmatisation. Metamorphic processes and the complicated
polyphase structural development of the complexes have obliterated most of the primary
lithostratigraphic relationships.
6.1.2 Terminology
The terminology employed in this and subsequent chapters is based on the nature of the
geology of the area mapped, as summarised above, and on an understanding of the definitions
contained in: The Mozambique Code of Stratigraphic Terminology and Nomenclature, First
Edition 2001 (Preliminary), which is Annex A.2 of the contract on which this work is based.
The code is based on the recommendations of the International Subcommission on
Stratigraphic Classification (ISSC) of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) of
the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS).
Key text sections and definitions of relevance to the terminology followed in this
explanation include: " In order of increasing rank, bed, member, formation and group
constitute the basic hierarchy of formal lithostratigraphic units used for sedimentary, volcanic
and metamorphic rocks displaying original sedimentary/volcanic layering. These rank terms
should not, however, be applied to intrusive igneous rock units, or to high-grade metamorphic
units whose relationship to the original stratification is uncertain due to extensive deformation
and/or recrystallization. The names of the fundamental stratigraphic units (equivalent to
formation) in such rocks normally comprise a geographic name and a lithological designation,
without a rank term, with suite or complex being used for larger, composite units." The
complex metamorphic and structural development of most of the regional-scale geological
units in the area described in this explanation, necessitates the use of the terms "suite" and
"complex" as no "relationship to the original stratification" is preserved.
"Complex" is defined as follows: "A complex is characterized by structural complexity
and/or lithological diversity. It may embrace various kinds of lithostratigraphic units (group,
suite, etc.). Adjoining metamorphic complexes are distinguished from each other by structural
discontinuities and/or changes in tectonic style, metamorphic grade, etc. Igneous complexes
comprise assemblages of genetically related intrusive rock units of diverse composition, with
or without a complicated structure." All the regional-scale units lying tectonostratigraphically
below the Txitonga and Geci Groups are characterized by "structural complexity and
lithological diversity" and, in all cases also by a complex metamorphic history. In most of the
units the structural and metamorphic development is polyphase, involving penetrative changes
in the character of the rocks in several episodes, separated by periods of time of the order of
tens to hundreds of millions of years. The term "complex" has thus been used as a collective
term for units, which have a common metamorphic and structural history, and which, in many
cases, have shared lithological features. Many of the complexes include metamorphic rocks of
both igneous and sedimentary parentage, in some cases also metavolcanic rocks. The degree of
metamorphism, often involving migmatisation, has, in many units, been such as to make it very
difficult to distinguish between, e.g. granitic orthogneiss and quartzofeldspathic paragneiss
45
resulting from metamorphism of sediment derived from weathering of granite. In most, if not
all cases there are clear discontinuities between contiguous complexes.
"Suite" is defined as follows: "A suite comprises (1) two or more related, named
intrusive igneous rock units or metamorphic units which have significant lithological features
in common, or (2) an igneous or metamorphic unit which consists of several (related) rock
types and which cannot therefore be satisfactorily named using a single lithological
designation." "Suite" has been used as a collective term for broadly coeval mappable intrusions
within the metamorphic complexes.
6.2
Ponta Messuli Complex
6.2.1 Introduction
The Ponta Messuli Complex is found along the shore of Lago Niassa: It is named after a
headland at approximately 11o 54' S, which is also the name of the 1:250,000 sheet on which
the northern part of the Complex is exposed.. The unit consists of a variety of rocks; some of
them unique in the region. The northern areas are occupied by migmatitic gneiss of
supracrustal origin that contains cordierite and sillimanite, a mineral assemblage not seen
elsewhere in the region. The Ponta Messuli Complex has been shown to be the oldest unit in
the region, giving a Palaeoproterozic metamorphic age (1,95 Ga), and containing detrital
zircons with a minimum age of 207411 Ma. Sm/Nd model ages also indicate that Archaean
material has been involved in the formation of the complex (see Chapter 11.4). The Txitonga
Group, to the east, has a thrust contact with the Complex. Previous authors (Pinna et al., 1993;
Lchelt 2004) assigned the Ponta Messuli Complex and the Txitonga Group to the Cobu
Group. The Ponta Messuli Complex has been defined as such in this explanation because the
new geochronological data has revealed that it is much older than the rocks of the Txitonga
Group. Txitonga Group rocks surround the village of Cobu so the: the name is thus not
appropriate for the Ponta Messuli Complex.
The Ponta Messuli Complex outcrops on 1:250,000 sheet 1134 Ponta Messuli and on
the northernmost part of sheet 1234 Metangula. The southern part of the Ponta Messuli
Complex is dominated by augen gneiss. Augen gneiss, apparently of the same type, is also
found in the Metangula area. From fieldwork and petrographic examination it is not therefore
obvious where the boundary between the Ponta Messuli and the Unango Complexes should be
drawn. We have chosen to include all high-grade gneisses west of the Maniamba Graben in the
Ponta Messuli Complex and the gneisses south of the graben in the Unango Complex. This is
supported by geophysical data, which shows that there is a high magnetic anomaly along the
coast of Lago Niassa up to the Maniamba Graben. The magnetic data shows that the Unango
Complex can be traced far under the Karoo sedimentary rocks from the south. In the central
part of the graben no magnetic anomalies can be seen, indicating that there could be a break in
the basement there.
6.2.2 Migmatitic gneiss (<2074+11 Ma, U-Pb, detrital zircon)(Unit P1Pmg)
Migmatitic gneisses occur in two separate areas:
x Northern area located between Lago Niassa and the Txitonga group from ~10 km north of
Cobu to the Tanzanian border; a distance of ~50km.
x Southern area, east of Ponta Ngoo.
Access to the inland part of this unit is difficult, but it is well exposed along the shore of the
lake. There is much variation in appearance on a local scale but it has not been possible to split
the migmatites into different units, which can be considered mappable at 1:250,000. This rock
46
makes up most of the northern part of the Ponta Messuli Complex. The exact contact to the
Txitonga Group to the east is never observed but is certainly tectonic, and is interpreted as a
thrust. Late, brittle faulting along this contact is indicated by brecciated gneiss observed in the
northern east-west traverse (UTM 36S 717859, 8710570).
The gneiss generally has a strongly migmatitic appearance, with a red neosome in a
grey paleosome (Figure 6.2). The neosome can, over much of the outcrop, make up >50% of
the rock and is normally characterised by an irregular pattern. In some areas migmatitic veining
is so intense as to give an impression of a granitic rock. There has been at least one phase of
folding after the migmatisation. In addition, the whole area along Lago Niassa seems to have
been affected by late shearing and faulting related to the formation of the Maniamba graben
and the later East African rifting.
Figure 6.2: Typical migmatitic gneiss with

many small garnets UTM 36S 714131,
8713701, sheet 1134 Ponta Messuli.
Figure 6.3: Migmatitic gneiss with large

poikiloblastic garnets (under the pencil).
UTM 36S 706501, 8677394, sheet 1134
Ponta Messuli.
The intense migmatisation and strong shearing have made it difficult to interpret the
origin of the rock, but most of the migmatitic gneiss seems to be of supracrustal origin. The
quartz content can be up to 80% but generally varies from 30 to 60%. Garnet is found over the
whole unit. Poikiloblastic garnets up to 5 cm across can be found (Figure 6.3), but more
commonly the rock contains many small pink garnets from less than 1mm to 5mm across. One
sample has a garnet content of 30% (Sample 31761, UTM 36S 710179 8688110). In the
gneisses there are many bands and lenses on a scale of a few metres of amphibolite that may be
of volcanic origin.
Examination of thin sections shows that the metamorphic grade in the gneisses reached
granulite facies (see Chapter 7). In addition to garnet there is up to 20% cordierite, and 10%
sillimanite in some sections (e.g. Figure 6.4). The rock also contains spinel with strong green
colour that seems to be of metamorphic origin. Magnetite is present locally, in amounts up to
5%. The contents of quartz, plagioclase and microcline are highly variable due to
migmatisation. Up to 60% microcline is present, but seems mainly to have been formed during
the migmatisation. Plagioclase occurs up to 20%. Biotite and chlorite formed at a later stage in
small amounts. Detrital zircon is quite common (Figure 6.5) and yields Palaeoproterozoic ages
(see Chapter 11.4).
All the rocks in this area are strongly sericitised. The sericite occurs partly as
aggregates along the grain boundaries, but also replacing other mineral grains, especially the
47
feldspars. The original grain boundaries can therefore sometimes be seen only as a ghost
texture. Some of this highly sericitised rocks seems to be rather rich in feldspar, so part of the
migmatites could therefore be of magmatic origin. The migmatite is intruded by later granite
(Unit P2gra)(see Chapter 6.2.8), and there is also a small outcrop of gabbro (P1Pgb).
Figure 6.4: Sillimanite (strong blue and

yellow colours) with garnets, magnetite,
spinel, quartz and K-feldspar. Field of
view: 9 x 5.5mm. Sample 31874 (UTM 36S
714350, 8718577, sheet 1134 Ponta
Messuli).
Figure 6.5: Radioactive halo round

detrital zircon in cordierite. Field of
view: 0.4 x 0.3 mm. Sample 31876 (UTM
36S 714299, 8708675, sheet 1134 Ponta
Messuli).
Migmatitic gneiss also covers a coastal section of 12-13 km around Ponta Ngoo. This
unit has two generations of neosome with quartz and feldspar in otherwise fine-grained
muscovite-rich biotite gneiss. It bears a strong resemblance to the unit further north along the
coast, which is described above. Within this unit there are small lenses of talc/soapstone and
anthophyllite rock (Unit P1Ptc), that are thought to represent altered magmatic rocks, as well as
bands and lenses of mafic rocks of more varied composition.
Fault blocks mark the southernmost contact of the migmatitic gneiss unit towards the
Karoo sedimentary rocks. These structures are well exposed along the Rio Litoche, east of
Ponta Ngoo (around UTM 36S 688500, 8620500). Below tilted blocks of conglomerates of the
Karoo there is a unit of strongly silicified quartzite, which is fractured and brecciated. The
fractures are filled with crystalline quartz, showing that they were open during mineralisation.
Exactly the same features, with tilted fault blocks of the Karoo sedimentary rocks and quartzfilled silicified rock, are present at the northern contact of the gneiss window on sheet 1134
(Lupilichi) (approximate coordinates: UTM 36S 801130, 8712250). At one locality (UTM 36S
689384, 8620172) the contact between the lower Karoo represented by brecciated
conglomerate and underlying gneisses is exposed (Figure 6.6). The white staining of the
gneisses is a recent phenomenon and there is no sub-Karoo alteration of the gneisses.
6.2.3 Quartz-mica schist (Unit P1Pqm)
Quartz-mica schist occurs as lenses in the augen gneiss. The lenses occur at many scales and
only the largest are marked on the map. The schist always appears to occur along zones of high
strain in the augen gneiss. The lenses are interpreted as xenoliths, but could also be tectonic
lenses of the Txitonga Group. The schist has many similarities with the schist in the Txitonga
Group but in general it is more plane foliated and quartz rich. The main constituents are quartz,
feldspar and sericite. The rock is grey-white, fine-grained and the muscovite occurs normally
48
as small lustrous sericite grains rather than in bigger grains as in the schist in the Txitonga
Group.
Figure 6.6: Exposed contact between brecciated conglomerate of Karoo and underlying
gneisses. (UTM 36S 689384, 8620172, sheet 1234 Metangula).
6.2.4 Amphibolite (Unit P1Pam)
Amphibolitic lenses are found both in the migmatitic gneiss (Unit P1Pmg) and the augen gneiss
(Unit P1Pag). They appear at all scales, and only a few are large enough to be represented on
the maps. It is not clear whether they represent later intrusions or are xenoliths. Some
amphibolitic lenses in the migmatitic gneisses have been interpreted as layers of volcanic rock.
Many of the lenses shown on the map were based on the DNG mapping in the Ponta
Ngoo area (Saranga 2001). Twenty analyses of the amphibolites in this area show a rather
uniform pattern with SiO2 contents of 51-58%, indicating that most of the amphibolites have an
intermediate rather than a basic composition. Thin sections show hornblende, plagioclase and
quartz, with some biotite and magnetite. Some of the hornblende is altered to chlorite.
6.2.5 Talc schist (Unit P1Ptc)
Within the unit of migmatitic gneiss (Unit P1Pmg) there are two small lenses of soapstone/talc
schist of which the southernmost is associated with a lens of anthophyllite rock. They are
altered magmatic rocks. The soapstone has, in both localities, been used locally as a dimension
stone, e.g. in tombstones (Figure 6.7).
The anthophyllite rock (Figure 6.8) consists of 1-3 cm long greyish-green needles in
sheaf-like aggregates, with minor amounts of chlorite, and trace amounts of talc. The rock is
found in scattered boulders over an area of several tens of square meters.
49
Figure 6.7: Soapstone quarry southeast of Ponta Ngoo (UTM 36S 686396, 8619672, sheet
1234 Metangula).
Figure 6.8: Nematoblastic, fibrous anthophyllite and lesser chlorite in a lens of ultramafic
rock. Field of view: 4.4x5.4 mm. Sample 31824 (UTM 36S 686270, 8619146, sheet 1234
Metangula).
6.2.6 Augen gneiss (Unit P1Pag)
Augen gneiss dominates the Ponta Messuli Complex south of Cobu. It is well exposed along
the shore of Lago Niassa from the Mchenga Nkwiche Lodge (UTM 36S 685600 8649750) to
Limbu and also in inland profiles. The augen gneiss occurs mainly west of the Txitonga
Group and the contact to the group is interpreted to be a thrust, similar to the one along the
migmatite gneiss (Unit P1Pmg). The augen gneiss also occurs east of the Txitonga Group.
The augen gneiss is quite variable. In its most extreme variety, it can have >50% augen
up to 5cm across. In other areas it is strongly sheared and the augen are reduced to mm-sized
50
grains so the rock could easily be mistaken for schist. These features are connected to tectonic
processes, the effects of which are not easy to represent at 1:250,000. The gneiss generally has
a marked foliation and is also characterised by a strong lineation plunging to the east-southeast.
Massive varieties have a red to pink colour, but the more deformed parts are dark- to light grey.
The augen gneiss is thought to have formed from a porphyric granite. Figure 6.9 shows a
typical variety of the augen gneiss.
Mineralogically the augen gneiss consists of microcline porphyroclasts up to 5cm
across. The other dominant minerals are quartz and plagioclase in amounts up to 30 %. The
main dark mineral is biotite, normally <10% but locally as much as 20%. At some localities
small amounts of hornblende can be found, and epidote is also observed. In the massive augen
gneiss muscovite is a minor constituent. In many areas with high strain the porphyroclasts are
smeared out along the foliation and can be seen as mm rounded grains or even as feldspathic
streaks. This type of augen gneiss has up to 20% muscovite, probably formed as the microcline
is broken down. There are also mm-sized black spots of garnet that are often replaced by
biotite and chlorite.
Another area where the augen gneiss is exposed in an enigmatic way is at Ponta Mala
about 10 km south of Cobu. Here the augen gneiss is totally enclosed in the Txitonga Group.
The central part of the body of augen gneiss is not strongly sheared (Figure 6.9) and was
initially believed to be an intrusion in the Txitonga Group, this interpretation being supported
by the fact that quartz-mica schist that resembles the rocks found in the Txitonga Group was
found in many places in the augen gneiss; However, the direct contact between the Txitonga
Group and the augen gneiss was never observed, and closer examination has revealed that the
augen gneiss is strongly sheared near the contact between these two units (Figure 6.10). This
led to the conclusion that the augen gneiss at Ponta Mala is a tectonic lens in the Txitonga
Group.
Figure 6.9: Augen gneiss with

porphyroblasts up to 4cm (UTM 36S
688021, 8635989, sheet 1234
Metangula).
Figure 6.10: Strongly sheared and folded

augen gneiss close to the contact with the
Txitonga Group at Ponta Mala (UTM 36S
685078, 8650760, sheet 1234 Metangula).
6.2.7 Gabbro (Unit P1Pgb)

Gabbro is found at one locality (UTM 36S 707128, 8681032) on a small peninsula about 2 km
south of Ponta Messuli. It occupies an area of a few hundred square meters and is only marked
on the 1:50,000 sheet (1134 D4). The gabbro seems to be a later intrusion into the migmatite
gneiss. The central part is weakly deformed with a grain size of ~ 5 mm. It has not been studied
51
in thin section, but from mesoscopic examination it contains plagioclase and amphibole in
equal amounts. No pyroxene is observed. Kappameter readings show magnetic values of ~ 25
x 10-3 SI-units, which indicate a rather high amount of magnetite. The gabbro is sheared and
altered to amphibolite along its contact to the migmatite gneisses.
6.2.8 Granite (Unit P2gra) intrusions in the Ponta Messuli Complex
Granitic rocks occur at three places in the Ponta Messuli Complex: in an area about 10 km
South of the Tanzanian border along the shore of Lago Niassa, in Cobu village and in an area
east of Ponta Ngoo, about 20 km south of Cobu.
The northernmost granite seems to be intrusive into the migmatitic gneiss that makes up
most of the ground in this area. Some of the migmatitic rocks are also found as xenoliths
within the granite. The granite seems to be unaffected by migmatisation, but is strongly
sheared and partly sericitised like most of the rocks along the lake. The granite shows three
colours in hand specimen due to white plagioclase, red K-feldspar and grey-blue quartz. It
seems to have been porphyritic with grains of K-feldspar up to 1 cm across but most
commonly 0.5 cm. The granite has a strong foliation with biotite wrapped around bigger grains
of quartz and feldspar.
Thin section study (UTM 36S 713866 8705787) reveals coarse grains of microcline ~
0.5cm across, in a more finely grained matrix of quartz and biotite. The microcline makes up
about 50% of the rock while quartz and plagioclase make up about 20% each. The plagioclase
grains are much smaller and generally show a strong sericitisation. The microcline grains are
less altered but are broken apart and seem to have been more rigid during the deformation (see
Figure 6.11). The quartz can occur as coarse grains, but occurs more commonly as fine-grained
material between the feldspars. Greenish biotite forms 5-10% of the granite, and locally
appears to have replaced another mineral (hornblende). The rock has 1-2% opaques, mainly
magnetite.
Figure 6.11: Granite with a large grain of microcline (to the left), partly cracked, in a
groundmass of quartz. In the middle there is a sericitised grain of plagioclase. Field of view: 9
x 5mm. Sample 31877 (UTM 36S 713866, 8705787, sheet 1234 Metangula).
Cobu village is partly located on a homogeneous, fine to medium grained, reddish
dark grey, weakly foliated granite. It is well exposed on the shore of Lago Niassa (UTM 36S
691385, 8657992) and up the hill towards the church. It is much less deformed than the other
52
mapped granites in the complex, but locally along joints it is slightly foliated. No contact
relations to the country rock were observed.
Microscope examination reveals a metamorphic texture with a very weak preferred
orientation of biotite and elongated felsic minerals. It is hetero-granular and one sample
(31779) comprises 45-50 % K-feldspar, 25 % quartz, 15 % plagioclase, 5 % biotite, 5 %
sericite and minor epidote, apatite, zircon and opaque minerals. The feldspar, especially the
plagioclase is sericitised. Additionally, very fine-grained sericite occurs along grain
boundaries. This sample has been dated and defines an intrusive age of 105611 Ma (22 LAICPMS analyses, see Chapter 11.3) and is interpreted as an intrusive pluton within the
Palaeoproterozoic basement.
A different type of granite is exposed northeast of Ponta Ngoo. This is a medium- to
coarse-grained, variably gneissic muscovite-granite. It occurs in the hanging wall of a major
zone of shearing (exposed along a traverse from UTM 36S 0689400, 8621823 to UTM 36S
0689163, 8621355). The shear zone trends northeast-southwest with moderate dips to the
southeast and with a strong lineation that plunges gently eastwards (implying transtensional or
transpressional movement along the shear). The southern limit of the granite is defined by the
bounding fault on the western side of the Maniamba graben. The granite is exposed between
UTM 36S 689138, 8620967 and UTM 36S 689170, 8620605. It is deformed, with a weak
lineation and small-scale tight folding of the gneissosity, and is cut by major quartz veins.
6.3
Nampula Complex
6.3.1 Introduction
The Nampula Complex is the southernmost, and structurally lowest, of the Mesoproterozoic
tectonostratigraphic crustal blocks in northern Mozambique. It occupies the southern part of all
the sheets that define the southern limit of the area described in this explanation. These are,
from southwest to northeast, sheets 1635 (Milange), 1636 (Lugela-Mocuba), 1535-1536
(Insaca-Guru), 1437 (Malema), 1438 (Ribu-Mecubri), 1339 (Montepuez) and 1340
(Mecufi), a combined area of c. 30 000 km2. The complex continues southwards, into the area
mapped by the Council for Geoscience (CGS), disappearing beneath the coastal plains of the
Quelimane-Angoche-Isla de Mozambique area. In the west, the rocks of the Complex are
covered by the younger sediments associated with the southern extension of the Lago Niassa
rift at the Mozambique-Malawi border. The Nampula Complex has a total surface extent of
nearly 100,000 km2, making it the most extensive complex in northern Mozambique. It is
tectonically overlain by the Mugeba klippen, which crops out south of Mocuba in the Lot 1
Extension area and which is defined as a distinct complex, the Mugeba Complex, but which is
correlated with the Ocua Complex (see Chapter 12).
The northern margin of the Nampula Complex is a remarkably straight northeastsouthwest-trending tectonic zone, over 600 km long, extending from the Malawi border
southwest of Milange to near the coastal town of Nacala, where it is overlain by the MesozoicCainozoic rocks of the Rovuma Basin. This boundary is coincident with the Lurio belt,
expressed as a strong zone of flattening in the east, which grades laterally into a more complex
zone of anastomosing shear zones and folds towards the southwest. Within the complex,
however, fabric trends are more varied, resulting from major, large-scale polyphase folding and
shearing episodes.
53
The topographic expression of the Nampula Complex is varied. In general it occupies a

low plain with scattered inselbergs adjacent to the coastal plain in the south and east, rising to
higher ground at its northern edge. The highest mountains in northern Mozambique occur in
the Guru area (Monte Namuli at over 2,100 m.a.s.l.), though these mountains are composed of
Pan-African granite plutons intruded into the Nampula Complex. The northern boundary is
largely coincident with the valley of the Rio Lurio, which has excavated along shear zones,
including structures, which were previously thought to be related to the Lurio belt (Pinna et al.,
1993). Outcrops of the complex were examined in river sections, inselbergs, whalebacks and
pavements, which are typically separated by wide areas without exposure.
The lithodemic and lithostratigraphic units recognised in the Nampula Complex
comprise a sequence of supracrustal gneisses, the Molcu Group, which is migmatised to
various degrees, which is subdivided into a number of mapped units of varying geographic
extent, and an even older suite of granitoid gneisses known as the Mocuba Suite (dated at
11239 Ma). These supracrustal and granitoid rocks were intruded by various orthogneisses,
including a widespread suite of granitoid gneisses known as the Culicui Suite. A simplified
geological map of the Nampula Complex is given in Figure 6.12. While this subdivision into
supracrustal gneisses and intrusive orthogneisses is a valuable one, it should be remembered
that many of the units encountered are very highly migmatised, such that they contain high
proportions of both in situ melts and melts that have been significantly mobilised. To some
extent, these units are transitional between conventional supracrustal and intrusive rocks. These
basement rocks make up about 90% of the surface area of the complex, the remainder being
comprised of two overlying units of metasedimentary gneisses termed the Mecubri and Alto
Benfica Groups, which are believed to have been deposited unconformably on the Nampula
Complex during the Neoproterozoic. Subsequently, the Nampula Complex was intruded by
syn- to post-tectonic, Pan-African granitoid plutons, dykes and sheets of the Murrupula Suite
and, to a lesser extent, of the Malema Suite during the Cambrian (both suites are described in
sections 6.18). The western margin of the Nampula Complex was intruded by a number of
Jurassic syenite and nepheline-syenite plutons, plugs, sheets and dykes, representing alkaline
activity along the southern termination of the East-African rift system. A suite of Jurassic
(Karoo) dolerite dykes is also present in the western part of the Nampula Complex.
54
Figure 6.12: Simplified geological map of the northern part of the Nampula Complex in the
Lot 1 (northeastern block) and Lot 1 Extension (central and southwestern blocks) areas,
showing the major tectonostratigraphic subdivisions.
Mesoproterozoic supracrustal rocks: The oldest rocks of the Nampula Complex are a sequence
of compositionally layered gneisses and migmatites, which have been subdivided into seven
lithodemic units on the basis of composition, mineralogy and lithological association. The
recognised units probably have Mesoproterozoic protolith ages, but no isotopic data is as yet
available for them. The order in which the constituent lithodemic units of the mapped units are
presented in the legend on the geological maps does not imply any original order of
superposition. Almost no unequivocal evidence of primary sedimentary or volcanic textures
are preserved in these rocks and all fabrics, while they may be parallel to original, primary
variations in composition, are strongly transposed dynamo-metamorphic fabrics. The
supracrustal rocks make up only about 15% of the surface area of the Nampula Complex: they
occur as relatively thin belts, lenses and screens between the voluminous intrusive granitoid
rocks. They were largely mapped as being part of the Chiure Complex on older geological
maps (e.g. Pinna and Marteau, 1987), where they were shown to cover relatively large areas.
The current fieldwork has shown that the supracrustal rocks are less extensive than previously
indicated but that they are, where present, contiguous with those in the Alto Molcu area to
the east.
Mesoproterozoic Intrusive Rocks: Volumetrically, the Nampula Complex is dominated by
intrusive orthogneisses of broadly granitic composition, which were emplaced within the
supracrustal gneisses. The intrusives, now orthogneisses, cover about 80% of the surface area
of the Complex and have been separated into eight different intrusive orthogneiss units of
various ages, the majority of which are leucocratic. Topographically, the orthogneisses give
rise to several high mountain massifs and generally form the most rugged parts of the Nampula
55
Complex. The oldest suite, in the western part of the Complex, is known as the Mocuba Suite,
and forms a large batholith, which is intruded by various younger granitoids gneisses, some of
which are sheet-like in form. The youngest of these comprises two units (augen gneiss and
charnockite), which have been grouped into the Culicui Suite. After the emplacement of the
intrusive rocks, the entire package underwent polyphase deformation and high-grade
metamorphism.
Geeochemically, as shown in Chapter 10, these rocks are dominated by high-K calcalkaline to shoshonitic granodiorite, granite and quartz syenite. The granodiorites are
metaluminous, calc-alkaline to alkali-calcic. In the classification diagram of Whalen et al.
(1987), the monzonitic rocks and the granodiorites plot partly in the I-type field, but mainly in
the A-type field: this is consistent with the rocks having formed in a mature continental arc
and/or post-collisonal setting following terrane accretioin.
6.3.2 Banded biotite gneiss and migmatite (Unit P2NMgm)
This unit forms by far the most volumetrically significant lithodeme of the supracrustal
gneisses of the Nampula Complex. It underlies large areas of the western edge of the Nampula
Complex on sheet 1635 Milange. To the east, on sheets 1535/36 Insaca/Gurue and 1636
Lugela/Mocuba, it forms relatively small, dismembered belts and lens-shaped masses. The unit
is made up of well-banded (layering on all scales from mm- to metre-scale), compositionally
heterogeneous, often complexly folded, generally grey, quartzo-feldspathic gneisses, with
biotite hornblende and relatively uncommon garnet (Figure 6.13 and Figure 6.14). The rocks
are relatively equigranular with granoblastic to interlobate texture, and a grain size of ~1 mm.
The typical mineralogy comprises variable proportions of quartz, plagioclase (locally
antiperthitic, in part saussuritised, sometimes weakly zoned), K-feldspar (often perthitic
orthoclase or microcline), ~10% brown biotite (often in part chloritised, rarely with exsolved
rutile needles) brown- to olive-green hornblende and clinopyroxene (nearly always partially
altered to hornblende, locally as alteration haloes), along with accessory opaque minerals,
allanite, titanite, zircon and apatite. Some rocks contain anhedral, inclusion-filled, grains of
garnet. Scapolite was recorded in a few samples. Orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene are found
in some more mafic bands, showing that granulite facies conditions were attained at least
locally. Secondary minerals locally include sparse muscovite and carbonate. These gneisses
tend to contain very few mono-mineralic rocks of obviously metasedimentary origin, such as
quartzite and marble, though thin bands of muscovite-bearing marble were encountered within
the sequence in the southern part of sheet 1635 Milange.
More mafic bands are typically medium- to fine-grained, with orthopyroxene,
clinopyroxene (commonly poikiloblastic), abundant plagioclase and biotite, along with minor
amounts of apatite and opaque minerals. Textures in these mafic bands are granoblastic to
lepidoblastic, with a grain size of ~1 mm. This assemblage, along with the texture, clearly
indicates that granulite-facies conditions were attained, at least locally. A weak fabric is
usually apparent, mainly defined by aligned biotite flakes. The mafic layers are present on a
metre scale, interbanded with garnet-bearing banded gneisses. Leucocratic mm-scale layers,
made up of plagioclase, orthoclase and quartz are common. Secondary minerals locally include
sparse muscovite and carbonate. More migmatitic quartzo-feldspathic layers, with coarsegrained leucosomes are inequigranular, with granoblastic to interlobate texture and grain sizes
from <1 mm to 5 mm.
The banded gneisses are typically strongly migmatised, with abundant layer-parallel
(stromatic) leucosomes and crosscutting leucocratic veins and irregular masses. The foliation
56
of these rocks is defined by strong preferred orientation of biotite, slightly tabular habit of
hornblende and allanite, and by the parallel orientation of leucocratic layers. One of the more
important aspects of the migmatitic history of these (and many other) units in the Nampula
Complex is the recognition of two distinct phases of migmatisation: 1) the early stromatic to
crosscutting migmatitic event; 2) a later, less ubiquitous but nevertheless widespread, smallerscale partial-melting event, usually concentrated along small-scale ductile shear zones in
closely-spaced sets on a scale of ~10 cm. The absolute ages of these two anatectic events are
not yet known.
The general protolith for the banded gneisses of this unit is considered to be a thick
sequence of monotonous, quartz-rich volcano-sedimentary rocks deposited upon an, as yet
unrecognised floor, quite possibly in a juvenile arc-type environment. Within the general
background banded gneisses described above, some subordinate, but lithologically
distinctive units have also been recognised.
Figure 6.13: Intensely folded banded supracrustal gneiss/migmatite. Locality: UTM 37S
479822, 8369756, sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi.
57
Figure 6.14: Strong compositional banding in typical outcrops of the banded biotite gneiss
unit. Locality: UTM 37S 375126, 8349512, sheet 1437 Malema.
6.3.3 Leucocratic quartz-feldspar-hornblende gneiss and migmatite (Unit P2NMlcm)
These rocks are superficially similar to unit P2NMlc, with the exception that they are
hornblende-bearing and do not have the characteristic reticulate fabric. The unit is confined to
a few lens-shaped bodies within the banded gneisses on sheet 1437 Malema and one small lens
on sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi, just south of the Lurio belt. The rocks are coarse- to mediumgrained, grey and strongly foliated, but not strongly banded, leucocratic gneiss, with small
amounts of amphibole and amphibole-rich layers and schlieren ( biotite). Magnetite is often
visible in outcrop. Amphibole grains are often very elongate and define a prominent linear
fabric. Though generally leucocratic, some outcrops have 5-15 cm thick layers rich in
amphibole and subordinate biotite. These layers are often isoclinally folded and disrupted
(Figure 6.15).
Figure 6.15: Hornblende-bearing
leucocratic gneiss, showing folded
amphibolitic schlieren. (UTM 37S
435030 8381095), sheet 1438
Ribu-Mecuburi.
58
The gneiss is typically variably migmatitic, with pinkish, coarse-grained, layer-parallel,

hornblende-bearing leucosomes. Many outcrops also contain thin granitic dykes are also
transposed parallel to the dominant fabric along with discordant pegmatitic veins, patches and
segregations.
6.3.4 Amphibolitic gneiss, garnet amphibolite (Unit P2NMam)
Metabasic gneisses occur throughout the supracrustal gneisses and within the banded gneiss
sequence on the metre to kilometre-scale, but seldom as masses large enough to be shown at a
scale of 1: 250 000. A notable exception to this is the large amphibolite body mapped on sheet
1635 Milange, at the western edge of the Nampula Complex. The curious circular structure in
the southeastern part of sheet 1636 Lugela-Mocuba, which can be seen on satellite and
geophysical images, has an amphibolite core on the maps of Aquater Co. (1983), but no
outcrops were found in this region during the present investigation.
The large lens-shaped amphibolite mass southwest of Milange on sheet 1635 is
composed of massive, foliated to banded, medium-grained amphibolite with about 50% each of
plagioclase and hornblende. Some outcrops also contain biotite. The rocks are typically
migmatitic, with coarse-grained leucosomes containing up to 10% amphibole with quartz and
plagioclase. Leucosomes are both parallel to and crosscut the melanosome fabric. Smaller
masses of amphibolite within the banded gneiss sequence are garnetiferous (Figure 6.16): these
are medium- to coarse-grained, inequigranular, with rounded garnet porphyroblasts up to 2 cm
in diameter set in a matrix with a grain size of ~1 mm and an interlobate texture, composed of
zoned plagioclase, brown hornblende and clinopyroxene, with minor garnet, opaque mineral,
biotite and apatite. The garnet porphyroblasts contain inclusions of hornblende and are
surrounded by symplectitic rims of plagioclase + hornblende + clinopyroxene, as alternating
lamellae ~ 20 m thick, and an outer halo enriched in hornblende, several mm thick (Figure
6.17). Symplectite is also abundant in the matrix.
Figure 6.16: Large garnet porphyroblasts with dark amphibole haloes in massive
garnet amphibolite. Locality (UTM 37S 403147, 8370558), sheet 1438 RibuMecuburi.
59
Figure 6.17: Garnet

amphibolite in the
supracrustal gneisses of
the Nampula Complex. A
large garnet
porphyroblast is
surrounded by a
symplectite of plagioclase
+ hornblende +
clinopyroxene and a halo
enriched in hornblende.
Field of view: 4.4x5.4
mm. Locality (Sample
26846, UTM 37S 403147
8370558), Sheet 1438
Ribu-Mecuburi
In thin section, many of the mafic gneisses can be seen to have granulite facies
assemblages, with two pyroxenes. Other rocks contain only one pyroxene (clinopyroxene,
often locally partially amphibolitised) with minor quartz.
Gneisses of mafic composition are not common on sheets 1339 Montepuez and 1340
Mecufi. Only two lenses of amphibolitic gneiss are large enough to be displayed on the two
sheets. There are also some scattered smaller lenses.
The lens on sheet 1339 Montepuez was seen in one outcrop (at UTM 37S, 596024,
8466318), and its extent was interpreted from the airborne geophysical data. The outcrop
shows the gneiss to be banded, migmatitic, but fairly homogeneous as seen at outcrop scale. It
contains alternating quartz-plagioclase and biotite-hornblende bands 2-3 cm thick, and, locally,
veins (neosomes) of relatively coarse quartz and feldspar.
The lens on sheet 1340 Mecufi is seen in outcrops along the road northwards from
Mazua to Chipene, at UTM 37S, 646667, 8453912. The outcrop shows the rock to be a finegrained, densely foliated to massive pyroxene-bearing, magnetite-rich mafic gneiss. In thin
section (Figure 6.18) it can be seen to contain plagioclase, clinopyroxene and hornblende as
major phases, while orthopyroxene, garnet, magnetite and quartz are important subordinate
minerals. Texturally, it is quite heteroblastic with poikiloblastic grains of hornblende and of
clinopyroxene+orthopyroxene aggregates overgrowing a plagioclase matrix. A very similar
rock is present (in boulders) about 5 km further north along the road. These rocks are also
similar geochemically.
60
Figure 6.18: Mafic gneiss with

orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene,
hornblende, plagioclase and
magnetite in heteroblastic texture.
Field of view: 2.4x3.0 mm.
Sample 40792, UTM 37S 646667,
8453912, sheet 1340 Mecufi.
6.3.5 Leucogranitic gneiss (11239 Ma, U-Pb) (Mocuba Suite) (Unit P2NMlc)
By far the most extensive component of the Mocuba Suite in the western part of the Nampula
Complex is a generally medium-grained, but inequigranular streaky leucogranite orthogneiss,
with minor wisps of biotite garnet, similar to that described above. It occupies the greater
part of sheet 1636 Lugela-Mocuba, the eastern part of sheet 1635 Milange and much of the
southern half of sheet 1535/36 Insaca-Guru, amounting to a total of over 11 000 km2. The
western margin of the main outcrops of this unit is coincident with a wide zone of refoliation,
which runs across the eastern part of sheet 1635 (including the southern extension of the Liciro
lineament) and the Nampula-Lurio/Unango Complex boundary on sheet 1535/36.
The orthogneiss is made up of medium- to coarse-grained, pale pink to pale grey,
highly leucocratic, and heterogeneous granitic gneiss with a very variable and irregular fabric,
which tends to swirl around chaotically in outcrop (Figure 6.19). The only consistent mafic
mineral is biotite, often constituting only 2-5% of the rocks, as irregularly oriented thin
schlieren and wisps. There is great variation in outcrops, presenting a spectrum of lithologies in
which the end-members are, on the one hand, fairly homogeneous pink leucogranite gneiss
with minor biotite and, on the other, heterogeneous, inequigranular leucogranite with multiple
biotite wisps, schlieren and streaks with included, disrupted and folded amphibolite and biotiteamphibolite boudins and lenses, all intruded by irregular and anastomosing arrays of
inequigranular leucogranite veins, pods, and segregations (Figure 6.20). A complete
gradational spectrum may be present in any one outcrop. Measurement of fabrics in these rocks
can be extremely difficult as there is often no consistent foliation direction. This structural
heterogeneity is also reflected at the map scale; foliation directions can be seen to be
inconsistent, though large-scale foliation domes and basins probably represent megascopic
interference patterns between the various fold phases.
The leucogneisses are, in some locations, partially charnockitised in a diffuse and
progressive manner. Some pods and lenses of biotite amphibolite are present locally. The
leucogneisses are often intimately associated with sheet-like intrusions of coarse-grained augen
gneisses of the Culicui Suite. This relationship is observed on all scales from outcrop to
regional, as can be seen from the geological maps, on which the two units are invariably in
close spatial association.
61
Mineralogically, the rocks are composed of subequal quartz, altered K-feldspar

(microcline) and plagioclase, with minor chloritised biotite, and accessory opaque mineral and
zircon. Small quantities of garnet were occasionally observed in the field, while one thin
section contained clinopyroxene. The vast volumes of these fairly monotonous leucogranites
are presumably the products of near-eutectic melting of quartzo-feldspathic protolith material.
A sample taken from this widespread and important unit east of Milange was selected
for U-Pb SHRIMP zircon dating (33568, UTM36S, 817073, 8210972, sheet 1635, Milange).
As expected from such a polymetamorphic terrane, the zircons show complex core-rim
relationships, but all the data, from both rims and cores, lie along a single discordia, with
intercepts at 1117 21 Ma and 535 28 Ma (see Chapter 11.4). The six oldest analyses yield a
weighted mean of 1123 9 Ma, interpreted as the best estimate of the crystallisation age of the
protolith from which the melt was extracted. A concordant zircon rim at 520 8 Ma is likely to
approximate the time of metamorphism and migmatisation during the Pan-African event.
Figure 6.19: Typical outcrop of wispy leucogranitic gneiss. The host gneiss is a pale
pinkish-grey, inequigranular leucogranite with irregular lenses of slightly more biotite-rich
gneiss (near top) and disrupted biotite-amphibolite schlieren. Locality UTM37S 238210,
8134606, sheet 1636 Lugela-Mocuba.
62
Figure 6.20: Pale grey, highly leucocratic, inequigranular, wispy granitic orthogneiss with
pulled-apart mafic boudins and coarse leucosome segregations. Locality UTM 37S 188109
8170397, sheet 1636 Lugela-Mocuba.
6.3.6 Tonalitic gneiss and migmatite (Mocuba Suite) (Unit P2NMto)
Typical outcrops of this unit are made up of strongly foliated medium- to coarse-grained, grey,
heterogeneous hornblende-biotite-quartz-plagioclase gneisses and migmatites, with a broadly
intermediate, tonalitic composition (Figure 6.21). However, compositional variation is
extreme, ranging from hornblendite (as up to metre-scale blocks, pods and boudins of pure
hornblende), through metagabbro, to mela- and leucotonalite, trondhjemite and granodiorite.
K-feldspar is grossly subordinate/absent, even in leucosomes. There is an irregular 0,1-20 cmscale interlayering of mafic, felsic and intermediate compositions, often enhanced by grain-size
layering. This gives rise to an overall fabric typically characterised by a lenticular, reticulate
texture in which intermediate to mafic gneiss lenses are surrounded by coarser-grained,
deformed, anastomosing, leucosome networks. The irregular layering so produced is typically
deformed by tight to isoclinal folds and ductile shear zones.
The rocks are migmatitic, with both layer-parallel, stromatic and crosscutting,
hornblende-plagioclase leucosomes. Leucosome veins are often isoclinally to disharmonically
folded, whilst melanosomes consist of dark, coarse-grained hornblende-biotite occurring as
boudins, angular blocks, lenses and schlieren. Dark angular blocks and lenses of coarse-grained
plagioclase-bearing amphibolite and pure amphibole are common. Formerly continuous dark
amphibolite layers are commonly dismembered into trains of pinch-and-swell boundins with
coarse leucosome filling inter-boudin necks.
Variations on this assemblage include medium- to coarse-grained (grain size of 3-6
mm), granodioritic gneiss containing quartz, plagioclase (and minor K-feldspar), amphibole,
biotite and magnetite titanite, forming layers 1-3 m thick, interlayered with a fine-grained,
finely-banded amphibolite, forming layers 5-30 cm thick, all of which are interlayered with
thick, hornblende-bearing stromatic leucosomes. Other outcrops are more homogeneous
granodioritic to tonalitic gneiss with biotite, amphibole and possibly pyroxene.
63
The contacts of this unit with the older supracrustal gneisses tend to be ambiguous. In
some localities it appears intrusive, while elsewhere the gneisses are intimately interlayered
with the banded gneisses and appear to represent part of that sequence. It may be that this
ambiguity results from these gneisses having both plutonic and supracrustal components, for
example at the roots of an island-arc type setting, where juvenile calc-alkaline volcanic rocks
are often intruded by the shallow magma chambers.
Figure 6.21: Grey hornblende-plagioclase gneiss/migmatite with broadly tonalitic

composition. Note black, angular hornblendite boudin in top left. The leucosome is
hornblende-bearing with little or no K-feldspar. A second phase of leucosome occupies a later
ductile shear zone (Pan-African?). Locality UTM 37S 498750 8408967, sheet 1438 RibuMecuburi.
At the mafic end of the compositional spectrum, dark grey quartz-diorite gneisses are
variable in grain size (0.1 to 5 mm - average ~1.5 mm), with granoblastic to interlobate texture.
Mineral phases present are plagioclase, hornblende, quartz and biotite, with minor orthoclase,
opaque mineral, titanite, apatite and large zircons (>200 m). The fabric is defined by the
orientation of biotite. Rocks with more felsic compositions are represented by well-banded
granodioritic to tonalitic gneiss. These rocks are granoblastic to interlobate, equigranular
(average grain size 1.5 mm) and composed of plagioclase, quartz, hornblende, biotite and
microcline with accessory titanite, allanite, apatite and zircon. A cm-scale banding,
corresponding to variations in the modal abundance of hornblende and biotite, and the strong
preferred orientation of biotite define the fabric. Some rocks of this unit are at granulite grade,
including enderbitic gneisses, which are rather equigranular, medium-grained, homogeneous
rocks with interlobate, granoblastic to lepidoblastic textures. They contain quartz, plagioclase,
orthoclase, hornblende, biotite, clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene, along with apatite and
64
opaque minerals. Both planar and linear fabrics are defined by tabular crystals and elongate
aggregates of hornblende, pyroxene, quartz and feldspar.
Tonalitic gneiss commonly occurs with the granitic and granodioritic gneiss on sheets
1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi. The rock is generally characterized by having biotite as the
main Fe-Mg mineral, but occasionally also blastic grains of hornblende are present. The gneiss
is quite often migmatitic, with more coarse quartz-feldspar-rich leucosome bands, alternating
with fine-grained more biotite-rich bands and layers (Figure 6.22). Where the degree of
migmatitisation is pronounced, it is not always easy to decide whether a biotite-gneiss is of
intrusive or sedimentary origin. However, banded gneisses with variable mineralogy across the
banding are most likely paragneisses.
Along the main road between Alua and Mazua on sheet 1340 Mecufi, there is a 5 kmlong chain of inselbergs called Monte Nipita (UTM 37S 632000, 8455000), consisting of
homogeneous fine-grained (~1 mm grains) and only weakly foliated tonalitic gneiss. The rocks
are biotite-bearing and contain abundant, characteristic, very fine-grained, rose-coloured
garnets.
Figure 6.22: Banded, slightly

migmatitic tonalitic gneiss with
cm-thick white bands of quartz
and plagioclase alternating with
biotite-bearing grey bands. Note
tiny garnets present in the quartzfeldspar bands. Locality: UTM
37S, 610900, 8459815, sheet
1340 Mecufi.
6.3.7 Diatexitic granite gneiss and migmatite (Mocuba Suite) (Unit P2NMgg)
The term diatexite is used for migmatitic rocks composed of over 50% melt (leucosome), but
with significant proportions of remnant palaeosome. In the field these rocks have a chaotic
appearance, with extreme compositional and geometric variability. Despite this, they have the
common feature of masses of coarse leucocratic material and chaotic pods, lenses and schlieren
of more mafic (biotite and hornblende-bearing) rocks (Figure 6.23). The overall composition,
however, is granitic to granodioritic. In high-strain zones, all the components in the rocks
become stretched out and transposed along the foliation directions, such that they grade into
more-or-less banded rocks with a very high leucosome proportion. The rocks are somewhat
transitional between highly-migmatised banded supracrustal quartz-feldspathic gneisses and
the more igneous nature of the wispy leuco-orthogneisses of the Mocuba Complex. The
presence of these rocks in the Nampula Complex suggests that the current level of erosion is
near the metasediment-anatexis/granite-production boundary. On sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi,
essentially similar diatexitic rocks are found in a number of localities, most notably in the core
of the prominent elongate domal structure northwest of Mecuburi. This feature may represent a
small core-complex of elevated thermal input and fluid flow, leading to increased anatexis
65
and migmatisation in the core of the structure, positive buoyancy and, consequently, a region
of intense exhumation, enhanced by folding.
Figure 6.23: Deformed diatexite. The mafic phase in the leucosome is hornblende, while the
palaeosome is biotite-hornblende gneiss. Locality UTM 36S 754325, 8185865), sheet 1635
Milange.
6.3.8 Mamala Gneiss: Leucogranitic gneiss (Unit P2NMlcl)
This is an important rock-type on sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi and, to a lesser extent, on sheet
1437 Malema, where it underlies an area of about 15 000 km2, particularly in a belt running
southwest-northeast across the southeastern part of sheet 1438. In this area, it largely forms the
basement to, and provided the clastic material for, the Mecubri Group. The unit is made up of
medium- to coarse-grained, but inequigranular, pale grey to pinkish, streaky, leucocratic
gneissose rocks (leucogranitic composition) with sparse biotite as the sole mafic component in
the vast majority of outcrops (Figure 6.24). The characteristic pink weathering of these rocks is
due to their high K-feldspar content and red staining caused by the partial alteration of primary
magnetite to haematite. The gneisses are typically heterogeneous and locally irregularly
banded to layered, with coarse-grained quartz-feldspar layers 5-10cm thick, alternating with
thinner, finer-grained, discontinuous, more biotite-rich layers, pods and schlieren. Some Kfeldspar blastesis is locally seen, with scattered K-feldspar augen up to 1.5 cm across. This is
especially common adjacent to intrusions of augen gneiss of the Culicui Suite, suggesting that
the blastesis was promoted by the intrusion of the protolith for the augen gneiss. The lowbiotite granitic leucogneisses have a strong, but irregular fabric defined by the discontinuous
layering, grain-size variations and the planar preferred orientation of biotite and feldspars. This
fabric is locally isoclinally, chaotically or disharmonically folded.
66
The gneisses are typically strongly migmatised with pink stromatic and irregular,
blebby and podiform leucosomes, which are coarse-grained (locally pegmatitic), and
sometimes contain magnetite crystals up to 5mm in diameter. The leucosomes accentuate the
irregular nature of the fabric, such that the strong foliation has a characteristically swirling,
reticulate form, with sigmoidal domains of palaeosome surrounded by anastomosing and
braided networks of sheared coarse leucosome. A second foliation, taking the form of a
crenulation cleavage or sets of closely-spaced ductile shear zones in the migmatites, is quite
common, and is associated with a second generation of thin, irregular leucosome following the
new fabric. The migmatites are usually crosscut by one or more generations of thin, irregular
pegmatite veins.
Elsewhere, outcrops of this rock are more homogeneous, saccharoidal and less
migmatised, showing that the extent of partial anataxis of these rocks was variable. In these
rocks, the foliation tends to be rather vague, wispy and diffuse. In rocks that underwent higher
degrees of strain, outcrops are also more homogeneous, with flattened quartz proto-ribbons.
Typical leucogneisses have a granoblastic to interlobate texture with grain size of ~2 mm and
are composed of K-feldspar megacrysts up to 5 mm long, in a matrix of plagioclase, microcline
and quartz with ~10% well-oriented biotite, minor amounts of opaque minerals and traces of
apatite and zircon.
Figure 6.24: Leucogneiss, with thin biotite melanosomes and pink, stromatic and crosscutting
coarse leucosomes. Note the braided, reticulate, sigmoidal nature of the fabric. Locality: UTM
37S 494631, 8372245, sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi.
Granitic gneiss is also very common on sheets 1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi, often
occurring together with granodioritic gneiss (unit P2NMmd). The two rock types typically
alternate on different scales, and it can be difficult to distinguish between them in the field. The
separation of some of the lenses of granodioritic gneiss is based on geophysical data, especially
radiometry. The granitic and granodioritic gneisses differ in their content of K-feldspar, but
otherwise have a similar appearance. They vary from being fine-grained, leucocratic and
67
homogeneous to migmatitic types with coarser-grained quartz-feldspar leucosomes. Some

varieties appear to be porphyritic with up to 2-3 cm-sized K-feldspar grains, but these grains
may have grown, at least partially, during metamorphism and deformation, as they define an
augen gneiss texture in several areas (Figure 6.25).
Figure 6.25:
Granitic gneiss
with up to m-wide
zones with augen
texture. The augen
are mainly Kfeldspar, but also
include plagioclase
and quartz.
Locality: 3 km
north of Alua at
UTM 37S, 595596,
8468048, sheet
1339 Montepuez.
There are several generations of felsic orthogneiss. This is clearly demonstrated by

outcrops along the road eastwards from Odinepa (sheet 1340 Mecufi) in the northern part of
the Nampula Complex. One locality (UTM 37S, 614280, 8499090) shows fine-grained, wellfoliated, biotite-bearing granitic gneiss crosscut by a thin granitic dyke and pegmatite vein. At
UTM 37S, 615974, 8499940 biotite-bearing granite as described above, intrudes a biotite- and
amphibole-bearing migmatitic gneiss (Figure 6.26). The age of the granite is 511 r12 Ma
(sample 40710, U-Pb zircon by ICPMS). Both the gneiss and granite are later crosscut by
north-south-trending pegmatites. Similar relationships were observed on sheet 1339
Montepuez (UTM 37S, 595480, 8489660). Other migmatitic and strongly deformed granitic
gneisses, e.g. with augen gneiss fabric, give ages of 1050-1100 Ma (see Chapter 11).
68
Figure 6.26: Biotite-bearing granite

crosscutting biotite- and amphibolebearing migmatitic gneiss. Note that the
vein of granite intrudes the migamtite
(UTM 37S 615974, 8499940, sheet 1340
Mecufi).
6.3.9 Rapale Gneiss: Hornblende-bearing granodioritic gneiss (Unit P2NMmd)

This unit has only a very limited distribution within the study area, though it continues to the
south, towards Nampula, where it is widely developed and is known as the Rapale Gneiss. The
extent of this unit in the Lot 1 Extension mapping area is defined by a single outcrop of dioritic
gneiss in the southeastern corner of sheet 1438. This single outcrop is made up of a light grey,
medium- to coarse-grained, fairly homogenous orthogneiss composed of quartz, plagioclase,
hornblende and biotite, with rare boudins of amphibolite. It is not truly porphyroblastic, but
plagioclase grains tend to be larger (up to 1 cm) than other minerals in some zones. The rock is
strongly deformed, with a very strong planar fabric, cut by thin leucocratic veins.
This unit is a minor rock-type that occurs scattered over the southern part of the area. It
is also present together with leucogranitic gneiss (unit P2NMlcl) on sheets 1339 Montepuez
and 1340 Mecufi in the eastern part of the area. It comprises several lens-like flattened bodies
of relatively homogeneous coarse- to medium-grained equigranular, strongly foliated,
hornblende-bearing (biotite-poor) granodioritic orthogneiss. The foliation is deformed into
open, often wavy folds which give rise to a second, axial planar, fabric that has facilitated the
injection of minor hornblende-bearing, diffuse leucosomes. The orthogneiss contains
feldspathised mafic autoliths elongated parallel to the foliation. Outcrops are often cut by
hornblende- and biotite-bearing pegmatites. In some localities the gneiss is migmatitic and
more or less banded, but hornblende is always modally dominant over biotite. Petrographically,
typical samples of the orthogneiss contain ~15%, quartz, plagioclase, subordinate perthitic
orthoclase and myrmekite. Subhedral to anhedral hornblende, with some alteration to iron-rich
biotite, is the dominant mafic component, with accessory opaque mineral and apatite.
6.3.10 Banded biotite gneiss and migmatite (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMgmc)
On the easternmost sheets, 1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi, banded biotite gneiss occurs in
a large unit mainly on the north side of Rio Lurio, together with quartz-rich paragneiss and
69
marble close to the contact with the Ocua Complex. Other horizons of biotite gneiss are present
in the southern part of sheet 1340 Mecufi, commonly together with sillimanite-bearing quartzfeldspar gneisses (unit P2NMsb).
The unit varies considerably in appearance close to the Rio Lurio. Close to its
termination in the east (UTM 37S 622000, 8502000) it is rather fine-grained, banded on mmto cm scale, and is garnet-bearing. At places it contains thin quartz-rich layers. It is locally
intensely folded. Further west, on the main road to Namapa, this biotite gneiss unit is folded in
a large (10 km) tight, fold structure, as marked by a major marble horizon (hinge near UTM
37S 598000, 8498000). In this area some outcrops of the biotite gneiss are banded with
leucocratic and melanocratic bands on a scale of 1-10 dm and with two generations of folding
and migmatitic phases (Figure 6.27, Figure 6.28). Other outcrops (as at UTM 37S 591832,
8493078) contain graphite as 1-3 mm flakes and others contain thin bands of marble (Figure
6.29).
The lenses of biotite gneiss in the southern part of sheets 1339 Montepuez and 1340
Mecufi are also quite variable. Two examples are given here:
The lens at UTM 37S 594390, 8458642 is characterised by compositional banding on
scales from 1-100 cm, some layers are migmatitic and contain up to cm-sized
porphyroblasts of hornblende and magnetite, others have developed augen gneiss
fabric, showing shear deformation during metamorphism (Figure 6.30).
One of the lenses on sheet 1340 Mecufi (at UTM 37S, 622106, 8460002) displays a
notable banding between quartz-feldspar bands, garnet-rich bands, biotite hornblende
bands on dm scale. The locality displays irregular open folding (Figure 6.31).
Figure 6.27: Banded biotite gneiss with

leucocratic quartz-feldspar bands and
melanocratic hornblende-biotite bands alternating
at dm-scale. Locality: UTM 37S 591465, 8490878,
sheet 1339 Montepuez.
70
Figure 6.28: Two generations of migmatisation.

First generation displays a parallel banding, and
is crosscut by later migmatitic veins. Locality:
UTM 37S, 591465, 8490878, sheet 1339
Montepuez.
Figure 6.29: Banded biotite gneiss with

alternating quartz-feldspar and
biotiterhornblende bands on cm-dm scale. Some
graphite in the biotite-rich bands. The hammerhead marks a layer of impure marble. Locality:
UTM 37S 593546, 8494692, sheet 1339
Montepuez.
Figure 6.30: Banded migmatitic biotite gneiss,

with compositional banding on cm-dm and mscale. Some layers (e.g. left of hammer) are rich
in cm-sized hornblende blasts, others (right of
hammer) have an augen gneiss fabric. A 20 cm
pegmatite dyke crosscuts the banding. Locality:
UTM 37S, 594390, 8458642, sheet 1339
Montepuez.
On the basis of the nature of these gneisses, with compositional banding at different scales,
presence of graphite and thin marble layers, there is no doubt that the banded biotite gneisses
have a sedimentary origin.
Figure 6.31: Banded biotite gneiss,

irregularly folded. Banding between
leucocratic quartz-feldspar bands,
garnet-rich bands, biotite r hornblende
bands on cm-m scale. Locality UTM 37S
622106, 8460002, sheet 1340 Mecufi.
71
6.3.11 Metapelitic gneiss and migmatite (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMpt)

This is a volumetrically minor lithotype, but it is quite distinctive and was found south of the
Lurio belt on sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi. In these locations, it usually
forms bodies on the tens of metres to the kilometre-scale, but locally larger lenses up to 20km
in strike-length were observed (e.g. in the southwest corner of sheet 1438). It incorporates true
metapelitic rocks with quartz-feldspar-mica-garnet sillimanite cordierite (?) parageneses
(Figure 6.32). The gneisses are invariably strongly migmatised, and locally diatexitic. In the
large mass cropping out around UTM 37S 400000 8370000, large masses of garnet
amphibolite, with garnets up to 5 cm across were recorded, close to dismembered quartzite
lenses. These features indicate that this unit is clearly of metasedimentary origin.
Petrographically, these are typical pelitic gneisses, being heterogranular, with grain size
ranging from <0.5 to 5 mm and seriate to interlobate textures. Their fabric is defined by the
orientation of biotite and by a gradational compositional banding. Samples often contain large
porphyroblasts of K-feldspar, with quartz and plagioclase (sometimes with myrmekitic
textures) and garnet grains up to 5 mm in diameter, set in a finer-grained matrix. Garnet
porphyroblasts typically contain inclusions of biotite and quartz and are commonly surrounded
by a rim of plagioclase. The major mineral phases present are quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase,
biotite, and garnet, with minor amounts of opaque minerals and traces of apatite, zircon and
monazite.
Figure 6.32: Coarse-grained garnet-biotite metapelitic gneiss. Locality RT552 (UTM 37S
409800 8374567, sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi).
6.3.12 Garnet-bearing leucogneiss (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMglc)
This is another volumetrically minor, but nevertheless characteristic, lithological unit, which
occurs as a number of elongate pods in the southeastern part of sheet 1437 Malema, south of
the Lurio belt. It is made up of characteristic white-weathering, generally medium-grained,
72
heterogranular quartz-feldspar-garnet gneiss, with minor biotite (often <2%), locally in thin
schlieren and wisps. Garnets form characteristic trains of minute, rounded grains (mm-scale),
which largely define the fabric (Figure 6.33). Garnet-biotite clots up to 1cm in size occur
locally. In other outcrops, the gneisses are more banded, with pale garnet leucogneiss
alternating with more biotite-rich leucogneiss with garnet absent or present only in small
amounts. They are broadly leucogranitic in composition, with 35% quartz, sub-equal Kfeldspar and plagioclase (30% each), minor biotite and opaque minerals (2% each), and some
secondary muscovite. The rocks are also locally mylonitic with development of ribbon quartz.
These gneisses are probably the equivalents of the leptites of the BRGM maps and the
Mamala Formation of Aquater Co (1983).
Figure 6.33: Medium-grained, highly leucocratic garnet leucogneiss, showing scattered

garnets. Locality: UTM 37S 411998 8374732, sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi.
6.3.13 Quartzite, marble, calc-silicate rock, etc. (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMqz)
Many of the supracrustal gneiss lithotypes do not have distinct protoliths, though some
lithologies such as marbles, quartzites and calc-silicate gneisses clearly had sedimentary
precursors. A spectrum of compositions is present, from pure quartz-rocks and quartzites and
marbles, grading to calc-silicate rocks with increasing amounts of ferromagnesian components.
Metapelites and amphibolites are mapped and described separately, above. Where possible,
specific rock-types are shown on the maps, but as they are usually interlayered at a variety of
scales, no attempt has been made to map all the different lithologies separately. The greater
proportion of these rocks is found as dismembered layers and pods on the southern part of
sheet 1635 Milange, where the mapping of their distribution in this inaccessible region has
been enhanced by analysis of satellite imagery and the use of old maps, such as that of Hunting
(1984). These maps were largely based on aerial photograph interpretation, and as these rocks
commonly form pronounced positive relief, this is a useful interpretative technique.
Quartzitic rocks occur in two main forms, pure quartz rocks of uncertain origin and
quartzites. The former takes the form of a particularly characteristic coarse-grained
73
granoblastic, pure white quartz rock, with grain size often > 1 cm (up to 4 cm in some places).
The rock is massive and coarse-grained, crystalline and often unfoliated, though locally there is
a weak parallel-preferred orientation of quartz grains. Small voids occur in some locations,
possibly from the weathering out of opaque minerals. The pure quartz rocks are found in a
number of localities in the west of sheet 1635 Milange and the east of 1636 Lugela-Mocuba.
They are located sporadically along the Liciro lineament and are topographically expressed as
low, rounded and densely vegetated hills. It is unclear if this rock represents a primary coarse
orthoquartzite or some form of recrystallised quartz vein/fault rock.
Other outcrops of more conventional impure quartzites are made up of fine-grained
light grey, well-foliated rocks with > 75% quartz, but with additional feldspar and very minor
biotite. These rocks are locally patchily recrystallised to coarser grain sizes, are often
migmatitic, and are injected with thin leucosome veins. Rarely, quartz-clast
metaconglomerates, with up to 30% intensely deformed pebbles were observed, interlayered
with quartz-rich gneisses: cross-bedding, outlined by heavy mineral layers, was identified in
one quartzite outcrop. Some quartz-rich rocks are banded and contain layers of garnet,
hypersthene and opaque minerals alternating with quartz bands and appear to be
metamorphosed banded pyroxene-garnet quartzites, similar to gondites. In other outcrops, there
is a transition from quartz-rich rocks to those with calc-silicate affinities, composed of feldspar
clinopyroxene brown biotite opaque minerals. In a few, rare localities, very coarsegrained marbles were encountered (calcite up to 5 cm) with boudinaged, disrupted and folded
layers and pods of calc-silicate rocks and fine-grained garnetiferous gneisses, alternating on a
decimetre scale. With increasing levels of impurities, calc-silicate minerals such as diopside,
garnet, titanite and muscovite appear (with the latter predominant in the impure to pure
marbles).
Figure 6.34: Supracrustal gneiss
impure quartzitic rocks
interbanded with disrupted mafic
calc-silicate layers. UTM 37S
240717, 8134912, sheet 1636
Lugela-Mocuba.
6.3.14 Quartz-feldspar gneiss, sillimanite-bearing (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMsb)

Sillimanite-bearing quartz-feldspar gneiss is present in the southern part of sheet 1340 Mecufi.
It wedges out westwards into sheet 1339 Montepuez. It is a light greyish-white rock, generally
migmatitic with abundant irregular quartz-feldspar lenses containing muscovite and up to cmlong needles of sillimanite in sheaf-like aggregates. Sillimanite is otherwise present in
scattered, more finely grained needles throughout the rock. Muscovite is also common in tiny
flakes throughout. Garnet is in many places common as scattered porphyroblasts 1-3 mm
across.
74
Under the microscope (Figure 6.35) the gneiss is seen to be dominated by quartz and Kfeldspar, while plagioclase, biotite and locally sillimanite are subordinate phases. Garnet and
muscovite are often also present in accessory to subordinate amounts. Texturally the rock is
heteroblastic with quite irregular to lobate grains 0.2-2 mm across. Aligned laths of mica
define the foliation.
Figure 6.35: Sillimanite-bearing

quartz-feldspar gneiss, showing
needles of sillimanite, quartz and
micro-perthitic K-feldspar. Field of
view: 4.4x5.4 mm. Sample 40779,
UTM 37S 648926, 8470966, sheet
1340 Mecufi.
Figure 6.36: Section of sheet

1339 Montepuez, showing the
field relationships of the
marble and quartzitic
gneisses in the Nampula
Complex.
6.3.15 Quartzite and quartzitic gneiss (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMqq)

Quartzite and quartzitic gneiss occur with biotite gneiss and marble north of Namapa on sheet
1339 Montepuez (Figure 6.36). The layers are marked by very low signals with respect to K
and U on the airborne radiometric data, but rather high signals of Th. The high Th is probably
due to a high content of refractory minerals such as monazite and zircon.
The quartzitic gneisses are partly strongly deformed, with flattened quartz lenses
showing a ribbon texture. The rock is generally very fine-grained. Other minerals, in addition
75
to 60-90% quartz, are mica and feldspar usually as major constituents, while garnet, biotite
and/or hornblende occur in trace to subordinate amounts. Some of the localities consist of
immature sandstone with variation in clast size from 0.1 - 2 mm and with clasts mainly of
quartz surrounded by chlorite and mica (e.g. sample 33395 at UTM 37S 561391, 8469454,
Figure 6.37, Figure 6.38).
Figure 6.37: Field example of a meta-arenite

from locality UTM 37S 561391, 8469454,
Figure 6.38: Meta-arenite, same locality as in

Figure 6.37. Sample 33395 Field of view:
4.4x5.4 mm.
6.3.16 Marble (Molcu Group) (Unit P2NMma)

Marble is present in the northern part of the Nampula Complex on sheet 1339 Montepuez, just
north of Namapa in a tightly folded unit together with banded biotite gneiss (unit P2NMgmc)
and quartzitic rocks (unit P2NMqq) (see Figure 6.36). The marble is medium to coarsely
crystalline with 1-40 mm grains of calcite, varying from pure white to greyish. It usually
contains mm-sized grains of graphite, even in the most whitish varieties. Other common
accessories include yellowish flakes of phlogopite, pale blue to greenish grains of diopside and
some apatite. Tremolite needles are common in more impure layers. Geochemical data show
that the rock is a calcite marble, but also that it is variably dolomitised with MgO contents of
2.5 - 14.4 wt%. The contents of both MnO and SrO are < 0.04 wt%.
6.3.17 Strongly foliated K-feldspar granite gneiss (equigranular) (Culicui Suite) (Unit
P2NMfgr)
These orthogneisses occupy relatively small areas in the southern parts of Sheets 1635 and
1636 where they occur as well foliated, relatively small (10 km-scale or less), sheet-like
bodies, which appear to intrude the supracrustal gneisses. Relationships with other orthogneiss
units in the area could not be established. The gneisses are relatively homogenous and
medium- to coarse-grained, equigranular, consisting of 20-30% quartz, ~50% perthitic
microcline, with subordinate saussuritised plagioclase, 5-10% green hornblende (sometimes
with thin rims of clinopyroxene, possibly indicating post-intrusion, prograde metamorphism),
chloritised biotite, secondary muscovite and accessory opaque minerals, titanite, apatite and
zircon (Figure 6.39).
76
Figure 6.39: Typical pink K-feldspar granitic orthogneiss, with strong lineation. Locality UTM
37S 243077, 8134492, sheet 1636 Lugela-Mocuba.
6.3.18 Augen gneiss with charnockite (1042 1087 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P2NMga) and
charnockite (Unit P2NMch) (both Culicui Suite)
Culicui Suite is the term given to several compositional and textural varieties of coarsegrained, usually megacrystic, variably deformed syntectonic orthogneisses of granitic
composition that have been dated (U-Pb zircon) at 1090 - 1070 Ma (CGS, unpublished data).
Most of these varieties have been recognised in the southeastern part of the Nampula Complex;
only two distinctive types are recognised in this, the northwestern part of the Complex, both of
which are coarse-grained augen gneisses. In places the augen gneisses are patchily
charnockitised and in some areas, it proved possible to indicate the charnockitic facies of the
augen gneiss separately on the map. Consequently, they are discussed together, below.
By far the most widespread and volumetrically significant part of the Culicui Suite in
the area under review is made up of sheet-like bodies of coarse-grained biotite-granite augen
gneiss with patchy development of charnockite. Sheet-like and mainly tabular intrusions of this
unit are present throughout the area on all scales, ranging from large bodies of over 1000km2 in
extent, to sheets at metre scale or less. The sheets of augen gneiss fairly commonly preserve
intrusive contacts with the country rocks (mainly Mocuba Suite orthogneisses and supracrustal
gneisses), but were emplaced sub-parallel to the pre-existing layering, and all rocks were
subsequently deformed together.
The augen gneisses are pinkish-grey, coarse-grained rocks with pink microcline
microperthite augen (some showing partial marginal granulation) and megacrysts up to up to 5
cm across (average 2 cm), with quartz, subordinate plagioclase, brown biotite green
hornblende and accessory titanite, allanite, apatite, zircon and opaque minerals. The strong
fabric is mainly defined by the orientation of biotite and cm-long strings of hornblende, where
these are present. The gneisses are variably deformed, such that they range (often in one
outcrop) from relatively poorly-foliated megacrystic granites with rectangular K-feldspars to
highly sheared augen gneisses with marginally granulated and recrystallised, lensoid K-
77
feldspar porphyroclasts (Figure 6.40). The charnockitic phase is composed of quartz,

orthoclase, antiperthitic plagioclase, porphyroblastic orthopyroxene (locally retrogressed to
amphibole), brown hornblende and accessory minerals (Figure 6.41)
Figure 6.40: Highly deformed, K-feldspar-rich biotite augen gneiss (non-charnockitic) of the
Culicui Suite. Locality UTM 37S 495216 8383023, sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi.
The extent to which charnockite is developed in these outcrops is not always apparent
in the field. The typical greenish resinous lustre is only readily identifiable in fresh outcrops
and, furthermore, this field definition of charnockite is not always a useful indicator of the
presence of orthopyroxene. Indeed, the sample used in this study for geochronological analyses
is green and charnockitic in appearance, but does not contain orthopyroxene in the thin section
studied. In weathered outcrops, which are the most common, the distinction is often lost. For
this reason, it proved impossible to map out smaller charnockitic zones, and only consistent,
large areas of massive charnockites have been indicated separately. These were mapped, for
example on sheet 1635 Milange, in outcrops surrounding Jurassic syenite plutons, and in some
areas near Guru.
The precise relationship between the charnockitic and non-charnockitic phases is not
yet clear, but in the field the contacts usually appear gradational and patchy, tending to suggest
that the orthopyroxene-bearing rocks are the result of a later charnockitisation process which
has been superimposed upon the augen gneisses during a later high-grade dehydration event.
On the other hand, large masses, of several hundreds of kilometres in extent, as seen, for
example, in the east-west trending mountain ranges near Namarroi, may be primary, igneous
charnockites.
78
Figure 6.41: Charnockite of the Culicui Suite, showing antiperthite, hornblende and
orthopyroxene. Sample 33569. Locality UTM 37S 186625, 8237228, sheet 1536 Insaca-Guru.
A sample (33568) of dark green (but not hypersthene-bearing) coarse-grained augen
gneiss was collected for geochronogical analysis from a small intrusive sheet in the
southeastern part of sheet 1635 Milange. Sample 33568 provides a zircon U-Pb upper intercept
age of 1087 16 Ma, interpreted as the intrusion age of the gneiss (see Chapter 11.4).
Metamorphic zircon rim yields an age of 4938 Ma for the timing of later high-grade
metamorphism. These data support the field evidence that the augen gneisses underwent a
charnockitisation process during Pan-African metamorphism. A sample from what appears
to be Culicui Suite augen gneiss near Mocuba gave a zircon evaporation date of 1048 1 Ma
(sample 672CJ3; Krner et al., 1997).
Some minor bodies of charnockitic granulite (unit P2NMch) were also found within the
Nampula Complex on sheets 1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi. They contain up to cm-sized
grains of orthopyroxene and also some biotite and amphibole in addition to quartz and feldspar.
Locally, tiny garnets are present. The granulites vary from being rather homogeneous and
weakly foliated to deformed and banded. Some outcrops show some retrogression associated
with strong deformation. The bodies are interpreted as large boudins within the massif of
granitic to granodioritic gneiss.
6.3.19 Megacrystic granitic gneiss (Culicui Suite) (Unit P2NMyg)
This unit, which has its greatest extent in the area mapped by the Council for Geoscience
resembles the augen gneiss described above, but lacks the widespread patchy
charnockitisation.
79
6.4 Unango Complex

6.4.1 Introduction
The Unango Complex dominates the geology of the western part of Niassa province: it extends
from the border with Tanzania in the north, where it is partly overlain by the Karoo rocks of
the Maniamba Graben, to 150 30' S, along the border with Malawi and from Lago Niassa and
the Malawi border in the west to approximately 360 30' E, northeast of Mavago, where it is
overthrust by the Marrupa Complex and overlain by a klippen consisting of the Muaquia and
M'Sawize Complexes. South of this nappe it has tectonic contact with the Marrupa Complex. It
was emplaced structurally above the Nampula Complex during the Pan-African Orogeny. The
boundary between these two complexes is a complex series of northeast-southwest trending,
anastomosing, steep shear zones, evidence of which was only rarely observed in the field.
Figure 6.42: Overview of the main geological units in northeastern Mozambique. The Unango
Complex dominates the geology of the western area.
The Unango Complex is dominated by acid to intermediate orthogneisses, partly at
granulite grade and partly retrogressed. Migmatisation of variable character is extensive. Some
components show little indication of having been exposed to granulite-facies metamorphism.
80
As shown in Chapter 10, most of the granodioritic rocks plot in the field of I-type granites,
about 50% of the granites have compositions similar to fractionated I-type rocks, whereas other
granites plot in the A-type field together with syenitic rocks. Monzodioritic to monzonitic
rocks plot both in the field of fractionated I-type and A-type granites. High-grade paragneisses
locally predominate in the west along the border with Malawi. Many of the units within the
complex are bounded by elements in a network of anastomosing shear zones.
Ten samples of various orthogneisses of the Unango Complex were dated by LAICPMS (see Chapter 10). They range in intrusion age from 1065 16 to 97533 Ma. In
addition three samples of paragneisses were dated by different methods giving peak
amphibolite- to granulite-facies Pan-Afrcan metamorphism between 553 13 and 525 9 Ma.
6.4.2 Chala Gneiss: Banded mafic granulitic gneiss (Unit P2UNmr)
This lithodemic unit is situated astride the border with Malawi, southwards from the village of
Chala on sheet 1235 Meponda and continuing onto sheet 1335 Lichinga. On the Mozambican
side it has a triangular-shaped extent, up to 45 km east-west and 60 km north-south. In Malawi,
these rocks are described as semipelitic, garnetiferous biotite and hornblende gneisses, locally
with graphite (Bloomfield et al. 1966; Krner at al. 2001). The degree of metamorphism is
reported to be amphibolite facies (Andreoli 1984). On the geological map of Mozambique
(Pinna & Marteau 1987) the unit is described as high-grade gneiss, including pyroxenite and
amphibolite and striped mafic gneiss. Pinna et al. (1993) named this rock "the Meponda unit"
and recognised it as a paragneiss including marble, calc-silicate rocks, and aluminous schist.
The unit consists of mafic gneiss, thin felsic bands and quartzites in an alternating,
banded form together with darker, often mafic gneiss. Several of the rocks have vestiges of
typical granulite-facies characteristics like dark feldspar and a clotted distribution of mafic
minerals; hornblende + plagioclase + garnet is a common paragenesis. A typical texture is
shown by sample 31982 (Figure 6.43). Clinopyroxene may grow in "chains" through the
texture, indicating the increased mobility/accessibility of its components along certain planes
(Figure 6.44). In this case a perfect granoblastic equilibrium texture is demonstrated between
plagioclase, clinopyroxene and garnet. In other parts of the unit this texture is cut by up to 1
mm thick lamellae of inclusion-rich quartz, forming a distinct foliation of "platten quartz".
These grains are usually strongly deformed by concordant bhm-lamellae, see Figure 6.45.
The unit also contains bands of orthopyroxene-plagioclase-orthoclase-magnetite. The
orthopyroxene is usually partly broken down to biotite or hornblende, or both growing
together. The order of nucleation changes, even within the same thin section. This indicates
that local chemical distribution determines whether hornblende or biotite is the first
retrogressive product to appear. The observed network of orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene and
spinel connected along grain borders between the feldspar grains is considered to represent part
of the prograde history (Figure 6.46). Sometimes small globules of hornblende are trapped
inside orthopyroxene. This indicates a process of mobility and concentration of mafic
components between the plagioclase grains in star-shaped aggregates. This may be used as an
indicator for earlier granulite-facies metamorphism in retrograded rocks since the clustering of
mafic minerals in clots is preserved when pyroxenes is transformed to amphibolite-facies
parageneses (McGregor and Friend 1997).
Three samples, classified as amphibolite, biotite gneiss and a paragneiss have been
analysed by XRF. The amphibolite (sample 31215) has high contents of K2O and Fe2O3, but
rather low CaO and Na2O contents. The sample is also high in Nb, Zr, Y, Ga, Ce and Nd, but
81
low in Cr, V and Co. This could indicate a sedimentary origin, perhaps mixed with igneous
material. The biotite gneiss (Sample 31330) could represent an original igneous rock of dioritic
composition. The paragneiss (Sample 22780) has high contents of SiO2, rather elevated values
of Fe2O3 and K2O and low contents of CaO and Na2O, supporting a sedimentary origin.
Figure 6.43: Granulite-facies equilibrium

texture, apparently without later deformation.
Grain size ~ 0,3 mm: some plagioclase grains
reach 1 mm. Sample 31982 (UTM 36S
719940, 8492753, sheet 1335 Lichinga) Width
of view ~7.5 mm
Figure 6.44: Clinopyroxene growing

along earlier fissures, due to availability
of mineral components. Sample 31982
(UTM 36S 719940, 8492753, sheet 1335
Lichinga) Width of view 6.8 mm
Figure 6.45: 0,5 to 1 mm strained, elongated

quartz grains form planar texture in pyroxene
gneiss, showing deformation and quartz
growth during granulite facies conditions.
Sample 40439 (UTM 36S 720278, 8492967,
sheet 1335 Lichinga). Width of view: 5 mm.
Figure 6.46: Two-pyroxene gneiss with

pyroxene and spinel in a network of interconnected grains, locally with "nests" at
grain-boundary intersections. Rusty stain
at all grain borders between untwinned
feldspar. Sample 31299 (UTM 36S
745220, 8461996, sheet 1335 Lichinga)
Width of view 6.8 mm
Structurally the banded granulitic gneiss seems to be influenced by the same events as
most of the other units of the Unango Complex. This is illustrated in Figure 6.47 where
sinistral simple shear opened space for pegmatitic material, following an earlier phase of
dextral simple shear. Lineament patterns that support the assumption of isoclinal folding of the
regional banding, with sinistral shear zones along one limb can be seen on satellite images.
82
Figure 6.47: Banded mafic granulitic gneiss at UTM 36S 764663, 8469369, sheet 1335
Lichinga. These rocks are deformed close to major shear zones and both dextral and sinistral
movements are conceivable.
6.4.3 Migmatitic, stromatic gneiss (Unit P2UNmg)
This unit comprises strongly deformed, banded, fine-grained gneiss, which varies from biotite
gneiss to quartz-feldspar gneiss and more quartzitic varieties and which are present in two
main horizons near the shores of Lago Niassa on sheet 1234 Metangula.
The southernmost horizon is located some 10 km south of Meluluca. It consists of
migmatitic, stromatic gneiss with several veins and bands of quartz and feldspar. The veins and
bands belong to at least two generations, with internal discordances between the bands. The
earliest gneissic bands define isoclinal folds with an axial planar schistosity, which has been
cut by later migmatitic veins. Another horizon is located in the area between Metangula and
Messumba. This is bounded from the surrounding Karoo sedimentary rocks by several major
brittle, fault structures. As with the horizon to the south, the gneiss is banded on scales from a
few mm to 20 cm, with alternating quartz-feldspar gneiss and biotite gneiss bands. The felsic
bands are of at least two generations and have been isoclinally folded before being cut by later
aplitic dykes of granitic composition. In places the paleosomes vary from fine-grained
intermediate orthogneiss to a more recognisably enderbitic rock.
6.4.4 Banded migmatitic gneiss (Unit P2UNsm)
This unit is a heterogeneous sequence of grey, inequigranular, layered quartzo-feldspathic
biotite gneisses and migmatites with additional hornblende and/or pyroxene garnet,
considered to represent a metamorphosed sedimentary deposit. Magnetite is often conspicuous.
In a few localities, fine- to medium-grained, banded grossularite-diopside gneiss exhibits
isoclinal folds. Layering is present on all scales, from fine lamination and banding at the mmto cm-scale, to broader compositional layering (mainly generated by variations in biotite:
quartz-feldspar ratio) on the metre-scale or more. Coarse-grained layers of intermediate
compositions are also common. Some zones are regularly layered (straight gneisses), while
others are intensely chaotic and/or folded (Figure 6.48).
In general the rocks are less migmatised than those of the Molcu Group (their
equivalents in the Nampula Complex), perhaps testifying to the generally more anhydrous
nature of the Unango Complex. This is borne out by the presence of higher grade, granulite facies assemblages within this unit, the metabasites of which quite commonly contain
orthopyroxene clinopyroxene. The degree of migmatisation is variable, but nevertheless
83
locally intense, manifested as layer-parallel, stromatic leucosomes and several generations of

more or less, crosscutting leucocratic veins. More diffuse nebulitic migmatites also occur,
along with agmatites with angular blocks of palaeosome in lower strain zones and rocks with a
high degree of anatexis resulting in diatexitic gneisses. Mafic constituents occur both as biotite
schlieren and pods and amphibolite layers, pods, boudins or more angular masses (especially in
agmatites). Coarse leucosome veins and segregations commonly contain hornblende.
Figure 6.48: Typical outcrop of the layered gneisses of the Unango Complex. These finely
layered supracrustal gneisses and migmatites have the assemblage quartz + feldspar + biotite
+ hornblende garnet pyroxenes. (UTM 36S 754325, 8185865), sheet 1635 Milange.
The rocks locally display two fabrics the pervasive regional foliation/banding is
commonly cut by a later fabric which is manifest as either a later cleavage, axial planar to tight
folds or as small, closely-spaced ductile shear zones, often penetrated by a second generation
of diffuse leucosome (Figure 6.49).
84
Figure 6.49: Banded quartz-feldspathic biotite gneiss/migmatite, with regular layer-parallel

leucosome banding forming a first pervasive fabric. At high angle to this fabric, a second
fabric is developed, seen especially clearly in folded leucosomes. Leucosome-palaeosome
boundaries show cuspate-lobate relationship, with second fabric axial planar to cusps and
associated folds. (UTM 36S 803280, 8242032, sheet 1535 Insaca).
The mineralogy of this banded gneisses is characterised by quartz, K-feldspar (typically
perthitic orthoclase) and plagioclase, with up to 40% brown or green amphibole + brown
biotite, concentrated in mafic-rich bands and associated with magnetite. Some rocks preserve
granulite grade assemblages with both ortho- and clinopyroxene in metabasic layers. Rare calcsilicate layers contain diopside.
6.4.5 Hornblende gneiss (Unit P2UNbh)
Hornblende gneiss is found southwards from the road junction approximately 20 km southwest
of Mavago on sheet 1236 along the dirt track southwards towards Majune (UTM 37S 183093,
8595094 to 181981, 8584056). The unit forms a lens, which is ~12 km north-south and has an
east-west extent of at least 35 km. The rock has a microtexture (Figure 6.50), which consists of
re-equilibrated, recrystallised quartz and elongate patches of hornblende and biotite. The
hornblende is partially altered to epidote, suggesting that the rock was initially at amphibolite
facies and has been partially retrograded to greenschist facies. The gneiss shows varying
degrees of deformation, in some cases showing isoclinal folds (UTM 37S 182199, 8581742).
This locality is interpreted as a regional-scale shear zone structure with an oblique-slip shear
sense. The rock types change to more mixed granitic to granodioritic gneiss south of this
locality.
Similar rocks occur further north on sheet 1135 Lupilichi (approximately UTM 36S
808000, 8693350).
85
Figure 6.50: Photomicrograph of hornblende gneiss from the southwestern part of sheet 1236
Mavago (sample 35214, UTM 37S 181496, 8590814). Width of field: 6 mm.
6.4.6 Biotite gneiss, partly mylonitic (Unit P2UNbi)
This unit extends from sheet 1335 Lichinga, across the southeastern part of sheet 1235
Macaloge-Chiconono and onto sheet 1236 Mavago and 1135 Lupilichi, where it covers large
areas. The gneisses are weakly magnetic, and also have low radiometric signatures. They are
locally migmatitic with veins and lenses consisting of quartz and white feldspar.
These rocks are best observed along the main road to Mavago on the west side of the
Rio Luatize on sheet 1236 Mavago. The common lithology is quartz-plagioclase-biotite gneiss,
strongly deformed and typically developed into augen or blastomylonitic gneiss. Garnet is
common, occurring in scattered grains, typically more abundant in biotite-rich bands. The
rocks are partly banded and are assumed to represent paragneisses although a minor portion is
probably granitic to granodioritic orthogneiss. These rocks show a strongly developed foliation
and lineation, with the foliation occasionally folded parallel to the lineation. Locally the rock
has developed into mylonitic schist: shear sense indicators, where discernible, show a dextral
sense of movement.
In the south-easternmost part of sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono the rock forms a 15
km-long, north-south trending mountain ridge (UTM 36S 821564, 8566354). The strongly
foliated gneiss (Figure 6.51) comprises 40 % quartz, 25 % plagioclase, 20 % scapolite and
minor amounts of biotite, K-feldspar, epidote, carbonate and opaque minerals.
This rock unit outlines a granitic gneiss lens 20 km long in the northwest part of sheet 1336
Majune. A small lens of mafic supracrustal gneiss is exposed within it (see next section). In
contrast to the same rock further north, a local development of stromatic migmatite with up to
2 cm large garnets has taken place (Figure 6.52). These garnets grow in the leucosome bands
and represent a crystalline product of a melt reaction. On sheet 1335 Lichinga the same rock
type is exposed on the bank of Rio Lugenda (UTM 36S, 824163, 8524570). Here it is grey,
biotite gneiss with small scattered red garnets but no migmatite formation. It has not been
possible to follow this unit further into the Lichinga sheet towards the west.
86
Figure 6.51: Photomicrograph of quartz-plagioclase-scapolite-biotite gneiss (sample 31821,

UTM 36S 821564, 8566354, sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono). Field of view 4,4x5,4 mm.
Figure 6.52: Garnet-biotite
migmatitic gneiss (UTM 37S
184106 8530730) sheet 1336
Majune.
6.4.7 Quartz porphyric metarhyolite (Unit P2UNvo)

This rock occurs in a small exposure in the northeast part of sheet 1336 Majune, in the track to
one of the hunting concessions in the area north of Rio Lugenda. The rock has a granitic
composition, and is fine-grained with sulphides and dark grey quartz. The banding seems to be
parallel to foliation, and a large part of the rock is porphyritic. The phenocrysts are all quartz,
originally 0,3 2 mm, now polygonised to interlobate sub-grains. They are partly angular and
partly rounded ovals in shape. The matrix is very fine-grained (0,03 mm) and mainly
granoblastic. Microcline crystals (0,3 mm) are seen in the matrix: these are probably relict
from an igneous texture. Mafic minerals are small, scattered flakes of biotite and sulphide
minerals. Small euhedral garnets are present. Between felsic grains one may locally see a
87
veneer of opaque material. The extent of this unit is unknown because of lack of outcrop: its
size on the map (sheet 1336 Majune) is set large enough to be visible. It probably represents
probably a raft of meta-supracrustal rock engulfed in charnockitic to enderbitic granofels,
partly gneissic.
6.4.8 Quartz-feldspar gneiss and quartzite, locally magnetite-bearing (Unit P2UNfq)
This rock forms a 25 km-long lens west of Mavago. It is generally fine grained (0,1-1 mm) and
massive with large, euhedral porphyroblasts of magnetite generally up to 3 mm in diameter but
occasionally up to 1 cm in diameter. Kappa readings vary widely with the amount of
magnetite, but values up to 95 x 10-3 SI units, corresponding to almost 2,5 % magnetite, were
not uncommon in the more magnetite-rich areas. Locally magnetite accounts for up to 5 % of
the rock (e.g. UTM 37S 189537, 8612762). The rock is also rich in quartz veins. These veins
are monomineralic, massive and apparently undeformed. They normally form poor exposures,
or more generally trains of loose blocks, which strike parallel to the foliation. Quartz veins, up
to 15 m wide, were observed. Quartz veins found in bedrock and not as loose blocks (at UTM
37S 190522, 8612186) demonstrate an overthrust displacement from the south.
Thin sections reveal up to 75 % quartz with an equilibrium recrystallised texture
(Figure 6.53a). K-feldspar, often with euhedral shapes, suggesting it has grown in the matrix, is
the only other groundmass mineral. This is tentatively interpreted as evidence for granulitefacies metamorphism. Magnetite is generally euhedral and appears to have pre-dated the
recrystallisation of the quartz (Figure 6.53b) filling the interstices between quartz crystals. A
limited amount of green amphibole suggests local retrogression to amphibolite facies.
Figure 6.53: Photomicrographs showing textures in magnetite-bearing quartzite. (A) Euhedral

magnetite in a predominantly quartz+K-feldspar matrix. Field of view 5,3 mm. (B) Partially
developed magnetite crystal filling interstices between quartz grains (sample 35219, UTM 37S
191195, 8611582, sheet 1236 Mavago). Field of view: 1,5 mm.
A minor lens of pyrite-bearing quartz-feldspar gneiss was observed within the granitic
to granodioritic gneiss in the northern part of sheet 1236 Mavago (UTM 37S 193298 8652628).
This gneiss forms a ridge 2-300 m long and about 50 m wide. A thin section (sample 31841)
shows about 50 % microcline and 40 % quartz, while muscovite, pyrite, clinozoisite and
plagioclase are subordinate phases (1-5 %). Analysis of this sample shows no significant
enrichment of any metals (see Chapter 13).
Magnetite-bearing quartzitic rocks and quartz-feldspar gneisses occur within the unit of
mafic, banded granulitic gneiss (unit P2UNmr) close to the border with Malawi on sheet 1335
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Lichinga. These rocks are massive, medium-grained and locally rich in disseminated
magnetite. The magnetite-rich parts occur as quartzitic boudins, and contain tiny pink garnets,
probably spessartine. The quartzitic rocks appear otherwise to be more banded.
Two small outcrops of a fine-grained dark grey, banded rock were found on the
northern bank of Rio Luambala on sheet 1336 Majune are (UTM 37S 188371, 8515784 and
188290, 8515934). The extent of the rock is unknown and possibly smaller than depicted on
the map. It is a quartz-rich gneiss with very pronounced cm-scale banding and a foliation with
the same orientation. In one of the localities small amounts of sulphides were observed, which
is otherwise very rare in the other rocks in the area. The grain-size is up to 0,4 mm. Plagioclase
(30%) is mostly coarse-grained, quartz (50%) is strained and some elongated and biotite (5%)
is strongly reddish and scattered between felsic minerals, and aligned with the foliation.
Numerous fine-grained (~0,2 mm) euhedral garnets are distributed throughout the rock. Quartz
and locally epidote occur as inclusions in the cores of the garnets. The strongly red pleochroic
biotite indicates that this is a high-grade rock, but the occurrence of epidote is confusing. The
minerals are probably not in equilibrium and reflect a prograde development.
A quartzite horizon defines a tight fold in the Metende area on sheet 1435 Mandimba.
Other well-banded quartzites in the same area are too thin to be shown at a scale of 1:250,000.
These quartzites are exposed in a broad east-west-trending zone, straddling the drainage
catchment of the Rio Luelele within an outcrop of granitic to granodioritic gneiss (unit
P2UNdi).
6.4.9 Quartzite, muscovite- and kyanite-bearing (Unit P2UNqm)
This unit is is exposed on the southern side of the main road from Lichinga to Majune, near the
village of Litunde and Monte Malati (UTM 797000, 8522000) on sheet 1335 (Lichinga). It
consists of 1-1,5 km wide, elongated zones or bands of quartzite with muscovite and locally
kyanite. The same rock type also occurs near Lichinga, in a narrow belt along the shear zone
bordering the enderbitic granofels towards the south (UTM 765807, 8531228).
The quartzite near Monte Malati is folded with a closure towards the west-southwest
together with the surrounding geniss. Since the gneiss on both sides of the band seems to be
similar, it is tempting to assume that these metasediments represent cover sequences trapped
between the segments in a stack of gneiss lenses. If this is correct, the quartz-gneiss around
Monte Malati could be splays of the more fundamental shear zone further west at (UTM 36S,
753555, 8528178). This lies on, or close to the tectonic contact to the almost undeformed
enderbitic granofels in the N. The quartzite near Monte Malati is mostly a white glassy rock
with some muscovite, looking almost pegmatitic, but locally shows clear kyanite-bearing
metamorphic textures. The quartzite near Lichinga contains much more kyanite (2040 %) in
poikilitic crystals >2 mm long or as more slender prismatic crystals. The quartz grains are
about 2 mm across, but numerous sub-grains <0.2 mm have crystallized along the grain
borders of larger grains with undulating extinction. Less than 1 % rutile of grain-size <0.2 mm
is scattered in the rock. Parts of the quartzite display a "ribbon texture" with ~0.6 mm-wide
ribbons of quartz, one grain thick, with grains up to more than 2 mm long. Other parts have
micro-scale lenses with granoblastic texture separated by more mylonitic bands.
Further east, on sheet 1336 Majune, two other occurrences of this rock unit are
exposed. The most accessible of these is a ridge south of the village of Malanga, represented
by sample 34266 (UTM 37S, 188720, 8504514). It contains cordierite grains up to 2 cm across.
The quartzite is usually grey, medium- to fine-grained and often banded. The bands are often
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rich in brownish red garnet in almost monomineralic fine-grained masses. The cordierite
contains very tiny inclusions, possibly of sillimanite. The mafic bands are more numerous on
the northeast side of the ridge.
Further south, on sheet 1336 Majune (sample 34269: 37S 185945, 8487008), there is
another occurrence of this rock unit. It is a white quartzite, sometimes coarse crystalline and
vein-like, but recrystallised with a foliation. Minor iron ores with rare greenish weathering
were observed locally. Some pink-weathered feldspar grains and muscovite are seen. In the
upper part of the hill there is an intercalated medium-grained quartzite containing clear 1 cm
long kyanite crystals within the foliation: petrographic work shows that the rock is a
heterogranular quartzite which also contains wisps of sillimanite.
Three modes of formation for this rock are credible:
x Metasomatic alteration of volcanic rocks during diagenesis,
x High pressure, kyanite-grade metamorphism of hydrothermally altered supracrustal
rocks, as for example proposed by Owens et al. (2001) for similar rocks in Virginia.
x Metamorphism of a regolith rich in quartz and clays with possible local enrichments of
heavy minerals.
For the two localities on the Majune sheet, the presence of cordierite and sillimanite possibly
indicates a higher temperature than the localities close to Lichinga.
In the southeast part of the sheet 1236 Mavago, minor sequences of off-white to buffand pink-weathered, fine- to medium-grained quartzite occur (UTM 37S 204074, 8575166).
Some outcrops are reddish due to weathering and formation of haematite. A weak banding is
defined by variation in concentrations of fine-grained mica and opaque minerals. This rock is
interpreted as a quartzitic paragneiss infolded or rafted within the granitic gneiss. Thin section
study shows that it contains approximately 90 % granoblastic quartz, 4 % iron ore/opaques, up
to 4 % small grains of kyanite and about 2 % white mica/muscovite flakes (sample 31957).
Quartzite is exposed on a parallel ridge to the southwest (UTM 37S 203431, 8574700). This is
interpreted to lie on the eastern limb of a kilometre-scale synform plunging south-southeast.
The folding appears to be cut off to the north by the northeast-trending shear zones that are
abundant in this area.
6.4.10 Leucocratic quartz-feldspar gneiss (5699 Ma metamorphic; 82720 Ma
detrital: both U-Pb) (Unit P2UNlcr)
These fine-grained, streaky acidic gneisses are volumetrically insignificant and only two
polygons appear on the sheets 1535 Insaca and 1536 Gurue, though much smaller lenses and
layers were found elsewhere. The rocks are fine to medium-grained, equigranular, streaky,
pink to yellowish, very leucocratic quartzo-feldspathic gneiss, with some dark blebs
(magnetite?) and rusty (goethitic?) patches 1-2 mm in size. The gneisses are characterised by a
very strong, regular planar foliation. They are locally interlayered with, and have sharp
contacts against, fine- to medium-grained mafic gneisses as discontinuous layers and boudins.
The gneisses are locally migmatitic with leucocratic veining. Tight to isoclinal folding is
characteristic. The gneisses possibly represent a rhyolite-dominated bimodal volcanic
sequence. In some localities, small amphibolite boudins might be interpreted as volcanic
bombs (Figure 6.54).
The felsic gneisses are composed of quartz-microcline microperthite-plagioclaseopaque mineral with minor brown hornblende (partly altered to biotite). More mafic layers
show granulite-facies mineral parageneses and are composed of quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase,
90
orthopyroxene (mostly fresh, often in contact with magnetite), olive green hornblende, brown
biotite, titanite, apatite and rare garnet as minute rounded inclusions in feldspar.
Figure 6.54: Fine-grained, streaky felsic (meta-rhyolitic?) gneiss from the Unango Complex.
Note regular, mm-scale fine compositional layering and small amphibolite pod (volcanic
bomb?) Location: UTM 36S 803280 8242032, sheet 1535 Insaca.
Sample 33572 of the felsic gneisses was selected for U-Pb SHRIMP zircon
geochronology. The sample is fine-grained, with high magnetic susceptibilities and contains
rounded and irregular zircons with distinct cores and wide, generally featureless, rims. Despite
the apparent simplicity of the zoning, however, the data obtained were quite complex, 11
analyses of rims yield a weighted mean age of 574 11 Ma (MSWD = 0.60) and six of seven
analysed cores gave a weighted mean age of 831 21 Ma (MSWD = 1.7). One core analysis
yielded a significantly older, near-concordant 207Pb/206Pb age of 1092 Ma, and differs from the
other cores in that it displays magmatic oscillatory growth zoning. If the interpretation of this
rock as a meta-rhyolite is correct, then the mean age of 831 Ma for zircon cores probably
represents the time of crystallisation of the pre-metamorphic protolith, and the single older core
analysis is likely to represent a xenocryst from the Unango Complex. The age of
metamorphism is well constrained at 574 Ma by the analyses of zircon rims.
Important implications for the geological evolution of the Unango Complex follow if
this geochronological interpretation is correct. It then follows that an early Neoproterozoic
episode of (possibly bimodal) magmatism must have taken place after the formation of the
Unango Complex, but before the deposition of the Alto Benfica and Mecuburi Groups on the
Nampula Complex. Such magmatism is typical of an extensional, rifting setting and could
point to the vestiges of an as-yet unrecognised extensional magmatic event at ~800 Ma, prior
to the juxtaposition of the Mesoproterozoic complexes during the Pan-African Orogeny in the
late Neoproterozoic. Interestingly, a rifting event at ~800 Ma broadly coincides with Rodinia
break-up models.
6.4.11 Stromatic mafic gneiss and charnockitic gneiss (Unit P2UNmc)
These rocks are present as extended, folded horizons within a major body of granitic to
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granodioritic gneiss (P2UNdi) in the southeast corner of sheet 1335 Lichinga, and extend into
sheet 1435 Mandimba. In the Mandimba area the mafic gneisses appear as concordant sheets
up to several km in thickness in the granitic to granodioritic gneisses. They are readily
identified on high-resolution aeromagnetic maps due to their high positive anomalies. They
appear to vary in composition from charnockitic quartz-monzonites to quartz-diorites and
diorites. However, some of the gneisses may be derived from arenaceous and argillaceous
sedimentary strata, as well as from intermediate volcanic rocks. The intensity of metamorphic
and tectonic fabrics means that interpretations of the precursor lithologies to the gneisses are at
best, speculative. They are generally medium- to coarse-grained, contain variable amounts of
quartz and disseminated magnetite and have a vitreous greenish-grey colour.
These rocks are best exposed as huge flat pavements and low elongate inselbergs in the
southern part of sheet 1435 Mandimba (e.g. at UTM 36S 821051, 8373150). The gneisses are
strongly banded on all scales up to about 1m, with rootless isoclinal folds best defined by
mafic-rich bands. Slightly discordant pegmatite veins cut across the banding and also infill
necks of boudinaged mafic bands. Thinly banded granofelsic, felsic and mafic gneisses are
exposed in the extreme northwest of the Mandimba sheet and continue northwards into sheet
1335 Lichinga and westwards into Malawi where semipelitic, variably graphitic, garnetiferous
biotite-hornblende-gneisses have been described (Bloomfield et al., 1966; Krner et al., 2001).
Mafic bands exposed on the Mandimba sheet are composed of pyroxene, feldspar and quartz
with accessory magnetite. They could originally have represented volcanic units within the
predominantly sedimentary sequence. In thin section (sample 33440, UTM 36S 823261,
8385643) the banded gneiss has a granofelsic groundmass of embayed quartz grains with
microcline and microperthite and interstitial plagioclase. There are minor amounts of
myrmekite and albitic overgrowths occur on alkali feldspar grains. Hornblende is present as
clusters of anhedral grains cut by biotite flakes. Disseminated magnetite occurs throughout the
thin section.
6.4.12 Lichinga Gneiss: Enderbitic to charnockitic granofels, partly migmatitic (Unit
P2UNef)
The term enderbitic to charnockitic granofels is used to describe the whole suite of
charnockitic rocks from enderbite to charnockite. The term "granofels" is chosen in agreement
with the preliminary proposal from the IUGS Sub-commission on Systematics of Metamorphic
Rocks (SCMR 2003) and the Glossary of Geology (Bates and Jackson 1987). Richard
Goldsmith first proposed the term in 1959. The term enderbite is used synonymously with
orthopyroxene-bearing tonalite, following Le Maitre (2002).
The unit forms a major component in the Unango Complex north of Lichinga on sheet
1335, and extending northwards as several major units on sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono and
is also present further west on sheet 1334 Meponda and 1234 Metangula. It is typically a
homogeneous equigranular rock with polygonal texture. Clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene,
plagioclase and hornblende are the main phases. Quartz and K-feldspar are common as a trace
to minor components and with higher contents of K-feldspar the rock is classified as a
mangerite (orthopyroxene-bearing monzonite) or charnockite (orthopyroxene-bearing granite).
The typical grain size is 0,2-0,4 mm: a second fraction of the same minerals is coarser, around
2-3 mm: antiperthite grains are often up to 5 mm across. Small grains of orthopyroxene
commonly form partial rims on larger clinopyroxene grains. Gneissic or migmatitic banding is
occasionally present. If present, it consists of cm- to some dm-scale bands with variations in
the ratios between dark and light minerals and a preferred orientation of mafic aggregates.
Biotite is always present, usually as a minor component, with a strong red colour, indicating a
92
high content of Ti. The rock is otherwise characterised by being rich in magnetite, and has
kappameter readings typically in the range 10-50 x 10-3 SI units, corresponding to magnetite
contents of 0,7 to > 3 %. Biotite-bearing varieties generally yield lower values.
This unit is well exposed along the road section between Maniamba and Metangula
(sheet 1234 Metangula). The rocks on this section, where their original mineralogy is
preserved, would appear to be enderbitic, though varying from leucocratic (dominant) to more
pyroxenitic varieties. Traces of Fe-Ti oxide occur. The first 8 km of the traverse is
characterized by mainly massive, medium-grained, granofelsic grey enderbites; locally coarsegrained and with metagabbroic texture. Locally the rock is cut by near vertical basaltic dykes,
up to 3-4 m wide, striking between 28 and 56. Metagabbroic granulites are also found for the
next 3 km of the profile, interbanded with granulites of enderbitic composition. There are, even
in the easternmost part of the section in which the granulite-facies mineralogy is best
preserved, zones of extreme retrogression. Some of these are the locus for zones of brecciation,
now seen as epidotised crush rock, in some of which there are zones of pseudotachylite.
Retrogression and low-temperature deformation features become progressively more common
westwards as zones of biotite gneiss and mylonite are approached.
The south-central part of the sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono is dominated by a northsouth trending body of charnockite up to about 40 km wide, which continues from the north
westernmost part of the sheet 1335 Lichinga. The unit includes a wide range of varieties from
leucocratic rocks (charnockite) to enderbite, which also exhibit varying degrees of
retrogression. The body contains several bodies of granitic orthogneiss, some of which are
lensoid. Others have irregular forms and one is dyke-like, ~20 km. long and under 1 km wide.
The charnockitic body also contains one body of gabbro, ~2,5 km across.
Field observations and petrographic data (Figure 6.55) show that charnockite is the
dominant rock-type in the area. Its colour varies from pale green to olive-green. The quartz
content is generally high, while the content of pyroxenes is often quite low. Some varieties
contain plagioclase laths up to 1 cm long. Blue quartz is present in many areas, and more rarely
pink quartz. Occasionally the rock contains quartz-feldspar veins, which may indicate incipient
migmatisation. Enderbite, with up to >50% mafic minerals and minor amounts of quartz and
K-feldspar, is less common. At least 50% of the outcrops visited show more or less
retrogressed rocks: in some areas the texture is almost gneissic. The extent of outcrop of the
charnockitic rocks in relation to their apparent total extent is not great. An extensive exposure
in a quarry on sheet 1335 Lichinga (UTM 36S 759649 8509634) about 10 km south of the
sheet boundary indicates that the degree of local variability may be much greater than that
which can be seen from a random selection of small outcrops: the rocks in the quarry also
indicate highly variable degrees of migmatisation and different types of migmatite, including,
locally agmatite. The outcrops also show a complex tectonic history, involving tectonic events
between and after two periods of migmatisation (Figure 6.56).
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Figure 6.55: Granulitic textures from the granulites on sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono. (A)
Clinopyroxene with corona texture of, first, orthopyroxene, then retrogressive amphibole. (B)
Clinopyroxene with orthopyroxene corona texture. (C) Typical granoblastic texture with small
garnets enveloping pyroxenes. (D) Granoblastic texture in enderbitic gneiss, consisting of
clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, hornblende and plagioclase. UTM 36S 758179, 8608226. Field
of view = 4,4x5,4 mm.
More retrograded charnockitic gneiss was investigated during a traverse eastwards from
Lumbiza and across the Rio Lucheringo (around UTM 36S 775800, 8591500). The gneiss is
variably foliated and banded, but is locally quite homogeneous (Figure 6.57). Bands and lenses
consist of coarse-grained quartz, feldspar and biotite. The gneiss varies from medium (1-4 mm
grains) to coarse-grained (> 4 mm grains). Thin sections of the gneiss show a content of mainly
perthitic K-feldspar, plagioclase and quartz, while biotite and hornblende are subordinate
phases. Clinopyroxene is rare, as porphyroblastic grains, partially replaced by hornblende. The
recrystallised gneissic texture and thee presence of pyroxene, imply that the gneiss has been at
a high metamorphic grade, possibly granulite facies.
94
Figure 6.56: Two examples of migmatitic, enderbitic gneiss. Note early migmatitic banding
(mesosome) truncated by later neosome in left photo. Location: Quarry on the road from
Lichinga to Unango (UTM 36S, 738603, 8551456, sheet 1335 Lichinga).
Figure 6.57: Coarse-grained homogeneous
charnockitic gneiss. Locality east of Rio
Lucheringo (UTM 36S 776260, 8591370.
sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono).
6.4.13 Charnockitic gneiss, partly migmatitic (5366 Ma, metamorphic zircon, UPb)(Unit P2UNcm)
This rock type extends into the southernmost part of sheet 1435 Mandimba but is a major unit
in the southern and western parts of sheet 1436 Cuamba. It is distinguished from charnockitic
to enderbitic granofels (P2UNce) by having a strong gneissosity. Otherwise it is massive,
medium- to coarse-grained, greenish-grey rocks with greyish feldspars, variable amounts of
quartz, garnet, mafic minerals and disseminated magnetite grains. The gneissosity is at a scale
of 0,1-10 cm, with mafic seams as well as quartz-feldspar and quartz-rich seams. Most
exposures have thin (up to about 30cm in thickness) mafic bands that are sub-parallel to the
gneissosity. These bands commonly define tight to isoclinal folds. Individual garnet grains are
up to about 2cm in diameter. Pegmatite and aplite veins are ubiquitous to large exposures but
are never a major component of the rock. One thin section revealed a granofelsic texture of
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interlocking embayed quartz, microcline and plagioclase grains with minor myrmekite and
with biotite and opaque grains disseminated along felsic grain boundaries.
The unit covers a large area (over 5000 km2) in the northwest part of sheets 1535/36
(Insaca-Gur). They form the southern continuation of the large masses of similar rocks seen
to the north on sheets 1435/36 (Mandimba-Cuamba). The rocks are coarse-grained, often
foliated granitoids, with the characteristic green resinous lustre typical of charnockites. This
lithological uniformity suggests that these rocks may be primary igneous charnockites, as
distinct from many of the patchier, replacement-charnockite textures seen in the Culicui Suite.
The typical mineral assemblage seen is quartz, perthitic orthoclase, plagioclase, clino- and
orthopyroxenes, dark brown-green hornblende, with accessory opaque minerals, apatite, zircon
and allanite. However, not all the rocks are charnockites by strict definition, in that not all
samples carry orthopyroxene.
6.4.14 Monte Elinasse Charnockitic granofels and gneiss, partly porphyric (100133 Ma)
(Unit P2UNfp)
These rocks occur as lenses and bands, closely associated with partly migmatitic charnockitic
gneiss (Unit P2UNcm) on the southwest part of sheet 1436 Cuamba. Subhedral, brownweathering feldspar up to about 0.5 cm in diameter is the main component seen on a
macroscopic scale. A mm-scale gneissosity is variably develop, and is locally accentuated by
felsic as well as mafic seams up to about 30 cm in thickness. Minor folds and ductile shears
can be seen in larger exposures. 90% of the mode in a thin section is strained microperthite
with a polymodal grain size distribution. Albite exsolution blebs are unevenly distributed
within individual grains. Quartz grains are interstitial to feldspar grains with hornblende (partly
replaced by biotite), zircon and opaque minerals including magnetite.
6.4.15 Charnockitic to enderbitic granofels, partly gneissic (106516 Ma; U-Pb) (Unit
P2UNce)
Charnockitic and retrograded charnockitic rocks dominate a large area in the northwest part of
sheet 1236 Mavago and the western part of sheet 1136 Milepa. A wide range of acid to
intermediate compositions can be observed but most of the rocks contain blue (occasionally
pink) quartz and small amounts of pyroxene, in some localities two pyroxenes. The content of
magnetite is variable. Both mangeritic granofels and gneiss, and more coarse-grained
charnockitic gneiss with large K-feldspar porphyroblasts and large biotite aggregates are
observed. Homogeneous, plagioclase-rich enderbite with biotite aggregates (replacing
pyroxene?) is also found. Locally there is evidence for a prolonged magmatic development,
involving emplacement of mafic dykes and later pegmatites (containing blue quartz) during
granulite facies metamorphism (Figure 6.58).
Rocks along an eastwards traverse from the main road in the northwest part of sheet
1236 Mavago, illustrate the variations in composition and retrogression of these charnockitic
rocks. Granitic gneiss with minor biotite dominates the western part of the traverse (UTM 37S
195690, 8652972): the assumed boundary to charnockitic rocks is further east. Enderbitic
granofels is located in a dry river exposure (UTM 37S 198701, 8654328); it is dominated by
plagioclase, quartz and lesser amounts of K-feldspar with mafic aggregates of biotite,
clinopyroxene, hornblende and garnet (sample 31800). Coarse-grained K-feldspar porphyroblastic granitic gneiss and feldspar-rich granofels are found further east before a slightly
retrograded mangerite is found at the easternmost end of the traverse (UTM 37S 201521,
8655856). The rock is granoblastic with coarse-grained plagioclase and K-feldspar embaying
mafic aggregates with corona textures (Figure 6.59, sample 31801). Clinopyroxenes form the
96
core of the aggregates and are replaced by biotite and hornblende with poikilitic garnet in the
outer rims.
Figure 6.58: Pegmatite, containing blue quartz, cutting foliation in mangerite (UTM 37S
201804, 8677378, sheet 1136 Milepa).
Similar variations are seen in the northern part of the main outcrop of these rocks, on
both the Milepa and Mavago sheets. The charnockitic rocks include homogenous and mediumgrained, feldspar-phyric and more fine-grained varieties. Granulitic textures with granoblastic,
coarse grains with sutured boundaries are common. They comprise perthitic feldspar and
plagioclase associated with minor myrmekite, in various proportions, from charnockite to
enderbite in composition (sample 31961, UTM 37S 180675, 8675138 and sample 32034, UTM
37S 197812, 8666048, respectively). Quartz grains are relatively small, and both clinopyroxene
and orthopyroxene are fairly common. Biotite has a red-brown colour (Ti-rich) and locally has
garnet or hornblende growths at grain margins. Small granular garnet grains tend to form
coronas around biotite. Very minor green hornblende appears to be an alteration product of
biotite and pyroxene. Opaque minerals and apatite are present as accessories. A feldspar-phyric
charnockite (sample 31960, UTM 37S 183240, 8702869) contains up to 50 % granoblastic
plagioclase, associated with myrmekitic intergrowth of small grains of quartz up to c.25% and
K-feldspar, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, biotite and minor garnet in small granules and
poikilitic porphyroblasts. There are also accessory opaque minerals, and hornblende is a minor
late product after pyroxene.
Charnockitic to enderbitic granofelses and gneisses have also been found elsewhere on
sheets 1136 Milepa and 1236 Mavago: they commonly occur in tectonic lenses. An example of
this is found in the southwest part of the Mavago sheet where a several km thick unit strikes
Nnortheast-Ssouthwest. This unit lies within granitic and granodioritic gneisses at a lower
grade, and is therefore likely to have been juxtaposed tectonically with these rocks. The
lithologies vary from enderbite (UTM 37S 187857, 8568766) containing
plagioclase+pyroxene+ biotite+hornblende at a grain size of 2-5 mm to more porphyroblastic
97
Figure 6.59: Mangeritic granofels from the northern part of sheet 1236 Mavago (Sample
31801, UTM 37S 201521, 8655856). Clinopyroxene is replaced by biotite, hornblende and
quartz with garnet in the outer rim of the mafic aggregate (width of photo 1,5 mm).
rock (Sample 35225, UTM 37S 189951, 8569072, Figure 6.60), in which blue (labradorite)
feldspars form euhedral porphyroblasts up to 7 mm across. More charnockitic lithologies are
also noted (UTM 37S 190393, 8568928 and 191987, 8568294), but these are extremely
weathered and fine grained. Susceptibility measurements in the range 10 - 50 x 103 SI units
suggest the presence of magnetite, small grains of which are also visible.
Figure 6.60: Charnockitic rocks in the southwest part of sheet 1236 Mavago (Sample 35225,
UTM 37S 189951, 8569072). (Left) Garnet associated with biotite. (Right) Typical granular
texture with quartz and feldspar (Field of view: 6 mm).
Tectonic lenses of charnockitic gneiss also occur within the thrust sheets consisting of
biotite and hornblende gneiss southwest of Mavago. North of the road to Mavago, charnockitic
gneisses occur in a tectonic lens in south-vergent folds, indicating a southward dipping thrust
zone constituting the northern contact of the belt. This is evident from a significant westnorthwest east-southeast-trending shear zone with a dip of 40 in the eastern part of the belt.
This is a heterogeneous, partly banded sequence assumed to consist mainly of charnockitic
paragneiss. The charnockitic rock south of the road is assumed to represent orthogneiss. It is a
granofelsic rock containing large grains of perthitic alkali feldspar, and smaller grains of quartz
and plagioclase associated with myrmekite (sample 31945, UTM 37S 189490, 8597530).
Biotite occurs in some large flakes, and clinopyroxene is partly altered to amphibole. "Late"
98
grains of accessory garnet and opaque minerals are also present. The rock is slightly strained
and partly retrogressed.
Tectonically bounded lenses of Unango Complex charnockitic rocks occur within the
Marrupa Complex on sheet 1136 Milepa. At UTM 37S 207740, 8690176 there is a strongly
sheared, coarse-grained charnockite is found. It contains feldspars and hornblende up to 3 mm
in size, and with small amounts of biotite, quartz and partially oxidised pyrite.
The main body of the charnockite on sheet 1136 Milepa does not show the shearing
seen in this coarse-grained lens. However, inclusions of a fine-grained, basic dyke have been
incorporated into the charnockite, suggesting that the charnockite was initially an intrusive
rock and demonstrating just how much this rock unit has been sheared (Figure 6.61). The dyke
fragments are highly elongated and are folded into isoclinal folds. These folds have nearvertical hinges with fold limbs parallel to the steep foliation suggesting a strike-slip shear sense
in the charnockite. Pegmatite melts, which also lie parallel to the foliation, contain very coarsegrained (up to 2 cm) crystals of plagioclase, quartz and K-feldspar. These pegmatites appear to
have formed as localised melts derived from the charnockite as they are never more than 10 cm
wide and form isolated lenses in the charnockite (Figure 6.61). They are relatively unaffected
by the shearing but display limited boudinage. A thin section of the charnockite reveals the
presence of feldspars+quartz+orthopyroxene+clinopyroxene as well as garnet. Quartz is
pervasively recrystallised and displays equilibrated textures, whereas shear sense indicators
demonstrate a strike-slip sinistral shear sense. This rock unit is interpreted as an exotic sliver of
Unango Complex charnockitic rocks which has been caught up on a tectonic contact during
juxtaposition of the Nampula Complex with the Unango Complex.
Figure 6.61: Field relationships of a tectonic lens of Unango Complex charnockite within the
Marrupa Complex. (Left) Elongate, sheared remnants of a basic dyke within the charnockite.
(Right) Pegmatitic melts within the charnockite. (UTM 37S 207740, 8690176, sheet 1136
Milepa).
The southernmost extension of this rock is found along the northern edge of sheet 1336
Majune. This rock has all the macro-/meso- and microscopical characteristics of an intrusive
igneous rock. The exposures are usually rounded knolls or flat pavements on some of the
hillsides. Mesoscopically, the rock looks red and "granitic" but it becomes increasingly dark
and brown-grey northwards, a typical colour for the charnockite-mangerite series. Microscopic
investigation however, very rarely shows any orthopyroxene. The mafic minerals form
aggregates of fine-grained biotite and quartz (core), hornblende and subhedral garnets. The
biotite has a bright green pleochroism. The grain-size in the core is 0,3 mm but increases
99
outward. Locally, mesoperthite is observed, and the other felsic minerals have a grain-size of
2-5 mm. Granoblastic recrystallisation is common between the coarse (relict igneous?) grains.
Shear zones on a microscale, 5-10 mm apart, transect the thin sections locally and give the rock
a foliation, but the overall deformation seem to be very limited. We interpret this rock as an
igneous rock that, according to indirect evidence, has been metamorphosed in the granulite
facies during or after its intrusion. Pyroxene has later been totally recrystallised to a
symplectite of quartz, biotite and opaque minerals, and subsequently to hornblende and garnet.
This rock unit has escaped the severe deformation observed east and west of its borders. The
rock composition is mostly intermediate, but a quartz diorite is found on the eastern side close
to the northern map limit. Zircon from this rock has been dated by LA-ICPMS and gives an
intrusion age of 1065 16 Ma.
Similar rocks occur as concordant homogeneous charnockitic sheets throughout sheet
1435 Mandimba. They form kopjes and inselbergs and are locally deformed into large podshaped bodies. The rocks are all generally fine to medium grained, equigranular rocks with a
vitreous greenish-grey colour, locally pink on weathered surfaces. They are strongly foliated
and sheared south of the Rio Luelele and north of Monte Lissiete. The area west of Serra
Lipembecue is low-lying and covered with extensive boggy alluvial areas (pantanos) extending
from Lago Amaramba. However, satellite imagery highlights a number of lithological units
that strike north-south, parallel to Serra Lipembecue. No exposures were found on traverses
across this area. Farther north, along strike from these features, in the area just east of
Congerenge, there are numerous small outcrops and rock pavements composed of charnockitic
gneisses with minor mafic bands. The gneisses are composed predominantly of feldspar with
only minor or trace amounts of quartz, and are possibly enderbitic.
In thin section the dominant minerals are seen to be quartz and alkali feldspar (mostly
microperthite with mesoperthitic textures) with variable amounts of plagioclase, myrmekite,
orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, hornblende variably replaced by biotite, and accessory zircon,
apatite and opaque minerals. Orthopyroxene occurs as large poikilitic grains and as strongly
altered relict grains. Ilmenite laths locally have titanite overgrowths. Quartz grains are strained
with embayed margins and have a polymodal grain size distribution. Alkali feldspar grains are
poikilitic with albitic overgrowths. Clinopyroxene and alkali feldspar grains define granofelsic
textures with triple-junction grain boundaries.
6.4.16 Charnockitic gneiss, feldspar-phyric (99521 Ma; U-Pb) (Unit P2UNcf)
This unit is present in the eastern part of sheet 1335 Lichinga and extends onto sheet 1336
Majune. On the Majune sheet it forms an extensive north-south-trending unit: relict
orthopyroxene resulting from granulite-facies metamorphism is present, albeit quite rarely. The
rock has a monzogranite composition and is packed with twinned K-feldspar phenocrysts up to
5 cm in size. Mafic mineral aggregates form concentrated clots of irregular concentric
geometry. The cores are, in rare cases, of very altered orthopyroxene (Figure 6.62), but this
mineral is usually consumed by retrograde reactions, in the first place forming red biotite.
Hornblende is the next mineral to crystallise and the outermost part consists of isolated grains
of garnet and plagioclase. Garnets do not form a continuous rim; only scattered garnet grains
are observed in the periphery. All the minerals in the recrystallised mafic clots have a good
granoblastic texture.
100
Figure 6.62: Feldspar-phyric charnockitic gneiss from Monte Milongo near Malanga (UTM
37S 190728, 8508496, sheet 1336 Majune). A) Relict orthopyroxene (Opx) in centre of mafic
"clot" of biotite, hornblende, plagioclase and garnet (only a few grains). Width of field: 5,3
mm. B) Close-up of the orthopyroxene in A. Width of field: 1,4 mm.
The sample from Milongo (Figure 6.62) is one of the least retrogressed found, and even
in this sample orthopyroxene is hard to find. In outcrop this particular variety look undeformed
and not retrogressed with large (up to 2x5 cm) K-feldspar phenocrysts. The phenocrysts are
dark grey and slightly aligned in the matrix. They are euhedral and often twinned. Quartz is
almost black in this rock.
The rock is particularly well exposed in the area around Malanga. It is always a Kfeldspar porphyritic charnockitic rock, with quartz and magnetite, which have commonly been
deformed to appear as an "augen" texture. The rock is commonly cut by small shear zones,
some of which have been injected by later K-feldspar-rich pegmatitic veins. Scattered aplitic
and biotite-rich xenoliths are found. Some very low dipping foliation is present locally, but it is
not clear if it is due to folding or shearing. Some localities locally show crosscutting
feldspathic and fine-grained mafic dykes up to 0,2 m thick. In a quarry for road aggregate
(UTM 37S, 199460, 8509226) the K-feldspar augen gneiss fabric is locally folded and
migmatised.
Granofelsic rocks with a high magnetic signature are well exposed on minor hills and
mountains along the road that runs northeast from the village Nambilange (UTM 36S 814500,
8482000) in the southeast corner of sheet 1335 Lichinga. The rock is medium to coarsegrained, has a generally weak foliation (Figure 6.63) and contains randomly oriented coarsegrained feldspar (Figure 6.64). The gneiss is characterised by short streaks of dark grey quartz
and minor mafic minerals. Perthitic feldspar and quartz form large porphyric grains, and are
the dominant minerals. Up to 20 % plagioclase is present and minor amounts of hornblende,
clinopyroxene, biotite, garnet and opaque minerals occur (samples 31223 and 31224). The
clinopyroxene is altered and replaced by biotite and garnet. Both mineralogy and texture
indicate an intrusive origin for the slightly retrograded granulitic gneiss.
101
Figure 6.63: Weakly foliated granulitic

orthogneiss with dark grey quartz streaks
(UTM 36S 814130, 8481773, sheet 1335
Lichinga).
Figure 6.64: Randomly orientated, coarsegrained feldspar in granulitic orthogneiss

(UTM 36S 822967, 8489034, sheet 1335
Lichinga).
More retrograded charnockitic gneiss is well exposed along north-northeast southsouthwest trending ridges near the village Chicoa, in the southeast part of sheet 1335 Lichinga.
The unit extends onto the northernmost part of sheet 1435 Mandimba where it is truncated by a
major west-northwest east-southeast-trending shear zone. The K-feldspar porphyroblasts are
generally 1-2 cm long, but can be several cm long. Several generations of both mafic and felsic
dykes, up to 1,5 m thick, and pegmatitic veins occur in the gneiss. Some are parallel to the
foliation and others cut it (Figure 6.65, Figure 6.66). The gneiss is a medium-grained, granitic
gneiss with granoblastic texture, comprising K-feldspar, quartz, plagioclase and minor biotite,
hornblende and occasionally garnet. Accessories include opaque minerals, apatite and zircon.
Similar orthogneiss is registered further north along the road towards Nambilange; e.g at
Monte Nange (UTM 36S 801478, 8480200). It is well foliated with varying, gentle dips to the
east to southeast, and it is strongly sheared in the east (UTM 36S 810370, 8478898).
Figure 6.65: Mafic and felsic dikes in K

feldspar-phyric orthogneiss (UTM 36S
789701, 8460232, sheet 1335 Lichinga).
Figure 6.66: Pegmatitic vein crosscutting K

feldspar-phyric orthogneiss, sinistral shear
(UTM 36S 789701, 8460232, sheet 1335
Lichinga).
6.4.17 Metagabbro (5485 Ma; U-Pb metamorphic) (Unit P2UNbf)

Metagabbro is found as large bodies, making up elongated mountain ridges such as Monte
Lissasse, Monte Baraminhanga and Monte Chicungo, to the west and northwest of the main
102
road to Meponda on the sheet 1335 Lichinga (UTM 36S 724400, 8338500). The rock is
typically fine- to medium-grained, and is weakly foliated. It is more deformed and foliated
towards the contacts to the surrounding charnockitic gneisses. The original ophitic texture is
commonly preserved (Figure 6.67). It consists of clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene and
plagioclase as major components, sometimes with amphibole in porphyroblasts up to 1-2 cm
long. Biotite, quartz, K-feldspar and titanite are common trace minerals.
Figure 6.67: Metagabbro with clinopyroxene,

hornblende and plagioclase. Sample 31314
(UTM 36S 735800, 8540265, sheet 1335
Lichinga). Field of view: 4,4x5,4 mm.
Figure 6.68: Granoblastic texture in enderbitic

gneiss, consisting mainly of clinopyroxene,
orthopyroxene, hornblende and plagioclase.
Sample 31833, UTM 36S 758179, 8608226,
sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono. Field of view:
4.4x5,4 mm.
6.4.18 Metagabbro and mafic gneiss (Unit P2UNgb)

Most of the higher mountain ridges on sheet 1235 (Macaloge-Chiconono) consist of finegrained leuco-granite. However, some are formed by mafic charnockitic and enderbitic gneiss.
One example is the western part of Monte Macungulo, north of Lumbiza, which consists of
enderbitic orthogneiss. The mineral assemblage (Figure 6.68) is hornblende, clinopyroxene,
orthopyroxene and plagioclase with opaque phases and biotite in minor amounts. The texture is
granoblastic, with the minerals in apparent equilibrium. Microprobe analyses (sample 31833)
show that the clinopyroxene is diopside with a Mg/(Mg+Fe) ratio of 0,78, and the
orthopyroxene has a Mg/(Mg+Fe) ratio of 0,70-0,71. The amphibole ranges from titanian
pargasite to pargasitic hornblende, and the plagioclase is generally bytownite (An69 to An75).
Metagabbroic rocks also occur much further south in the Unango Complex as a series
of deformed pods and lenses mainly on sheet 1635 Milange. The rocks appear to be mainly
coarse-grained, dark-grey metagabbros, though the status of some of the more banded
amphibolites with which they are often associated is less certain. Most outcrops are composed
of medium- to coarse-grained, foliated amphibolitic gneisses and migmatite, which range from
fairly homogeneous, massive to heterogeneous, banded, deformed and streaky (Figure 6.69).
Mafic flecks and felsic leucosomes typically define the foliation. Some parts are fairly
homogeneous, while other areas are more deformed and streaky. Hornblende and plagioclase
are ubiquitous, with hypersthene and garnet locally visible. Some plagioclase-porphyroblastic
rocks may represent originally porphyritic gabbroids. Other lithologies include amphibolespotted metagabbros, often associated with finer-grained foliated biotite amphibolites.
103
Figure 6.69: Well-foliated homogeneous metagabbro, with patches of leucosome. Locality

UTM 36S 748853, 8187242, sheet 1635 Milange.
The rocks are variably migmatitic, with leucosome ranging from small nebulous
patches to agmatites, with angular blocks of mafic amphibolite surrounded by coarse-grained,
hornblende-bearing leucosome. In thin section, the mineralogy is dominated by plagioclase and
olive-green hornblende, with biotite. Garnet locally makes up a high proportion of some rocks
and many are clinopyroxene-bearing. Some rocks also contain scapolite. Decompression
textures are sometimes seen, with garnet in symplectic intergrowth with plagioclase and
ilmenite (Figure 6.70). Accessory phases include ilmenite, apatite and titanite. One interesting
rock was composed almost entirely of clinopyroxene and spinel (Figure 6.71).
Figure 6.70: Garnet-plagioclase ilmenite

symplectite associated with large garnet and
amphibole grains in high-grade garnet
amphibolite. Sample 33578 (UTM 36S
752917, 8180764, sheet 1635 Milange)
104
Figure 6.71: Clinopyroxene-spinel rock in

high-grade amphibolites. Sample as in Figure
6.70
6.4.19 Meponda Gneiss: Biotite- and biotite-hornblende gneiss (Unit P2UNbb)

Biotite gneiss and hornblende-bearing gneiss occupy a large area around Meponda, and extend
northwards along the coast towards Metangula and eastwards to the south of Lichinga. These
rocks are generally highly deformed, foliated, folded and banded, with variations in the content
of mafic and felsic minerals, defining the banding from centimetres to tens of metres in scale.
The banding is easily discernible on aerial photographs; they show that it is also present on a
scale of 100 m or more. There are smaller and larger lenses of more mafic character within the
banded gneisses, which may, in some cases, have had a gabbroic origin. More extensive
horizons of metagabbro/mafic gneiss are also present within the biotite gneiss, and these are
distinguished as a separate unit (P2UNbf). There are also lenses and extended horizons of
granitic to granodioritic gneiss within this unit, some large enough to be separated on a map
scale (unit P2UNdi).
Thin sections show that the gneisses contain quartz, plagioclase, hornblende and/or
biotite as main phases (generally >10 %), whereas epidote, titanite and K-feldspar are
commonly trace to subordinate phases (range 1-10 %). Hornblende-bearing gneiss generally
has a higher content of magnetite than the biotite-bearing gneiss, which is also reflected in the
aeromagnetic data.
The appearance of the gneisses in outcrop varies due to different degrees and types of
development of migmatite. In the southeastern part of the unit there is a well-defined
migmatitic banding and veining, partly also patchy, with leucosomes dominated by quartz,
plagioclase and, locally, large crystals of hornblende (Figure 6.72, Figure 6.73). Restites or
melanosomes dominated by hornblende occur as dark layers between the lighter leucosomes
and palaeosomes. Locally the migmatites appear to be of two generations, as seen by crosscutting relationships (Figure 6.74). The paragenesis of biotite, hornblende, quartz and
plagioclase with scattered garnets, indicates middle/upper amphibolite facies.
Figure 6.72: Migmatitic banding in

hornblende-biotite gneiss. Locality: 20 km
south of Lichinga (UTM 36S 737573,
8509000, sheet 1335 Lichinga).
Figure 6.73: Patchy leucosomes in biotitehornblende gneiss. Locality: 20 km south of

Lichinga (UTM 36S 737573, 8509000, sheet
1335 Lichinga).
105
Figure 6.74: Two generations

of migmatisation in hornblendebiotite gneiss. Locality: 20 km
south of Lichinga (UTM 36S
737573, 8509000, sheet 1335
Lichinga).
Based on their mineralogy, the biotite- and biotite-hornblende gneisses range in

composition from granodiorites to tonalites and diorites (Figure 6.75), which is largely
confirmed by geochemistry. The content of K2O is, however, higher than in the granulitic
rocks, but this may be due to fluids introduced during retrogression. Although several samples
and localities show features that demonstrate an igneous origin, it has been difficult to
delineate separate intrusive bodies in the field. This is partly because of poor exposure, and not
least, high degrees of deformation and metamorphism.
Figure 6.75: Quartz-plagioclaserich hornblende-biotite gneiss.
Sample 31316 (UTM 36S 714335,
Field of view: 10,3x13,5 mm.
Several lenses and horizons of granulitic rocks occur within the units of biotite- and
biotite-hornblende gneiss. Traces of high-grade metamorphism are also preserved at microscale
(i.e. grains of both clino- and orthopyroxene). Both the granulitic rocks and the gneisses are
probably largely orthogneisses. Therefore it is possible that at least parts of the gneisses are
retrogressed granulites. Close to major structures the gneisses seem to be influenced by volatile
transport related to the anastomosing ductile shear zones transecting this unit in an E-W
orientation. This is shown by growth of late quartz lenses and scapolite in the foliation at some
localities.
106
6.4.20 Granitic to granodioritic migmatitic gneiss (103610 Ma; U-Pb) (Unit P2UNgo)
This designation encompasses gneisses of similar metamorphic grade and mostly granodioritic
compositions: it occupies ~50% of the southern half of sheet 1335 Lichinga and extends onto
the northernmost part of sheet 1435 Mandimba. The appearance of the gneisses in outcrops
may vary due to variable development of migmatite, varying metamorphic features and
different simple shear deformation. Neosome penetrates along early schistosity, but also along
axial zones of small folds of the same stromatic schistosity (Figure 6.76). The major part of the
southern area of the Lichinga sheet consists of these gneisses, but frequently with more
moderate migmatitic development.
Figure 6.76: Migmatitic
granodiorite. Note stromatite
folded at a small scale with
neosome running into the axial
zones. Location: Lusanga
village (UTM 36S 753918,
8475574, sheet 1335
Lichinga).
Most of the gneisses outside the non-retrograded granulite facies blocks are in
amphibolite facies although a granulite-facies pre-history is generally traceable on closer
investigation (Figure 6.77). Granodioritic - quartz dioritic compositions are the most common,
and syngenetic growth of plagioclase, biotite and hornblende is the most common paragenesis,
with quartz, K-feldspar, ilmenite and titanite as minor constituents and accessory zircon and
apatite. Garnet sometimes grows as small euhedral grains in outer rims most likely as a
response to increase in pressure. Garnet also occurs as a remnant of a pre- retrogression
(decompression) mineral paragenesis.
Figure 6.77: Granodioritic migmatite with reddish orthopyroxene partly retrograded to

hornblende and biotite. The mafic minerals are distributed in interconnected "clots".
The orthopyroxene crystal in the centre is 1 mm long. Locality south of Chimbonila
(sample 31276, UTM 36S 761388, 8507074, sheet 1335 Lichinga). Field of view 3,5
mm.
107
In a few samples where migmatitic textures have been observed, very iron-rich biotite
replaces green hornblende (Figure 6.78). Since hornblende and biotite appear to be in
equilibrium in most other parts of the gneisses, this type of migmatite is therefore thought to
represent a second step of retrogression combined with influx of water along schistosity planes
and an extended formation of migmatite.
Figure 6.78: Amphibole breaks
down to a rim of biotite and
epidote. Sample 31277, 23 km
southeast of Lichinga (UTM 36S
759649, 8509634, sheet 1335
Lichinga). Field of view: 3,0x2,4
mm.
6.4.21 Syenitic gneiss (Unit P2UNsy)

The north-south border between the Mandimba and Cuamba sheets is marked by an elongate
range of hills (Serra Lipembecue) south of the Mandimba-Cuamba road. The hills consist of
variably gneissic, brilliantly white-weathering albitic syenites that strike approximately northsouth and generally have moderate dips to the west. The southernmost 5 km of the range
consists of two parallel ridges, which appear from topographical maps and satellite imagery to
represent separate limbs of a tight fold with a north-south axis and a closure at the southern
end. Both limbs dip 40-60 to the W.
The rocks are mostly medium to coarse-grained, banded feldspathic rocks that are
extremely competent. They are composed predominantly of interlocking granofelsic feldspar
with a minor content of mafic minerals. Accessory magnetite is ubiquitous and locally forms
coarse platy sheets with a strong metallic lustre. The magnetic susceptibility is generally high
to very high. Minor biotite and traces of quartz may occur. Certain thin bands are more mafic.
These are well displayed in the western limb of the fold structure at the south end of the range.
Here dark pyroxene-rich bands are intercalated with feldspathic bands, which range in
thickness from 1 cm to 1 m. The mafic bands are up to several dm thick, but usually contain
thin, internal feldspathic bands. The mafic bands occur in groups, some of which show internal
discordance between individual bands, resembling low-angle cross-bedding. These do not
appear to be the result of folding, but more likely the structures represent igneous layering.
A large isolated, elongate inselberg at Maulo in the northwest part of sheet 1436
Cuamba is underlain by black-white speckled, locally banded albitic syenite similar to that
described from Serra Lipembecue. Feldspathic bands define the structure with a parallel
gneissosity defined by elongate clots of magnetite, biotite and amphibole (Figure 6.79).
Syenitic gneiss also underlies a conspicuous range of hills approximately 20 km north of
Mandimba and striking into Malawi where similar rocks have been found (Dawson, 1970).
108
Thin sections show that the rock is dominated by alkali feldspars with anti- and
mesoperthitic textures (Figure 6.80). SEM analyses of the antiperthite show albitic hosts to
exsolved orthoclase needles. Interstitial quartz is a ubiquitous, minor phase. Mafic seams
contain variable amounts of clinopyroxene with exsolved orthopyroxene lamellae, hornblende,
hastingsite and biotite. Titanite and apatite are accessory phases and secondary carbonate and
epidote occur locally.
Figure 6.79: Syenitic gneiss with
feldspathic bands on a cm scale and
parallel amphibole-rich seams that
define the gneissosity. UTM 37S
197344, 8422949, sheet 1436
Cuamba.
Figure 6.80: Photomicrograph of

syenitic gneiss, Sample 33472,
(UTM 36S 177075, 8420431,
sheet 1436 Cuamba) showing a
granofelsic texture dominated by
alkali feldspar grains. Field of
view: 2,4x3,0 mm.
6.4.22 Chiconono Gneiss: Granodioritic, locally feldspar-phyric (103010 Ma) (Unit

P2UNtg)
A suite of granitoid plutonic rocks underlies the eastern part of sheet 1235 MacalogeChiconono and the northeast part of sheet 1335 Lichinga. These rocks are not generally
markedly deformed, but foliated rocks are found locally and in places show a gradational
contact to muscovite schist or sericitic phyllonite. The mineral paragenesis indicates that
metamorphic conditions did not exceed greenschist facies in large areas, with characteristic
saussurite forming after primary plagioclase in most outcrops. Modal and normative
compositions correspond to (1) biotite monzo-granite, (2) biotite-hornblende granodiorite and
(3) biotite-hornblende-quartz monzodiorite according to the IUGS classification nomenclature
109
(le Maitre et al., 2002). Granodiorite predominates along with lesser amounts of monzogranite, while quartz monzodiorite seems to be subordinate and is observed mainly in the
southern part of the complex. LA-ICP-MS zircon dating of a granodiorite (sample 31870,
UTM 36S, 799550, 8573390) has yielded an intrusion age of 1030 10 Ma (see chapter 11).
The gneisses are bordered to the west (in the Nzizi area, UTM 36S 77400 856400) by
granulite-grade gneisses with biotite-hornblende-clinopyroxene-orthopyroxene, but contact
relationships are not observed and a tectonic boundary cannot be excluded. Xenoliths or large
rafts of a banded, magnetite-biotite-bearing quartzo-feldspathic gneiss are abundant within the
plutonic complex and are variably retrograded to a greenschist-facies assemblage like the
surrounding plutonic rocks. They exhibit a distinctive, highly ductile, deformation style that is
observed only in xenoliths within the complex. This may imply that the gneisses were
recrystallised during emplacement of the pluton and thus leave no definite clue to pre-intrusion
metamorphic conditions.
Internal relationships within the plutonic complex include (a) monzogranite forming
xenoliths within the granodiorite, (b) monzogranitic veins wedging out in the granodiorite and
(c) composite monzogranitic and more mafic dykes, without chilled margins, in the
granodiorite (Figure 6.81). These age relationships imply that the various components of the
igneous complex were emplaced broadly at the same time.
Figure 6.81: Composite
monzogranitic (pink) and
quartz monzodioritic (finegrained greenish) dyke in
porphyritic granodiorite. The
quartz monzodioritic dyke and
granodiorite matrix are
strongly saussuritised. The
stippled area outlines a monzogranitic border zone on the
opposite side of the dyke. UTM
36S 798033, 8573363, sheet
1235 Macaloge-Chiconono.
The granodiorites and quartz monzodiorites are characterised in the field by a strongly
porphyritic texture with up to 3 cm-long phenocrysts of pink or white feldspar crystals (Figure
6.81) or, more locally, up to 1 cm-long hornblende crystals, set in a medium grained matrix
that varies from light greyish-white to distinctly greenish spotted due to saussuritic plagioclase
(Figure 6.81). Thin-section studies show that the feldspar phenocrysts are composed of
subhedral K-feldspar and the matrix mainly of plagioclase, quartz, hornblende, biotite and
subordinate titanite (Figure 6.82). The K-feldspar and hornblende phenocrysts are mostly
poikilitic and subhedral, suggesting relatively late crystallisation. Quartz monzodiorite may
have euhedral or subhedral hornblende as the single phenocryst phase. Groundmass plagioclase
and titanite form 1-5 mm euhedral to subhedral grains and were early crystallising phases. A
variable saussuritic alteration shows that plagioclase was originally zoned, with more calcic
cores (now epidote-rich) and albitic or more potassium-rich (now sericite-rich) rims.
Coexisting biotite and hornblende (green to brownish green) indicate nearly contemporaneous
110
crystallisation, but the ratio of hornblende to biotite is highly variable. Quartz forms
millimetre-sized, well-defined grains interstitial to plagioclase; some quartz shows a slightly
bluish tint when examined under a hand-lens. The mineral paragenesis suggests that the
primary crystallisation sequence was:
plagioclaseotitaniteoquartzobiotiteo hornblendeoK-feldspar.
The monzo-granites are medium-grained and equigranular with roughly equal amounts
of quartz, K-feldspar and plagioclase. Biotite and magnetite are minor phases. Like their
intermediate counterparts their field appearance varies from pinkish to light grey or greenish
spotted due to the varying extent of plagioclase saussuritisation.
Granitoid intrusive rocks that are interpreted as belonging to the Chiconono gneisses
underlie an area immediately north-northwest of the granodiorites (east of Chicomola)
although contacts are not observed. They share the highly porphyritic texture of the Chiconono
granodiorites and commonly bluish quartz crystals, with 1 to 3 cm phenocrysts of K-feldspar
and subordinate plagioclase in a medium- to coarse-grained matrix (Figure 6.83). In contrast
with the latter, they are virtually undeformed in all outcrops and show only negligible evidence
of metamorphic alteration in the form of local sericitisation of feldspar. These rocks, in
contrast to the granodiorites, have a dark brownish grey colour.
Figure 6.82: Photomicrograph of Chiconono granodiorite (sample 31869). Subhedral

hornblende (hb) is coexisting with biotite (bi), with interstitial quartz (qz) and K-feldspar (Kf).
Euhedral to subhedral titanite (sp) occurs partly as inclusions in hornblende. Euhedral
plagioclase (pl) is highly clouded due to strong saussuritic alteration. UTM 36S 809508,
8582116, sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono.
111
Figure 6.83: Monzo-granite

from north-northwest of the
Chiconono granodiorite
(sample 31769). K-feldspar
(Kf), plagioclase (pl), quartz
(qz), biotite (bi), magnetite
(mt). UTM 36S 791049,
8648855, sheet 1235
Macaloge-Chiconono.
Figure 6.84: Magma mingling

of monzo-granite (light
greyish) and quartz monzodiorite (dark greyish). Monzogranite north-northwest of the
Chiconono granodiorite. UTM
36S 791805, 8655799, sheet
The rock is mostly magnetite-bearing hornblende biotite monzo-granite (le Maitre et

al., 2002). Local transitions to darker quartz monzodiorite or quartz monzonite demonstrate
typical magma mingling relationships that imply contemporaneous intrusion of the different
components (Figure 6.84). The phenocrysts of the porphyritic monzo-granite show a distinctly
parallel orientation (approximately east-west with steep to moderate northerly dips). This is
clearly a primary magmatic lamination since these rocks are virtually undeformed. Locally,
more leucocratic, light greyish dykes are intimately associated with the monzo-granite and
intrude parallel to the phenocryst lamination, both being affected by highly irregular folding or
slumping, and local shearing interpreted to be syn-magmatic.
6.4.23 Granitic to granodioritic gneiss (10069 Ma) (Unit P2UNdi)
This lithology is located close to the shore of Lago Niassa on sheets 1234 Metangula and 1334
Meponda and comprises broad belts in the central part of the sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono
as well as in the eastern part of the sheet 1135 Lupilichi. It also occurs in the southeast corner
of sheet 1335 Lichinga and occupies extensive areas on sheet 1435 Mandimba and the western
half of sheets 1236 Mavago, 1336 Majune and 1436 Cuamba.
The area of granitic gneiss south of Metangula is characterized by being strongly
deformed. A major mylonite zone cuts it, and especially in the northern end the granitic gneiss
has developed into augen gneiss. Close to the major mylonite zone it displays an S-C fabric.
112
The composition of this rock varies from dominantly quartzo-feldspathic to biotite-granitic and
grades into biotite gneiss. An iron mineralisation was found in this unit. It consists of both
scattered, up to 20-25 cm porphyroblasts of magnetite as well as a body of massive magnetite
with subordinate ilmenite (see Chapter 11).
On the sheet 1234 Metangula the granite is generally fine-grained, and only slightly
foliated in the eastern part of the unit. It is mainly biotite-bearing, but locally hornblende is
present in up to 2-3 mm porphyroblasts. It is partly interlayered with, or has intruded parallel to
the foliation in very fine-grained, extremely fissile mica schist. Towards the west the
deformation of the granite increases and it becomes more schistose and close to mylonitic.
Further north, on the sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono, the rocks in the unit vary from being
granitic to monzonitic in composition. The gneissosity also varies and locally augen gneiss
texture is developed. Banding is present in some areas. Parts of the rock unit have clearly
undergone migmatisation, possibly in two episodes: one pre- or syn-foliation and one postfoliation. Magnetite is present in many of the localities, in some localities in coarse, pegmatite
veins.
The mountains Monte Licervete and Monte Nambalavala constitute a topographically
high, oval ring structure in the northeast part of sheet 1335 Lichinga (UTM 36S 788650,
8561600). This structure crosses the contact between the Lichinga and Macaloge-Chiconono
sheets and is clearly defined in the radiometric data. The central part of the structure is
characterised by a high magnetic signature. The southern hillside is covered by coarse to
medium-grained, biotite- and hornblende-bearing granitic to granodioritic gneisses with Kfeldspar porphyroblasts. A minor zone of fine-grained leucogranitic gneiss occurs at the top of
the ridge. Fine-grained, granitc to granodioritic gneiss comprise the central part of the ring
structure. It has a granoblastic texture and comprises about equal amounts of K-feldspar,
plagioclase and quartz. Locally it is retrograded with strong sericitisation of plagioclase and
only skeletal remnants of titanite (UTM 36S 786690, 85588874).
The northwestern part of sheet 1236 Mavago is dominated by orthogneisses, varying in
composition from granite to diorite, but dominated by granodiorite. All the outcrops visited are
foliated and banding is present in some areas. Parts of the rock unit have clearly undergone
migmatisation, possibly in two episodes: one pre- or syn-foliation and one post-foliation.
Magnetite is present in many of the localities, in some localities in coarse, pegmatite veins.
Variably deformed and foliated K-feldspar phyric and biotite-bearing granitic gneisses
occur along the road southeast of Mavago. The granite contains bands enriched in biotite and
K-feldspar. Some localities contain subordinate amounts of hornblende. Pronounced lineation
and shearing seem to increase eastwards towards the partly mylonitic muscovite-biotite
gneisses belonging to the Muaquia Complex (unit P3Qbg). Locally they contain magnetite and
have susceptibility readings up to 12 x 10-3 SI units corresponding to 0.3 % magnetite. Finegrained magnetite is associated with biotite, which defines the foliation.
There are also a few horizons of granitic gneiss that are strongly enriched in magnetite.
These horizons are generally low in mafic minerals. Magnetite is enriched in irregular lenses
and domains, some dm in thickness, in a quartz-rich matrix. Magnetite occurs as scattered, up
to 2-4 cm rounded blasts or more fine-grained (few mm) as subhedral/euhedral octahedra.
Otherwise the gneiss has a migmatitic structure.
113
Granitic to granodioritc gneiss predominates in a tectonic lens in the central part of the
Mavago sheet. The granitic gneiss is fine to medium grained (1-4 mm) and has a variable
content of biotite (0-5 %). Minor white mica is found locally. The tonalitic gneiss is more fine
grained and commonly with a higher content of biotite. Banding at a dm-scale with mediumgrained porphyroblastic and fine-grained, biotite-rich bands occur locally, resembling the
muscovite-biotite and biotite gneiss further east. In the eastern part of the tectonic lens less
deformed both porphyric gneiss with feldspar porphyries (3-5 mm) and non-porphyric gneiss
are exposed. In some areas they comprise irregular folded bands at a dm-scale. The orthogneiss
in this area is commonly strongly deformed. Locally mylonitic and blastomylonitic 'augen'
textures are developed (Figure 6.85). The gneiss is commonly well- to strongly foliated with
variable orientations from north-south to east-west with moderate dips (25-45) to the east to
south. The overall trend is northeast-southwest. They are characterised by an intense mineral
lineation indicating a dip-slip displacement.
Figure 6.85: Strongly deformed granitic gneiss with 'augen' texture from the central part of
sheet 1236 Mavago (UTM 37S 231389, 8623178).
Granodioritic gneiss is also found in the extreme south and west of the Mavago sheet.
Locally it is intensely sheared, and granodioritic gneiss with isoclinal folding and migmatitic
layers and asymmetric porphyroblasts up to 3 mm long (UTM 37S 182199, 8581742) are
observed. Typical fine- to medium-grained granitic gneiss is exposed at UTM 37S 204255,
8576572. It contains slightly altered plagioclase associated with myrmekite, interspersed with
granoblastic quartz, and microcline (Figure 6.86). Biotite occurs in scattered laths and small
flakes. Opaques are accessory and white mica/muscovite is a later alteration product. This rock
appears to be an orthogneiss with relict igneous textures and may be a relatively late intrusion
into the surrounding granulitic rocks. No evidence for granulite-facies metamorphism is
observed in these granitic gneisses.
114

granitic gneiss showing slightly
altered plagioclase, interspersed
with granoblastic quartz, and
microcline (sample 31956, UTM
37S 204255, 8576572, sheet 1236
Mavago). Width of photo: 6 mm.
The granitic gneisses are locally migmatitic, and pale grey, quartz-feldspar migmatitic
gneisses with some pink coarse-grained leucosomes are observed (e.g. UTM 37S 204255,
8576890). It is also noted that ductile north-south shearing occurs later than the migmatisation.
Similar granitic gneiss containing coarse-grained K-feldspar-quartz segregations and
pegmatitic veins were found at other places (e.g. UTM 37S 204284, 8576076).
This rock is also found, in the southeast part of sheet 1336 Lichinga and on sheet 1435
Mandimba, where it is interbanded with stromatic mafic gneisses, with concordant sheets of
charnockite and gneissic granite and less common syenitic gneiss). These gneisses are mainly
exposed on isolated kopjes as massive, locally flaggy rocks with mm- to cm-scale gneissosity
parallel to a coarser banding best defined by boudinaged and folded mafic-rich bands. The
gneisses are mostly equigranular although subhedral white feldspars locally form larger grains
in a fine to medium-grained groundmass. Garnets are locally present and the magnetite content
is highly variable. There are pyroxene-feldspar pegmatitic clots (co-magmatic with the host
gneisses). The mafic-rich bands are up to about 5 cm in thickness and can be traced for several
metres but are commonly disrupted into 20 cm long lenses (Figure 6.87).
Most of the hills north of Mandimba consist of banded quartz-feldspar gneisses with
predominantly granitic compositions. The origin of these gneisses is unclear although some,
which are very quartz-rich and poor in mafic minerals, may be paragneiss. Similarly there are
bands of garnet-rich gneiss east of Lago Amaramba (UTM 37S 168000E- the lake runs
approximately north-south for ~35 km) that are also probably metasedimentary rocks. Garnet
occurs in both mafic and felsic bands. However, there are more common massive, equigranular
quartz-feldspar gneisses of uncertain origin. Mafic lenses in an equigranular quartz-feldspar
matrix define mm- to cm-spaced gneissosity. There are no primary textures preserved to
provide a clue on the origin of these rocks. Some of the mafic bands are slightly discordant to
the gneissosity and may represent intrusive sheets.
115
Figure 6.87: Pink-weathering granitic gneiss with disrupted mafic pods (UTM 36S 790216,
8403649, sheet 1435 Mandimba).
Even further south, on sheet 1535 Insaca-Guru there are bodies of granitic, fairly
leucocratic, orthogneiss: they occur as highly deformed bodies of quite irregular form. A few small
bodies also occur in shear zone-bound lenses on sheet 1635 Milange. The rocks are medium- to
coarse-grained, fairly homogeneous and pinkish to greyish in colour, though occasionally brownish
and greenish, suggestive of charnockite. On weathered surfaces, they are characterised by whiteweathering plagioclase mesocrysts up to 1 cm long. The foliation is invariably strong to very strong,
locally sub-mylonitic, with ribbon quartz. Granular to layered biotite-hornblende pyroxene-bearing
mafic enclaves and schlieren are common (Figure 6.88). The granite is locally migmatised with
foliation-parallel and/or cross-cutting leucosome veining. Intrusions of straight-sided pegmatite
dykes were observed. The gneiss is composed of quartz, two feldspars (perthite and antiperthite),
brown to green hornblende, brown biotite, rare garnet and accessory opaque mineral and titanite.
The charnockitic variety contains orthopyroxene.
116
Figure 6.88: Granitic orthogneiss showing sheared and folded mafic enclaves. Locality UTM
37S 232713, 8295009, sheet 1536 Gur.
6.4.24 Augen gneiss, granitic (Unit P2UNag)
Augen gneiss is found immediately west of the mylonite zone across the Maniamba-Metangula
road (UTM 36S 698700, 8593800); it is the most predominantly exposed rock on the
Metangula Peninsula. It is also well exposed on parts of the coastal section north of Metangula,
and south of the Maniamba graben. Loose blocks near Mbamba (~ UTM 36S 693300,
8610900) suggest that much of the ridge east of the shore consists of augen gneiss. The rock
commonly has a highly foliated biotitic matrix in which occur augen of quartz and feldspar up
to 5-6 cm long: locally it also contains quartz-feldspar-rich bands. Augen and "ribs" of blue
quartz are common in some exposures. The rock was observed to contain a slice of aplitic
granite gneiss at one locality. It is interbanded with calc-silicate gneiss at exposures on parts of
the shore around the Metangula peninsula. Field relationships suggest a link between formation
of the augen gneiss and the mylonitisation found in the zone immediately to the east.
A similar unit, on the east side of Monte Samba to the southeast of Mandimba on sheet
1435, is transformed into augen granite gneiss in a north-northeast-trending ductile shear zone.
Augen gneiss also occurs on the northwest part of sheet 1635 Milange, adjacent to the Malawi
border, where the largest body covers >100 km2. Smaller intrusions are also found on sheet
1535/6 Insaca-Guru. The rock is a coarse- to very coarse-grained, granitic augen orthogneiss,
in which the K-feldspar augen (up to 2 cm in size) have a characteristic blue-grey lustrous
appearance. Locally, these tend to overgrow the foliation. Elongate fine- to medium-grained
hornblende-biotite enclaves are common. The foliation is variable, but typically well developed
and the rocks are locally veined and sheared in places (Figure 6.89).
In the field, this unit is quite unlike the superficially similar rocks of the Nampula
Complex (Culicui Suite augen gneisses). These zoned, perthitic megacrysts are set in a coarsegrained matrix of quartz, perthitic microcline, plagioclase (partly saussuritised and locally
117
associated with myrmekite), olive-green hornblende, brown biotite, and accessory opaque
minerals (including ilmenite with titanite haloes), apatite, and zircon.
Figure 6.89: Complex history shown in the grey K-feldspar augen gneiss, showing typical grey
K-feldspar augen. The orthogneiss is cut by three generations of hornblende-bearing quartzofeldspathic veins, one of which is associated with dextral shearing. (UTM 36S 765308,
8202319, sheet 1635 Milange).
6.4.25 Ultramafic rocks (Unit P2UNpx)
Ultramafic lenses are found at a number of localities in the Unango Complex, usually clearly
associated with shear zones. Three small lenses of this rock type occur in major shear zones on
sheet 1335 Lichinga. At the locality near Chimbonila (UTM 36S 761849, 8521368) the schist
is composed of a colourless amphibole, talc, chlorite and opaque minerals. The chlorite
replaces amphibole. The original lithology must have been an Mg-rich ultramafic rock.
More varied lithologies, in most cases also clearly linked to shear zones, are found in
the western part of sheet 1635 Milange, where the Nampula-Unango Complex boundary is
marked by a series of northeast-trending anastomosing shear zones. The westernmost of these,
entirely within the Unango Complex, is associated with a line of poorly exposed ultramaficmafic, meta-igneous rocks that appear to form a series of tectonic pods and slivers. A few
smaller pods are also found further northeast, on sheet 1535 Insaca-Guru. The ultramafic
rocks recognised include a mixed assemblage of serpentinised peridotite and pyroxenite with
subordinate melagabbro.
The prominent hill of Chirinqoma, 20 km southwest of Milange (grid square UTM 36S
780000 8210000) consists of massive, unfoliated, coarse-grained, isotropic, dark-grey
hornblende pyroxenite, containing clino- and orthopyroxene, brown hornblende and minor
brown biotite with subordinate (<10%) interstitial plagioclase (Figure 6.90). The pyroxene
crystals commonly contain blebs of amphibole and much of the mineralogy is retrogressed
from original high-temperature igneous phases. Some of the ultramafic rocks are almost totally
serpentinised, but clearly originally had pyroxene-bearing ultramafic compositions such as
websterites, rich in olivine. Other pods retain a high-temperature metamorphic assemblage
118
including garnet and two pyroxenes. Not all the rocks in these pods are ultramafic, and
plagioclase-poor, medium- to coarse-grained melagabbros also occur. When massive, these
rocks preserve relict ophitic texture, but more commonly they are foliated and sheared, gneissic
and, locally, migmatitic. Some outcrops show folding of the foliation on steep axes.
Figure 6.90: Photomicrograph of pyroxenite from Monte Chirinqoma, showing large

poikiloblastic clinopyroxene grains with minute amphibole inclusions, brown hornblende and
interstitial plagioclase. (sample 33580, UTM 36S 781434, 8207100, sheet 1635 Milange).
A pyroxenitic body up to a few hundred metres wide and a few km long is the host of
the Lucuisse apatite, U, Nb and REE mineralisations on sheet 1236 Mavago (UTM 37S
207210, 8583830). It also occurs in association with a major shear zone. The pyroxenitic rocks
are fine- to medium-grained and locally brecciated. Some carbonate-apatite veins (up to 1-2 m
wide) occur within the body. A thin zone of syenitic or nepheline syenitic rocks rims the mafic
alkaline rocks, and the surrounding rocks mainly consist of well-foliated biotite gneisses and
minor granitic gneiss. The area was studied by French and Bulgarian teams in the early 1980s
(Mroz 1983, Obretenov 1983), and several trenches from this period were located: the area is
described in more detail in Chapter 13.
6.4.26 Monzonite, foliated (Unit P2UNmz)
Monzonite forms one minor tectonic lens in the imbricate strike-slip shear zone array
extending from north to south across sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono and forms a distinct
'asymmetric fish'-shaped weakly magnetic zone. It forms a series of prominent ridges,
including Monte Namati, east of a tectonic lens of Geci Group carbonates. A ductile shear zone
locally defined by quartz-mica-schists (at UTM 36S 738829, 8577420) and forming schistose
fabrics in the limestone marks the limestone/monzonite contact. The monzonite is a mediumgrained, massive rock that is variably gneissose with aligned amphibole grains defining the
fabric. It contains up to 35% mafic minerals (biotite and hornblende) that weather
preferentially to give the rock a pitted, weathered appearance. White and pink feldspar are the
119
main felsic minerals with minor quartz. The feldspars are internally altered with pale green
tints. It is mostly equigranular, but is locally pegmatitic and may contain feldspar microphenocrysts. A weak gneissic fabric is present in limited areas, as are thin quartzo-feldspathic
veins. Epidote commonly replaces the mafic minerals and the feldspars have a pale green tint
(Figure 6.91). Plagioclase is more common than quartz, although rocks that are relatively
quartz-rich can be foliated.
monzonite, showing large cloudy
feldspar grains, white quartz and
green amphibole replaced by
yellow epidote. Sample 31882,
UTM 36S 729991, 8603363, sheet
1235 Macaloge-Chiconono. Field
of view: 2 x 1,5 mm
6.4.27 Granite, locally feldspar-phyric (97533 Ma; 100424 Ma; 10488 Ma all U-Pb)
(Unit P2UNfg)
A major granitic body in the north-central part of sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono intrudes
into migmatitic granitic gneisses. Its south-eastern boundary is defined by the Rio Moola Shear
Zone, and Karoo and younger sedimentary rocks conceal its north-western extent. The granite
can be traced for about 30 km in a northeast-southwest direction with a northwest-southeast
exposed width of about 4 km. It is very well exposed in a series of hills and crags as well as
along various streams and rivers.
The granite is massive, mostly medium-grained but locally fine- and coarse-grained
varieties also occur. It is characterised by the complete absence of any vein/pegmatite phases,
and by ubiquitously low kappameter readings (<1). The granite weathers to shades of pink and
grey and is generally leucocratic (white and pink feldspars with quartz) although the mafic
minerals (biotite with or without hornblende and possibly clinopyroxene) can comprise up to
25% of the mode. Zoned K-feldspar phenocrysts up to 1cm in size comprise up to 50% of the
mode. Xenoliths of the host migmatitic gneisses were seen in exposures in the Rio Moola
downstream from where the granite is cut by the Rio Moola Shear Zone. These xenoliths are
up to ~1m in length with embayed margins. The granite becomes fine-grained and schistose in
the Rio Moola Shear Zone.
Thin section study reveals a leuco-granitic rock with quartz, K-feldspar, hornblende and
plagioclase as the main phases with accessory apatite, chlorite, zircon, epidote and titanite
(sample 31971, Figure 6.92). Quartz grains are strongly granulated with embayed margins.
Feldspar grains are subhedral with perthite phenocrysts enclosing quartz and plagioclase
grains. Strong sericitisation of the feldspars and chlorite has completely replaced the original
mafic phase, which was probably biotite. Dating of this sample gives an intrusion age for the
120
granite at 1048 8 Ma (chapter 11.5). A sample of granitic mylonite yields an slightly younger
intrusion age of 1004 24 Ma and 444 5 is regarded as an estimate for the timing of the
mylonitisation (sample 35228, UTM 37S 776146, 8650372, see chapter 11.5).
Figure 6.92: (Left) Poikilitic K-feldspar grains enclosing quartz and plagioclase grains and
with exsolution fabrics. Strong granulation of the interstitial quartz grains (Field of view:
5,4x4,4 mm). (Right) Epidote replacement along fractures in a poikilitic alkali feldspar lath
(Field of view: 1,4x1,1 mm; sample 31971, UTM 36S 771225, 8645666, sheet 1235 MacalogeChiconono)
Similar granite is registered south of Metangula (UTM 36S 690892 8573736). One
sample of homogeneous massive biotite-granite was taken for dating from this area. The
granite is fine-grained and granoblastic in texture. It contains about 40 % K-feldspar (probably
microcline), 35 % plagioclase and 25 % quartz, while biotite and muscovite are present as
common accessory phases (sample 31965). A somewhat imprecise magmatic intrusion age of
975 33 Ma was obtained (chapter 11.5).
Some similar minor granitic bodies are present in the eastern part of sheet 1135
Lupilichi and 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono.
6.4.28 Leucogranite, fine grained (Unit P2UNlc)
Numerous smaller and larger bodies of fine-grained leuco-granite occur on sheet 1235
Macaloge-Chiconono, forming elongated ridges and high mountains in the area, e.g. Monte
Mimbi, Monte Macungulo. The granite varies from being homogeneous and structureless to
being quite foliated with domains and veins of quartz and feldspar close to deformation zones.
A thin section from the body at Monte Mimbi (UTM 36S 759233, 8597152), shows
that it is a leucocratic alkali-feldspar micro-granite with about 50 % perthitic K-feldspar, 45 %
quartz, and the rest opaque phases, biotite and chlorite, while plagioclase is present only in
trace amounts (Figure 6.93). The texture is heterogranular, and is generally very weakly
recrystallised, compared to the surrounding gneisses. This could indicate that the fine-grained
leuco-granites are younger than the surrounding gneisses.
121
Figure 6.93: Photomicrograph of leuco-granite. It is clearly dominated by perthitic alkalifeldspar and quartz. (sample 31828, UTM 759233, 8597152, sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono.
Field of view = 4,4x5,4 mm).
6.4.29 Monte Balise Quartz porphyry (Unit P2UNqg)
A small body of porphyric metagranite forms the 1425 m high Monte Balise (Figure 6.94), 2
km west of the village Malica on sheet 1335 Lichinga (UTM 36S 736675, 8539785), and
possibly another peak 2 km further west. The rock consists of 3-10 mm porphyric grains of
blue-coloured quartz and some large grains of perthitic K-feldspar in a more fine-grained
matrix of quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase, biotite and hornblende. The quartz crystals are
weakly oriented, making up a faint foliation in the rock. Geochemically, the porphyry granite
resembles the granitic rocks unit P2UNlc (see Chapter 10).
6.4.30 Granitic mylonite (Unit P2UNmy)
There are very intense shear zones in some areas of the granitic gneisses in the southwest part
of sheet 1236 Mavago and extending into sheet 1336 Majune. These are termed granitic
mylonites, as they have a very small grain size produced by mechanical grain size reduction
during deformation. One such mylonite zone is found within otherwise relatively unsheared
granitic gneisses (sample 35226, UTM 37S 193016, 8567414, Figure 6.95). Porphyroclasts of
quartz and microcline have a maximum grain size of 1 mm, while the matrix quartz and
feldspar has a grain size of >10 Pm. The quartz grains display an elongation of 5:1 from the
equant grains in the granitic gneiss.
122
Figure 6.94: The quartz-porphyric

granite at Monte Balise (UTM 36S
736675, 8539785, sheet 1335
Lichinga). Note the preferred
orientation of the quartz crystals.
Figure 6.95: Granitic mylonite (sample 35226, UTM 37S 193016, 8567414, sheet 1236
Mavago). (Width of photo: 12 mm).
123
6.5
Marrupa Complex
6.5.1 Introduction
The Marrupa Complex is one of the most extensive tectonostratigraphic units in northern
Mozambique: it is found on the twelve most central 1:250 000 sheets, and dominates sheets
1137 Macalange, 1237 Mecula and 1238 Marrupa. The unit was previously considered to be
part of the Nampula Supergroup (Pinna & Marteau, 1987), but the presence of the Lurio
tectonic zone makes it necessary to distinguish between the Nampula Complex s.s. and the
rocks to the north of the Lurio structure. The name is taken from the town and district Marrupa,
situated centrally in the Complex.
The Marrupa Complex is dominated by orthogneisses of acid to intermediate compositions,
while mafic orthogneisses and paragneisses are subordinate. The gneisses vary from being
homogeneous and rather fine-grained, to more coarse-grained, and include banded and
migmatitic varieties. From the mineral assemblages present, the rocks seem to have undergone
amphibolite-facies metamorphism. This differs from the adjoining units, which have
experienced granulite-facies conditions (see Chapter 7).
Geochemical data show that the orthogneisses are medium- to high-K calc-alkaline
rocks, ranging from 42,3 to 78,4 wt.% SiO2 and 0,3-6,1 wt.% K2O. Another characteristic
feature is that the intermediate to felsic orthogneisses have high barium contents (>1000 ppm
and up to 6670 ppm). Major- and trace-element contents are consistent in indicating that the
Marrupa Complex is dominated by normal and fractionated I-type granitoids in addition to
rocks with a clear A-type affinity. Thirteen age determinations have been carried out on rocks
assigned to the Marrupa Complex, most of them on granite and granitic gneiss. The ages of the
protoliths are 968-1026 Ma with uncertainties of 8-19 Ma, while metamorphic overprints are
Pan-African with ages of 521-562 Ma (uncertainties of 5-15 Ma).
6.5.2 Migmatitic grey gneiss (Unit P2MRgy)
Migmatitic grey gneisses are very well exposed along the western side of the Rio Lurio, south
of the main road east from Cuamba, as small kopjes, whalebacks and rock pavements in westbank tributaries of the river. There are also good exposures in the Rio Lurio. The migmatitic
gneisses form a lozenge-shaped outcrop area, surrounded by very strongly deformed (well
defined foliation, stretching lineation and small sheath-folds) banded gneisses. These banded
gneisses are interpreted as intensely sheared migmatite. The migmatitic grey gneisses define
the core of a pop-up structure with a west-southwest - east-northeast-trending zone of intense
shearing. The migmatites comprise up to about 25% of ptygmatically folded quartzofeldspathic
veins cutting grey, medium-grained, quartz-rich gneisses. Several generations of intersecting
veins are present and the host gneisses are also heterogeneous with several phases of mafic
gneiss including xenolithic gneiss (Figure 6.96). Partial assimilation of the gneisses by the vein
phases can be seen. Some of the veins are clearly injection phases into the host gneisses, whilst
others are probably partial melts from the host gneisses (Figure 6.97).
One thin section (33491, UTM 37S 267147, 8362019) showed a polymodal assemblage
of strongly embayed and strained quartz with variably altered plagioclase grains. Poikilitic
microcline grains are confined to one part of the thin section. Hornblende and biotite are
present with biotite flakes replacing hornblende. There are minor amounts of epidote,
carbonate, opaques, zircon and apatite. A thin section (33446, UTM 37S 249292, 8357201) of
sheared gneiss has a strong biotite fabric accentuated by shape-oriented quartz grains. Less
deformed plagioclase and alkali feldspar grains are intergrown with quartz.
124
Figure 6.96: Typical textures of the migmatitic grey gneisses of the Marrupa
Complex with disrupted mafic bands as well as two neosome phases. Locality: UTM
37S, 267147 8362019, sheet 1436 Cuamba.
Figure 6.97: Granite neosome strongly disrupting the grey gneiss palaeosome.
Locality: UTM 37S, 267012 8360776, sheet 1436, Cuamba.
6.5.3 Garnet-biotite-quartz-feldspar gneiss (Unit P2MRbqf )
This gneiss was only observed in three elongate lensoid bodies in the central-western part of
sheet 1437 Malema, east of Nacumua (~UTM 37S 320000 8410000 and 320000 8400000) and
near Monte Mutini (~UTM 37S 290000 8390000). It is composed of well-foliated, medium- to
coarse-grained, heterogranular, garnetiferous quartz-feldspar gneiss, with minor biotite and
125
opaque minerals. Overall, it is quite felsic, apart from up to 20% garnet in some layers. The
garnet is very pale pink, rounded and up to 5mm across, occurring in well defined "trains" of
differing grain sizes and concentrations (Figure 6.98). Grain-size layering in quartz and
feldspar also defines the fabric. Some biotite-rich schlieren are also locally developed. In the
most westerly outcrops of this unit, the gneisses are extremely heterogeneous and well banded
with extreme compositional variation, such that the garnetiferous quartzo-feldspathic layers are
interfoliated with biotite-amphibolite layers pods and schlieren and prominent lenses of white
feldspathic quartzite. These rocks are thus clearly metasedimentary in origin (paragneisses).
They are locally migmatitic, with patchy leucosome development and irregular pegmatites are
common.
Figure 6.98: Well-foliated garnetiferous quartz-feldspar gneiss. Note the prominent trains
of garnet defining the strong planar fabric. Locality UTM 37S 287251 8385606, sheet 1437
Malema.
6.5.4 Quartz-feldspar gneiss and paragneiss (Unit P2MRqv)
Layers of paragneiss and quartz-feldspar gneiss occur, with few exceptions, only in the
northernmost parts of the Marrupa Complex (i.e. on sheets 1136 Milepa, 1137 Macalange,
1237 Mecula, 1138 Negomano and 1238 Xixano). Several folded layers of paragneiss are
situated 12-15 km north of the Rio Lugenda, and east of the town Mecula in the northeast
corner of sheet 1237 Mecula. They extend northeastwards for more than 40 km into sheet 1137
Macalange and further into the next sheet 1138 Negomano. This unit comprises interbanded
felsic and mafic gneisses. The two gneiss types alternate on all scales, from cm-scale
interbanded gneisses to separate felsic and mafic bands that are hundreds of metres thick.
Amphibolitic seams and lenses are common in the mafic units. The felsic units include quartzfeldspar gneisses and sulphide-bearing quartzites and quartz-muscovite schists. The rapid
alternation of lithologies, as seen for example along the Macalange to Mbamba road, suggests
126
that this unit comprises an altered supracrustal sequence, possibly including both
metasediments and metavolcanics.
The other unit comprising paragneisses is exposed 5-10 km north of Matondovela,
along the road northwards to Rio Rovuma (on sheet 1136 Milepa). It consists of massive
arkosic gneiss and partly migmatitic quartz-feldspar gneiss. The latter is quartz-rich and
contains white, up to cm-sized, plagioclase porphyroblasts. Further north, ~35 km north of
Matondovela, there is biotite-bearing quartz-feldspar gneiss, which also most likely represents
paragneiss and has been included in the same unit. There are several outcrops northwards along
the road towards the Rio Rovuma of the quartz-feldspar gneiss. Based on the geophysical
characteristics (i.e. radiometric and magnetic signature), this unit has been interpreted to extend
eastwards towards the Serra Mecula massif, where it stops against a fault/fracture zone.
Two minor lenses of presumably paragneiss are exposed along the track between
Nungo and Nipepe on sheet 1337 Marrupa. The northernmost, at UTM 37S 375300, 8505180,
is a mesocratic layered garnet-, biotitesillimanite-bearing gneiss, probably a metapelite. The
other at UTM 37S 376900, 8498500 is a fine-grained leucocratic amphibole-biotite-bearing
quartz-feldspar gneiss, which locally contain sillimanite.
6.5.5 Quartz-feldspar leucogneiss, with amphibolite (Unit P2MRlca)
These medium-grained quartz-feldspar gneisses are distributed quite extensively throughout
the Marrupa Complex, but seldom form bodies covering more than 100 km2. The largest, just
over 100 km2 in extent, is located around Nipepe (sheet 1437, UTM 37S, 370000, 8450000),
while a large number of smaller lenses were observed around Nacumua (on sheet 1437
Malema). Most outcrops of the gneiss are attenuated along the regional foliation direction and
measure a few km wide by some tens of kilometres in length.
The characteristic feature of these gneisses is their extremely leucocratic composition,
fine to medium grain size (1-3mm average, up to about 6mm,) and sub-equigranular,
saccharoidal texture. They are, however, locally associated with multiple thin layers, pods and
boudins of fine- to medium-grained granoblastic amphibolite (Figure 6.99). The felsic gneiss is
usually pinkish- to yellowish-weathered, but pale pinkish-grey when fresh. They are composed
of quartz, K-feldspar and subordinate sodic plagioclase, with almost no mafic minerals except
for sparse biotite flakes (1-3%) and/or, more commonly, <1% small, scattered, opaque mineral
grains (magnetite and ilmenite).
Despite this restricted compositional range, the rocks are strongly foliated, with the
fabric mainly defined by grain size variations of the felsic minerals (grain-size banding), very
sparse oriented biotite flecks and aligned opaque mineral grains. This foliation becomes very
strong (sub-mylonitic) in places. Some outcrops are almost entirely made up of such
leucogneisses, whereas others have mafic schlieren (biotite and hornblende-bearing) and/or
zones with scattered amphibole blasts. Typically, most of any single outcrop will be entirely
felsic, but with swarms of mafic pods and schlieren concentrated in certain parts of the outcrop.
The proportion of mafic components comprises up to 30% of the exposure in some outcrops,
mainly as 10-30 cm-thick biotite-amphibolite layers and pods. Such outcrops thus have a
strong bimodal mafic-felsic layering, though the mafic layers are typically disrupted and
boudinaged and sometimes isoclinally folded. In lower-strain zones, amphibolites may form
more angular, blocky bodies. Some metre-scale amphibolite bodies crosscut the foliation in the
felsic gneisses, suggesting that they may represent dismembered mafic dykes. One outcrop
127
was cut by a relatively undeformed amphibolite dyke, ~30 cm wide, confirming this
hypothesis.
The rocks are migmatitic in some outcrops, with coarse-grained leucosomes as veins,
pods and irregular segregations sub-parallel to the layering. In some outcrops, a second set of
diffuse leucosomes is seen locally, intruding along small ductile shear zones and/or fold hinges
within the regional fabric. In the most strongly migmatised outcrops, the leucosomes may form
a diffuse, swirling network of veins. Many outcrops are cut by irregular hornblende- and, more
rarely, rusty orthopyroxene-bearing pegmatites, often of two or more generations. Early
pegmatites are typically sub parallel to the layering. Later generations are more transgressive to
the foliation, and locally show displacement of country rock lithologies, suggesting that they
intruded along existing small faults and shear zones.
Figure 6.99: Pale pinkish-grey, saccharoidal leucogneiss of the Marrupa Complex,

with numerous disrupted and boudinaged amphibolite layers and pods. Note the
coarse-grained leucosomes in boudin necks. Locality UTM37S 330230 8353145, sheet
1437 Malema.
6.5.6 Leucogneiss, locally garnet-biotite bearing (Unit P2MRbl)
This is a minor, but distinctive, unit which forms a few pods and lenses, the largest of which
can be traced for about 10km along strike (e.g. grid square 360 840). It is composed of fine- to
medium-grained (1-3 mm), but locally coarse-grained (up to 6mm), equigranular, extremely
leucocratic quartz-feldspar gneiss with minor garnet biotite and magnetite (Figure 6.100). In
any one outcrop, the gneiss is usually fairly homogeneous, but locally with a considerable
amount of grain size variation. Because of the leucocratic nature of the rock, planar fabrics are
usually quite weakly developed and the textures is locally saccharoidal. A rust- brown mineral,
which may be orthopyroxene is also sometimes visible. Rare biotite-enriched layers or
128
schlieren were observed. The rocks are locally migmatitic, having coarse-grained leucosomes,
locally with rounded garnet crystals 3-10 mm in diameter.
Figure 6.100: Typical

appearance of garnet
leucogneiss, with small,
scattered garnet grains in
quartz-feldspar rock almost
devoid of biotite. Locality UTM
37S 367255 8389796, sheet
1437 Malema
6.5.7 Migmatitic leucogneiss (521 15 Ma) (Unit P2MRmc)

This unit underlies nearly 2,000 km2 of the northern part of sheets 1437 Malema and 1438
Ribu-Mecuburi, south of Nipepe, where it forms an extensive southwest-northeast-trending
mass. It continues northeastwards onto sheet 1339 Namuno. A number of smaller elongate
bodies occur adjacent to the main outcrop, interlayered with banded gneisses of the Marrupa
Complex. The large body terminates in the southwest at the closure of a regional-scale fold
structure, in the core of which lie two tectonically bound outliers of the Xixano Complex
(section 6.8). These klippen appear to structurally overlie the Marrupa Complex.
These leucocratic quartzo-feldspathic migmatitic gneisses are typically medium- to
fine-grained, but quite inequigranular, so that coarse-grained layers/segregations are also
common (Figure 6.101). They are pink-, brown- and orange-weathering, but greyish-pink
when fresh. They contain sub-equal, but variable contents of K-feldspar and plagioclase,
abundant quartz, and small amounts of biotite (~5%), often as thin schlieren, and have a strong
foliation/banding. Garnet occurs, but rarely and grains of scattered opaque minerals are
sometimes apparent (occasionally cubes of pyrite). Scarce amphibolite pods were also
observed. The foliation is defined by the grain-size variations of the quartzo-feldspathic
minerals, the orientation and concentration of biotite flakes and by stromatic leucosomes. The
foliation orientation is often variable, typically swirling and reticulate, with lensoid palaeosome
surrounded by anastomosing masses of diffuse leucosome. Palaeosomes are made up of
greyish, fine- to medium-grained biotite gneiss. The leucosomes consist of coarse-grained pink
leucogranite, occurring most typically as sub-parallel veins and/or irregular segregations.
Pinch-and-swell structures and boudinage of leucosomes are common. Outcrops vary
structurally, with massive and banded zones present, depending mainly on the degree of
leucosome development. In addition to leucosomes, most outcrops are also cut by coarse
pegmatites, either as more or less regular sheets or pods and irregular segregations up to 2m
across.
129
Two stages of migmatisation are often recorded the early, typically stromatic to layersub-parallel generation is post-dated by later, diffuse leucosomes, often associated with small,
ductile shear zones, which give rise to a locally sub-penetrative second, ~10cm-spaced
schistosity. Some leucosomes contain minor hornblende and, possibly, pyroxene. The layering
in the gneisses, and early leucosomes are strongly deformed by isoclinal to disharmonic ductile
folding.
Figure 6.101: Typical outcrop

of leucogneiss/migmatite with
pale grey medium-grained
palaeosome with biotite in
bands alternating with folded,
coarse-grained, pink, stromatic
leucosomes veins. Locality
UTM 37S 328871 8417793,
sheet 1437 Malema.
6.5.8 Quartz-rich paragneiss (Unit P2MRqp)

These comprise various quartzose gneisses, best exposed in the hilly countryside of EntreMontes on sheet 1436 Cuamba (c. UTM 37S 257000, 8393400, Figure 6.102). The gneisses are
predominantly strongly banded, medium- to coarse-grained, garnetiferous, quartz-rich biotitegneisses (Figure 6.103). Internally fragmented, red garnets occur, up to ~1cm in diameter but
mostly ~3mm. Mafic bands are common, mostly concordant to the gneissosity and up to about
1m in thickness. However, there are also mafic sheets that are slightly discordant to the
gneissosity. The proportion of felsic to mafic bands is very variable, although felsic bands are
always dominant. The banding is isoclinally folded and there are also more open, large
asymmetrical, overturned folds. The irregular outcrop of the Entre-Montes paragneisses
reflects the complex folding. Aplitic as well as pegmatitic veins cut the gneisses.
Thin sections (33494, 33481 and 33456) display granofelsic textures with ubiquitous
quartz and plagioclase, with or without garnet, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, hornblende,
opaques and biotite (Figure 6.104). Garnet occurs as atoll-shaped grains and poikilitic grains
without symplectic rims.
130
Figure 6.102: A typical rounded hill underlain by strongly banded quartz-rich gneisses at
UTM 37S 253052 8391681 on sheet 1436 Cuamba.
Figure 6.103: Garnetiferous quartz-rich

gneisses at UTM 37S 255367 8397903 on
sheet 1436 Cuamba.
Figure 6.104: (Left) Sample 33456 (UTM 37S 254754, 8393165) showing a granofelsic
intergrowth of orthopyroxene, biotite and plagioclase grains. Field of view: 4,4x5,4 mm.
(Right): Sample 33481 (UTM 37S 254417, 8389789) showing a poikilitic garnet with
quartz, clinopyroxene and opaque inclusions. Field of view: 4,4x5,4 mm.
131
6.5.9 Marble (Unit P2MRma)

Two small marble outcrop areas are shown on sheet 1436 Cuamba (at UTM 37S 222000,
8397500 and 255000, 8383000). These were identified by BRGM during their primary survey.
Two days were spent traversing the area south of Entre-Montes and east of Monte Morraca
where the more easterly marble outcrop is situated. The marble was not found as its outcrop
underlies an area, which was swampy and covered with tall grass at the time of our fieldwork.
However, calc-silicate rocks were located in this general area (in stream exposures) and
comprise medium-grained, equigranular garnet-plagioclase-diopside-gneisses.
6.5.10 Amphibolitic gneiss (Unit P2MRam)

Mafic rocks are not common in the Marrupa Complex, but a few extensive layers and bodies
are present especially in the northern part of the complex. The largest unit forms a large
apparent fold structure in the northwest part of sheet 1138 Negomano between the villages
Gomba and Negomano, along the Rio Rovuma. The fold closure is about 30-35 km south of
the river (~UTM 37S 415000, 8713000), according to the aeromagnetic data. The amphibolitic
gneiss is exposed along the road from Mecula to Gomba where it forms low ridges and isolated
small crags. It comprises banded black and white, amphibole-clinopyroxene-plagioclase
gneisses with minor quartz but no obvious sulphides or garnet. Mineral banding is on a cm
scale with individual felsic bands that protrude on weathered surfaces disrupted into
rectangular slabs up to about 10 cm in length (Figure 6.105). They possibly form a tight
synform with a sheared contact with tectonically underlying northern migmatitic gneisses.
Figure 6.105: Typical exposure of

amphibolites (Gomba metabasalt)
showing the internal banding that
weathers to create a ribbed
appearance in outcrop (sheet
1138 Negomano at UTM 37S
416531/8734208).
Other units of mafic gneiss are present as strongly folded lenses in the vicinity of
Monte Nicola, ~45 km northeast of Mecula (~UTM 37S 383000, 8692000) and associated with
banded paragneiss and quartz-feldspar gneiss (unit P2MRqv), and also further south as layers
within the paragneisses. The mafic gneiss layers are banded, commonly on a mm to cm scale,
and are amphibolitic, plagioclase-rich and calc-silicate/epidotic rocks. They probably represent
paragneisses, and may be metamorphosed, epiclastic, volcanic rocks. The rocks are fine- and
medium-grained with pitted weathering in places. The more massive amphibolitic bands are
boudinaged and wrapped by less competent lithologies. They also include leucocratic veinlets
132
and segregations in the boudin necks. Local minor, tight to isoclinal folds occur in the finely
banded lithologies. This unit of paragneisses continues to the northeast, and is probably a large
raft within, or infolded into the granitic and migmatitic gneisses.
Another large horizon of amphibolitic gneiss is exposed along the south bank of Rio
Rovuma, west of the small village Nyati (outcrops from UTM 322600, 8707500 to 319670,
8708450). It consists of hornblende, biotite, quartz and plagioclase. It is strongly banded and
foliated at a cm-scale, with alternating mafic and felsic bands. Hornblende is sometimes
present in up to 7-8 mm porphyroblastic grains. A less extensive layer occurs at the boundary
between sheets 1236 Mavago and 1137 Mavago, on the large mountain Metondover (UTM
37S 277000, 8666000). It is fine to medium grained and is commonly crosscut by granitic
veins. A strongly folded body of metagabbroic gneiss occurs on sheet 1337 Marrupa at UTM
37S 380000, 8490000. It is dark fine-grained, foliated with clinopyroxene, hornblende, biotite
and plagioclase as major phases, while orthopyroxene is present locally. It is intruded by
numerous veins of granite pegmatite.
Two thin mafic gneiss bands (one defines an isoclinal fold) are shown in the eastcentral part of sheet 1436 Cuamba, based on the previous BRGM map of the Cuamba sheet, on
which where they described as Norite-Gabbro. Boulders of an equigranular, pyroxenebearing, medium-grained, speckled mafic-rich, magnetite-plagioclase-gneiss associated with
red-brown soils were found in the outcrop area of the mafic gneisses. Similar gneisses form
thinner bands in quartz-feldspar gneisses throughout the eastern part of the Cuamba sheet.
6.5.11 Serpentinite (Unit P2MRsp)
A lens of serpentinite about 1.8 x1.1 km in extent occurs in the extreme southeastern corner of
sheet 1337 Marrupa, about 10 km north-northeast of Nipepe and just south of the mountain
Serra Merrente. (UTM 37S, 387260, 8462545).
Ultramafic rocks were also encountered a few kilometres north of Maiaca Mission
(sheet 1437 Malema at ~UTM 37S 327000, 8423000). The rocks take the form of two,
apparently ~0400-trending, elongate bodies up to 20 m thick. The ultramafic rocks consist
mainly of greenish black, coarse-grained harzburgite with euhedral crystals of orthopyroxene
2-3 cm in diameter, set in a matrix of serpentine. The rocks are massive and unfoliated.
Outcrop is poor and the in situ harzburgite is surrounded by loose boulders of other maficultramafic lithologies, including coarse-grained porphyritic gabbroid rocks with large pyroxene
phenocrysts up to 6mm in size in a serpentinitic matrix with feldspar and carbonate, and very
coarse-grained pyroxenites with pyroxene grains up to 15 cm in size. The relationships
between these lithologies were not seen, though it is probable that they form components of a
more complex mafic-ultramafic assemblage.
6.5.12 Dioritic gneiss (Unit P2MRdi)
Dioritic gneiss is a subordinate lithology in the Marrupa Complex, present in a few larger
horizons in the northern part of the complex. Smaller lenses of dioritic gneiss are also found
elsewhere, but are generally too small to be displayed at 1:250 000 scale.
One of the major units of dioritic gneiss is >5 km thick and exposed in the Rio Lureco,
~25 km south of Rio Lugenda (sheet 1237 Mecula, UTM 337000, 8602000). This dioritic
gneiss is banded and migmatitic, with up to dm-thick, partly irregular leucosomes of mainly
quartz and plagioclase. The leucosomes locally constitute as much as 40% of the rock mass.
133
The grain size is generally 2-5 mm. In addition to quartz and plagioclase, the dioritic gneiss
contains lesser biotite, hornblende and K-feldspar.
A unit of more massive quartz-diorite is present to the west, in Rio Lugenda (UTM
306000, 8608000). This rock is only weakly foliated in its central part and contains frequent,
up to metre-sized, xenoliths of fine-grained amphibolite (Figure 6.106). It is more deformed
and schistose at its boundary to the surrounding granitic and tonalitic gneisses. The rock is
dominated by plagioclase, quartz, biotite and K-feldspar. Epidote, garnet and hornblende are
subordinate phases. K-feldspar occurs in up to 1-2 cm grains in a more fine-grained matrix of
the other minerals.
Microprobe analyses show that the plagioclase is pure albite, while the alkali feldspar is
almost pure K-feldspar with only 4-8 mol% Na. The garnet is almandine with about 25% of the
grossular-component. The amphibole is K-bearing hastingsite to hastingsitic hornblende,
suggesting a pressure of about 6-7 kbars.
It is unclear whether this is a less deformed variety of the dioritic gneiss present in Rio
Lureco. The presence of amphibolitic xenoliths may point to a syntectonic origin.
Figure 6.106: Dioritic gneiss from Rio Lugenda (UTM 37S 306080, 8606660) on sheet 1237
Mecula. Left: weakly foliated with numerous xenoliths of fine-grained amphibolite. Right:Close-up
of porphyritic variety with up to 1-2 cm grains of K-feldspar.
Another large unit is present at the boundary between sheets 1136 Milepa and 1137
Macalange, about 5 km north of Matondovela. It is greyish, migmatised and consists of quartz,
plagioclase, biotite and locally minor K-feldspar. Some outcrops contain what appear to be
porphyroblasts or phenocrysts of white plagioclase, partly oriented parallel to the foliation.
6.5.13 Tonalitic gneiss, banded and biotite-rich (Unit P2MRbn)
Tonalitic gneiss is especially abundant on sheet 1337 Marrupa, but is also common further
north, on sheets 1137 Macalange and 1237 Mecula. In the south tonalitic gneiss alternates with
granitic gneiss and these lithologies are folded together into a complex pattern. The rock
extends southwards into sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi where it occupies
large areas in the northern parts of these sheets.
134
As with the other orthogneisses in the Marrupa Complex, the tonalitic gneiss is
commonly migmatitic. It contains alternating leucocratic, quartz-feldspar rich and biotite-rich
bands and lenses on a cm-dm scale (Figure 6.107, Figure 6.108). Later leucocratic veins,
probably formed during a late stage of the migmatization, are seen locally to cut the banding
(Figure 6.109). Amphibolite ( biotite) is also locally present as discontinuous layers, up to a
metre-scale thick, and as lenses and boudins, commonly with pinch-and-swell structures, often
with coarse leucosome in boudin necks (Figure 6.110). Some strongly foliated, diopside- and
garnet-bearing calc-silicate layers and lenses were observed.
Gneiss of tonalitic composition contains quartz, plagioclase and biotite as the main
constituents, but also hornblende is quite common as a subordinate to main constituent. The
content of magnetite varies. Titanite is a common accessory mineral, occurring in tiny
yellowish-brown grains, often associated with the dark minerals. Garnet is occasionally also
present in accessory to subordinate amounts. The grain size varies from 1-10 mm, typically
with plagioclase as the coarsest mineral, often with the coarsest grains present in more
leucocratic bands and lenses together with quartz. Hornblende is also quite common in up to
cm-large porphyroblasts in the more quartz-feldspar-rich bands, giving these a mottled
appearance, while it appears to be more fine-grained in darker bands with biotite. Pyroxene is
occasionally found in the southern part of the unit.
The banded gneisses are also interlayered with quartz-feldspar layers with minor
biotite. Other, more intermediate fine- to medium-grained biotite gneisses are also interlayered
with this heterogeneous sequence.
6.5.14 Trondhjemitic gneiss (Unit P2MRtr)
Small bodies of trondhjemitic gneiss occur in a few small outcrops, southwest of Nipepe,
where they are spatially associated with, and may form a phase of, the granodioritic
orthogneiss unit described above, although the relationships between the two units was not
directly observed.
The trondhjemitic gneiss is composed of plagioclase, quartz and subordinate Kfeldspar, with biotite, magnetite and, in places, garnet. The rocks are leucocratic, having a
Colour Index typically less then 5. They are white-weathering, fine- to medium-grained,
equigranular, homogeneous and weakly gneissic. In places, a weakly defined banding (10-20
cm thick) is apparent, caused by variations in grain size or slightly higher content of biotite.
Rare veins of pegmatoidal granite 10-20 cm thick are also observed.
135
Figure 6.107: Migmatitic, biotiterich, tonalitic orthogneiss with

frequent quartz-plagioclase
leucocratic bands. The hammer is
on a dark hornblende-biotite
layer, which may represent a
restite. Locality: south of Maua
on sheet 1337 Marrupa, UTM
37S 299937,8462083.
Figure 6.108: Migmatitic biotitebearing tonalitic gneiss with

strongly irregular folding of
quartz-plagioclase leucosomes.
Locality: UTM 37S, 358600,
8581736 on sheet 1237 Mecula.
Figure 6.109: Migmatitic,

hornblende-bearing tonalitic
gneiss, with partly cross-cutting
neosomes of quartz and
plagioclase. Irregular folding.
Locality: UTM 37S, 386189,
8635384 on sheet 1237 Mecula.
136
Figure 6.110: Typical outcrops of migmatised amphibolite layer in the banded tonalitic gneiss.
Note boudinage of massive amphibolite, with leucosome concentrations in the boudin necks.
Locality UTM 37S 293807 8424670, sheet 1437 Malema.
6.5.15 Granodioritic gneiss (10269 Ma; U-Pb, 101610 Ma; U-Pb) (Unit P2MRgd)
Granodioritic gneiss is particularly common in the northern half of the Marrupa Complex (i.e.
sheets 1136 Milepa, 1137 Macalange, 1236 Mavago and 1237 Mecula), where it alternates
with granitic gneiss and subordinate tonalitic gneiss. The outcrops in this unit are, in the
eastern part of the Mavago sheet, partly high, roughly circular mountains; kopjes or inselbergs
(Figure 6.111).
The granodioritic gneiss is generally off-white to pink/mottled pink in colour,
depending on the content of K-feldspar. It differs from granitic gneiss (unit P2MRgg ), because
of a generally lower radiometric signature, which is mainly due to a lower content of Kfeldspar. It contains quartz, plagioclase and biotite as the main phases. Magnetite is present as
a trace to main mineral, while K-feldspar is always present in subordinate amounts.
Hornblende is also a quite common constituent in many cases, occurring in mm- to cm-sized
porphyroblasts. The content of magnetite is often slightly higher than for the granitic gneiss.
137
Figure 6.111: Mountains of granitic/granodioritic gneiss. View to the east. Locality southwest of
Matondovela on sheet 1236 Mavago, UTM 37S 274130, 8648015.
Figure 6.112: Typical migmatitic,

biotite-bearing, granodioritic
gneiss with cm-dm thick
leucocratic quartz-feldspar
leucosomes. Locality: UTM 37S
363766, 8568146, sheet 1337
Marrupa.
Figure 6.113: Granodioritic

gneiss, quite homogeneous, with
only diffuse banding defined by
elongate aggregates of biotite.
Crosscutting dyke of granite
pegmatite. Locality: UTM 37S
362465, 8568800, sheet 1337
Marrupa.
Both mineralogy and texture vary in lenses and bands. The banding is on a cm-dm
scale, defining a pronounced foliation of the rock. The origin of the banding is mostly due to
migmatization, with melanocratic paleosomes, and leucocratic neosomes. In other localities,
the leucosomes, mainly of quartz and feldspar are more irregular, forming ragged networks of
interconnecting patches and veins. The grain-size varies from fine- to medium-grained (1-4
138
mm), often with lenses and veins of coarser material present. Locally, augen texture is
developed with large porphyroblasts (up to 20 mm) of plagioclase and minor K-feldspar.
Granodioritic gneiss is a relatively minor component on sheets 1137 Negomano and
1237 Xixano, mainly occurring in two elongate, ductile shear-bounded lenses. Some more
medium- to coarse-grained granitic sheets, which include biotite as the main mafic mineral, are
present. Minor mafic to dioritic xenoliths are sometimes present within the orthogneiss. The
main constituents of the granodioritic gneiss are quartz, plagioclase and lesser K-feldspar.
Biotite is the main mafic mineral but amphibole is sometimes observed. The grain size is up to
4-5 mm but is generally 1-2 mm, showing an equigranular texture, with equant crystals. The
biotite often shows a preferred orientation, even where the granodiorite is only weakly foliated.
However, the granodioritic gneiss is well foliated over large areas.
More migmatitic varieties of the granodioritic gneiss are present, especially close to the
tectonic contact with the Xixano Complex to the east. Pinkish-grey, medium to coarse-grained
granodioritic migmatite with pegmatitic segregations containing crystals of K-feldspar up to 30
mm is typical. The pegmatitic segregations often show augen textures due to subsequent
deformation. The pegmatitic leucosomes are often 'spotted' with mafic aggregates of amphibole
and biotite (and rarely magnetite). These can be up to 10 mm in diameter. Lenses or rafts of
banded dioritic gneiss are more common than in the non-migmatised varieties.
In the southern part of the complex, only one major body is found in the area westsouthwest of Nipepe (centred on ~UTM 37S 345000, 8440000 on sheet 1437 Malema). This
unit is typically a well-foliated to banded, grey, medium- to coarse grained gneiss, composed
of biotite, hornblende, plagioclase and quartz with subordinate K-feldspar. The composition is
relatively mafic, with Colour Index typically between 15 and 25. The rocks are sparsely
feldspar porphyroblastic in restricted zones in any one outcrop. Mafic inclusions, boudins and
schlieren of amphibolite are common. In some outcrops the gneiss is migmatitic and strongly
banded with thin, discontinuous, hornblende-bearing, granitic, layer-parallel leucosomes 10-30
cm thick. Later, foliation-parallel, intrusive granitic sheets 10-30 cm thick are also found, in
addition to later coarse pegmatite veins and sheets. The foliation is consistently very strong,
grading to mylonitic in places.
6.5.16 Amphibole-bearing granitic diatexite (Unit P2MRad)
This unit crops out quite extensively around the hinge of the large fold structure that closes in
the Nacuma region on sheet 1437 Malema. It is concentrated along the boundary between
biotite gneiss, probably of tonalitic origin (unit P2MRbn) and quartz-feldspar leucogneiss (unit
P2Mrlca), from which it may have been derived by anatexis. The main outcrop of the diatexite
forms a semi-continuous 3-5km wide belt which runs northeast for over 40 km (from ~UTM
37S 330000 8422000) and wedges out at the boundary to sheet 1337 Marrupa.
The term diatexite is used for migmatitic rocks, in which the proportion of melt
(leucosome) constitutes 50% or more, coupled with significant proportions of remnant
palaeosome (Figure 6.114). Masses of coarse leucocratic material and disoriented pods, lenses
and schlieren of more mafic (biotite and hornblende-bearing) components characterize the
rock. The overall composition, however, is granitoid. These rocks occupy a somewhat
intermediate position between supracrustal and intrusive igneous rocks. They are grouped here
within the latter category, as major fluid mobilisation is present. In the field, these rocks have a
very chaotic appearance, in that composition and texture vary over short distances, and
structures rarely show consistent orientations, even within a single outcrop.
139
Figure 6.114: Typical appearance of the amphibole-bearing diatexite.

Note the very high proportion of diffuse, coarse-grained granitic
leucosome (black spots are amphiboles), and darker palaeosome
remnants of biotite-hormblende. Locality: UTM 37S 331968 8431497,
sheet 1437 Malema.
6.5.17 Migmatitic quartz-feldspar-hornblende gneiss (55811 Ma; U-Pb) (Unit P2MRhg)
These gneisses make up several hundreds of square kilometres of outcrop in the southwest part
of sheet 1437 Malema, north of Mutuale and Malema, where the Lurio structure turns
northwards, deformed by a series of M-fold closures (see Chapter 9). In the east, the unit is
dragged into, and attenuated by the Lurio structure and re-appears in a few minor lenses to the
northeast. The unit extends westwards into sheet 1436 Cuamba, where it is the major lithology
in the central-eastern part of the sheet. The full extent of the unit to the west is not known,
because it was not possible to access the central part of the Cuamba sheet. It is possible that
these banded gneisses form a continuous envelope around the granitic gneiss (unit P2MRgg,
section 6.5.18) exposed in the northern part of the Cuamba sheet. The exposed northern contact
of the banded gneisses with granitic gneisses is a sub-vertical ductile shear zone.
This unit is composed of rather heterogeneous, locally diffusely layered and banded
(but always very strongly foliated), coarse- to medium-grained (heterogranular), grey to
pinkish-grey, leucocratic hornblende-bearing quartz-feldspar gneiss with subordinate biotite
(Figure 6.115). Plagioclase is typically more abundant than K-feldspar. Layering, where
present, is typically on a 1-10 cm scale, locally giving the gneiss a bimodal mafic-felsic
appearance, with the felsic component comprising 75-80 % of the rock. In such outcrops, mafic
granular amphibolite layers range from mm-scale to 50 cm thick. The mafic component is
locally boudinaged. The banding defines small-scale folds seen in all good exposures (Figure
6.116). Garnets are locally present and the magnetite content is highly variable as shown by
140
variable kappameter readings. One thin section (33482), of flat-lying banded gneiss from the
extreme southeastern part of the Cuamba sheet (UTM 37S 282126, 8348576), shows a
granofelsic texture of interlocking orthopyroxene and plagioclase, with weakly aligned
hornblende and interstitial quartz with late biotite overgrowths.
Figure 6.115: Field appearance of typical homogeneous facies of the leucocratic

hornblende-bearing granitic orthogneiss. Note heterogranular nature and characteristic
dark speckled hornblende. Locality: UTM 37S 326698, 8383148 on sheet 1437 Malema.
The main fabric is commonly isoclinally folded around gently dipping fold axes that
generate clear intersections with the foliation. In these rocks the amphibole can be strongly
elongated in rods, giving rise to an almost constrictional fabric. Some migmatisation is
normally apparent, with diffuse, layer-parallel and crosscutting leucosomes in varying
abundance. The felsic component of the gneisses is sporadically greenish and charnockitic in
appearance and may be pyroxene-bearing.
In other outcrops, the migmatised, banded rocks grade into rather homogeneous
medium-grained, grey, leucocratic gneisses with diffuse, more hornblende-rich (but still leucoto mesocratic) pods, layers and schlieren that define a strong foliation. Small hornblende
porphyroblasts up to 5 mm in size are common. Quartz ribbon fabrics are developed in the
most highly strained rocks. Most outcrops are cut by hornblende-bearing pegmatite veins, pods
and irregular masses, often up to 1 m in thickness and usually intruded at a high angle to the
foliation. Some of these contain rusty grains of weathered orthopyroxene up to 1 cm in size.
Thin aplite dykes cut other outcrops.
The more homogenous outcrops of these rocks appear to be intrusive granitoids with
mafic enclaves. Consequently, the entire unit is interpreted as an orthogneiss, albeit with very
variable degrees of strain, banding and migmatisation.
141
Figure 6.116:
Isoclinal folds defined
by gneissosity.
Locality: UTM 37S
240119, 8396117on
sheet 1436 Cuamba.
6.5.18 Granitic gneiss (102512 Ma U-Pb, 100519 Ma U-Pb) (Unit P2MRgg)

Granitic gneiss is a major lithology in the Marrupa Complex together with granodioritic and
tonalitic compositions. These rock types are intermingled within individual outcrops and on
scales up to the order of several kilometres. Outcrops vary from flat-lying pavements in
riverbeds to isolated rounded hills and mountains (Figure 6.117).
The granitic gneiss is generally grey to pink and medium- to quite coarse-grained
(Figure 6.118). It can often be fairly massive or blocky where it is weakly foliated. It is
composed of quartz, K-feldspar and plagioclase as major phases. Magnetite is also often a
major phase, while the content of biotite is highly variable. At several localities the content of
biotite is very low and the gneiss may be characterized as leucogranitic (or leucocratic granitic)
gneiss. The content of magnetite is also variable, but generally quite high. Dark amphibole,
probably hornblende, is present at some localities, especially where the content of K-feldspar is
low. At some localities accessory garnet occurs as pinhead-size crystals of mid-red colour.
The grain size is generally 1-10 mm, typically with alternating lenses and bands of
grains with variable size (Figure 6.119, Figure 6.121). The banding is on a scale of -50 cm,
defined by alternating leucocratic quartz-feldspar rich bands and melanocratic bands with a
higher content of biotite (Figure 6.120). Magnetite porphyroblasts up to 1 cm in size are
sometimes present in the quartz-feldspar rich bands. The banding is generally due to
migmatization, with formation of leucocratic segregations and scattered more fine-grained
irregular patches of dark, biotite-rich paleosome. At some localities elongated quartz ribbons
are evident in the plane of the foliation. Mafic bands and inclusions occur, but are not generally
common. Where they occur they indicate tight folding, and at several localities the foliation
within the granitic gneiss is also tightly folded (parallel to the mafic bands).
142
Figure 6.117: Typical outcrop of granitic gneiss of the Marrupa Complex. Locality:
UTM 37S, 269646, 8441372, sheet 1436 Cuamba.
Thin sections of these gneisses show that they are leucocratic rocks with minor amounts
of hornblende and late biotite in groundmasses of quartz, alkali feldspar and plagioclase.
Quartz occurs as embayed, strongly strained grains that can constitute up to 65% of the mode.
Plagioclase to alkali feldspar ratios are highly variable. Microperthite is the dominant alkali
feldspar with albite exsolution spindles (braid-perthite) as well as albite overgrowths.
Textures vary from granofelsic to porphyritic with relatively large alkali feldspar grains set in a
groundmass with polymodal quartz grains. In many places, veins of granitic pegmatite crosscut
the gneissic banding. These are coarse with up to several cm large crystals, especially of Kfeldspar.
Figure 6.118: Massive, granitic gneiss

with a weak banding defined by aligned
biotite. Locality: UTM 37S, 274250,
8424280, sheet 1436 Cuamba.
143
Figure 6.119: Banded migmatitic granitic

gneiss with more coarse lighter quartzfeldspar bands alternating with darker biotiterich bands. Locality: UTM 37S 358883,
8537410, sheet 1337 Marrupa.
Figure 6.120: Migmatitic banded granitic

gneiss with alternating biotite-rich and
quartz-feldspar-rich bands and lenses.
Locality: UTM 37S 382380, 8461256, sheet
1337 Marrupa.
Figure 6.121: Coarse-grained, biotite granitic orthogneiss of the Marrupa Complex.

Locality UTM 37S 327104 8441154, sheet 1437 Malema.
The eastern contact of the granitic gneisses is marked by a gradation into migmatitic
granite gneisses. A weakly migmatised contact zone consists of granitic gneisses injected by
pale pink leucosome composed mainly or exclusively of K-feldspar, forming irregular bands or
veins with diffuse margins suggestive of potassium metasomatism; rather than injection of a
melt. These gneisses in turn, pass into more intensely migmatitic rocks with sharply defined
144
leucosome veins as a major component. The gneisses are flaggy close to the sheared southern
contact of this unit near Monte Nato (UTM 37S 282500 8421500) where modes are dominated
by quartz and biotite. Disharmonic folding is a feature of the migmatites. The folding is well
exposed in flat rock pavements at UTM 37S 280561 8432380 in Rio Mecequisse.
Thin sections (33475, 33476 and 33477) of these migmatitic gneisses showed that they have
quartz-rich palaeosomes comprising over 50% of embayed, strained quartz grains with a
polymodal distribution. Biotite occurs as both interstitial and aligned flakes, together with
plagioclase and minor amounts of opaques and variable amounts of hornblende and garnet (as
relict grains). Neosome phases are granitic with microperthite and quartz with secondary
sericite and tiny muscovite flakes.
Figure 6.122: Migmatitic granite gneiss exposed in Rio Mecequisse at UTM 37S 280561
8432380, sheet 1436 Cuamba.
6.5.19 Mylonitic granite (Unit P2MRmy)
Mylonite of granitic composition is extensive enough to be separated on sheets 1136 Milepa
and 1236 Mavago. It appears to form the major crustal terrane-bounding shear zone between
the Marrupa Complex and the Unango Complex in the area north and northwest of Mavago.
The area in which this shear zone is found on the sheet 1136 Milepa is generally very poorly
exposed, and the locality studied in detail (UTM 37S 198718, 8690155) consists of loose
blocks. The trend of the loose blocks allowed the strike of the shear zone to be estimated at
~160 at this locality, which is somewhat more southerly than the east-southeast of the inferred
contact on the basis of geophysical data. The rock has a very strong foliation and lineation in
outcrop and a very small grain-size that was seen to be < 0.1 mm in thin section. Quartz grains
in the foliation are very elongated (aspect ratios of 10:1) and show extreme stretching (Figure
145
6.123). These are displayed as 1-2 mm thick ribbons in hand specimen. This rock type has
equal amounts of quartz, plagioclase and potassium feldspar and is therefore interpreted as
having had a granitic protolith, although no original textures are preserved.
Figure 6.123: Granitic mylonite of the

Marrupa Complex, showing intense mylonitic
fabric (Sample 35222, UTM 37S 198718,
8690155), sheet 1236 Mavago. Field of view
4,4x5,4 mm.
Figure 6.124: Laminated, strongly sheared

granitic gneiss of the Marrupa Complex.
(Locality: UTM 37S 268770, 8643140), sheet
1236 Mavago.
This unit forms the northern boundary of the mylonitic muscovite-biotite gneiss of the
Muaquia Complex (Unit P3Qbg) in the eastern part of sheet 1236 Mavago. It consists of
strongly foliated, biotite-bearing granitic gneiss. The gneiss is laminated on a mm-scale (Figure
6.124), obviously a result of strong shear deformation. The deformation zone continues
northwestwards, and a similar lens of granitic gneiss extends into the Milepa sheet. This unit
of granitic gneiss differs from the granitic/granodioritic gneiss unit to the north by being more
radiogenic.
6.5.20 Matondovela Alkali Syenite (Unit P2MRsy)
A very fine- to fine-grained magnetite-bearing feldspar rock (susceptibility up to 0.08 SI units
corresponding to 2-3 % magnetite), occurs as an extended layer at the boundary between sheets
1236 Mavago and 1237 Mecula. This rock was found in several outcrops with boulders for
about 2.5 km along the road southwards from Matondovela. It is a greyish-green, structureless,
homogeneous rock, with 1-4 mm laths of feldspar and very fine-grained scattered grains of
magnetite.
XRF analysis of magnetite-bearing feldspar rock
SiO2
58.12
Nb
305
Al2O3
Fe2O3
19.17
Zr
2903
Ga
42
5.63
100
Zn
120
TiO2
0.09
Sr
48
Ni
MgO
<0.01
Rb
255
Co
CaO
0.74
14
Ce
384
Na2O
8.25
Th
71
La
179
K2O
4.34
Pb
45
Nd
120
MnO
0.37
Cr
<10
Ta
25
P2O5
0.14
16
Pr
33
LOI
1.41
Hf
90
SUM
98.24
Ba
88
146
Sn
15
Thin sections reveal that it consists of

approximately 90 % alkali-feldspar, 5 %
Na-pyroxene, 2-3 % magnetite and 2-3 %
yellow garnet. Accessory minerals include
nepheline (confirmed by microprobe),
titanite and zircon (Figure 6.125). The
alkali-feldspar includes both pure Kfeldspar and albite occurring in separate
grains according to microprobe data.
Microprobe analyses show that the Na-pyroxene is aegirine:

(Na0.91-0.92Ca0.08-0.09)(Fe3+0.87-0.88Mn0.02-0.04Al0.06-0.07)(Al0.02-0.03Si1.97-1.98)O6
and that the garnet is andradite (81-86% andradite component with 9-13% spessartine and up
to 7-8% grossular).
XRF-analysis (see table) (Sample 31837, UTM 37S 282755 8660808) confirms that the
rock is alkaline and silica-undersaturated. Furthermore the rock has very high contents of
niobium and zirconium, and relatively high contents of REE and thorium.
The geochemistry, relict magmatic texture with unoriented feldspar laths, presence of
albite, nepheline and aegirine, show that this is rock that should be classified as an alkalisyenite.
Figure 6.125: Partly orientated alkali-feldspar (ab, kf) and minor aegirine (aeg), nepheline
(ne), magnetite (mt) and andradite (and) in alkali syenite of the Marrupa Complex. (Sample
31837, UTM 37S 282755, 8660808, sheet 1237 Mecula. (Field of view: 2,4x3,0 mm).
6.6
Nairoto Complex
6.6.1 Introduction
The Nairoto Complex is well exposed as a 15-30 km wide north-northeast - south-southwest
trending belt of rocks dominated by felsic orthogneisses that runs from the central part of sheet
1139 Mueda southwards along the contact between sheets 1238 Xixano and 1239 Meluco.
North of Montepuez there is a major fold with axial plane trending north-northeast - southsouthwest that turns the unit to a west-northwest - east-southeast direction. Eastwards the
complex comprises a 10-15 km wide belt across sheets 1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi. The
complex thus comprises an arc-shaped belt wrapped around the Lalamo Complex. The contacts
to the latter are clearly tectonic, with discordant features on the Mueda and northern part of the
Meluco sheets. The orthogneisses are commonly magnetite-bearing, and the belt shows
pronounced positive anomalies in the aeromagnetic data. Most of the complex is well exposed
and relatively accessible as it follows the main road from Montepuez northwards to Mueda.
Several timber tracks also exist in that area. The outcrops are scarcer along the eastern arm of
the belt.
147
The name Nairoto was introduced by Pinna et al. (1993) who gave the unit a group
status even though they realized that its component units were mainly metamorphosed
intrusive rocks. They correlated the Nairoto Complex with the Meluco and Marrupa
Complexes as part of a basement unit (their Nampula Supergroup) onto which their Chiure
Group was thrust. Nairoto is both the name of a town and an administrative district located in
the central part of the complex (UTM 37S 501000 8613000).
The Nairoto Complex predominantly consists of a suite of felsic orthogneisses with
varying degrees of migmatisation. Geochemically they are calc-alkaline with granitic to
tonalitic compositions, and can be classified as normal I-type granitoids. Granitic to
granodioritic varieties predominate, but due to the rapid changes in composition and degree of
migmatisation it has not been possible to distinguish the various types at a scale of 1:250,000.
A few minor lenses of paragneiss have been outlined. There are no indications that the
metamorphic grade has exceeded amphibolite facies.
A psammitic gneiss has yielded a zircon with an interpreted crystallisation age of 976
5 Ma, with a metamorphic overprint at 579 10 Ma (Jamal, 2005). Intrusion ages of 1044
44 and 1019 36 Ma have been reported for biotite gneiss and amphibolite respectively
(Jamal, 2005) (see Chapter 11).
6.6.2 Metasandstone and biotite gneiss (Unit P2NRbg)
Minor lenses of granular, fine grained ( 1mm), greyish-white to red homogeneous rock are
assumed to represent meta-sandstones. The content of dark minerals is low, generally 5%.
The foliation is weak and generally defined by biotite. The quartz content is also rather low; in
the field estimated to about 50%, indicating that the rock is slightly reworked sediment. At
UTM 37 536808 8679678 the meta-sandstone has garnets up to 3cm across, randomly
distributed in the sediment. The garnets seem to be especially abundant in late felsic veins, but
they are also found in the country rock itself see Figure 6.126. At UTM 541664 8689398 the
rock is nearly flat-lying with a weak foliation, and containing very fine-grained biotite (2-3%).
Figure 6.126: Meta-sandstone with granitic veins containing

garnets, (UTM 37S 5368088679678), sheet 1139 Mueda.
Thin sections show ~40-45% quartz and ~50% feldspar. Microcline and plagioclase are
present, the former being most abundant. The quartz grains tend to be larger than the feldspars.
148
The biotite content, estimated to ~5%, is distributed parallel to the foliation and has an olivegreen to brown colour. Accessories minerals include garnet, muscovite, chlorite, epidote,
opaques and zircon. The texture is granoblastic with a grain size of ~0.5-2.0 mm.
6.6.3 Granitic to granodioritic gneiss, locally migmatitic (Unit P2NRgr)
In the northernmost part of the belt, on sheet 1139 Mueda, granitic to granodioritic gneiss is
found, commonly pinkish-white, fine- to medium-grained, and biotite-bearing. The content of
biotite is commonly ~5 %, and can be up to 10-15 %. Amphibole occurs occasionally. The
rocks are well- to strongly-foliated, and are clearly orthogneisses. Slightly banded and more
biotite-rich varieties also occur. Minor shear zones indicate a sinistral shear sense. Augen
texture is developed in zones a few m wide. Locally these are migmatitic and intensely folded
on a small scale (Figure 6.127). Biotite aggregates are common in the leucosome. Both
foliation parallel and crosscutting pegmatoid veins are common (Figure 6.127). Locally a few
mafic, biotite-rich zones, interpreted as dikes, are found, in some cases folded and cut by
pegmatites.
Figure 6.127: Intensely folded migmatitic granitic gneiss (left, UTN 37S 534175, 8721198)
and sub-parallel pegmatoid veins in granitic gneiss with augen texture (right, UTM 37S
531267, 8711640), sheet 1139 Mueda.
The granitic gneiss is locally strongly deformed with biotite laminae and symmetric
feldspar blasts, in the westernmost part of the complex, close to the contact with the Xixano
Complex, across the Nairoto-Xixano road on sheet 1238 Xixano (Figure 6.128). Variably
foliated granitic gneisses and migmatites with pegmatoid veins are most common southwards
along the Nairoto-Montepuez road. The content of mafic minerals, mainly biotite, varies,
normally ~5-10%. Muscovite occurs in banded, granitic migmatite (Figure 6.128).
149
Figure 6.128: Strongly deformed granitic gneiss with symmetrical K-feldspar porphyroblasts
(left, UTM 37S 497062, 8635120) and banded granitic migmatite (right, UTM 37S 501651,
8620330), sheet 1239 Meluco.
The variations in migmatisation and composition are seen clearly in east-west-trending
profiles north and south of Rio Messalo (around UTM 37S 500000, 8610000) on sheet 1238
Xixano. Granitic orthogneisses predominate in this area. All textural variations from granitic
gneiss with a weakly defined foliation to multiply folded migmatites exit. The normal granitic
gneiss is well foliated, fine- to medium-grained and contains biotite. Pegmatitic veins and
patches are common. Irregular biotite-rich lenses and inclusions can be found. Biotite-rich
bands are also common in the migmatitic granitic gneiss and migmatites. The typical granitic
migmatite is banded, and is locally intensely folded (Figure 6.129). Scattered feldspar
porhyroblasts are also common. In the westernmost locality, north of the river, tonalitic
migmatite is seen. The white and dark green, fine- to medium-grained migmatite is
characterised by amphibole aggregates in the leucosome (Figure 6.129). The general foliation
trend in the area is eastnortheast west-southwest, with varying dips reflecting the intense
folding of the complex.
The Nairoto Complex is well exposed along profiles in the sothwest corner of sheet
1239 Meluco, where major folds with north-northeast - south-southwest-trending axial planes
occur. Minor folds that are associated these major folds and minor sinistral shear zones (Figure
6.130) (see Chapter 9) are observed in outcrops. North-northeast - south-southwest-oriented
shear zones are also observed along the limbs of these minor folds in this area (Figure 6.131).
The rocks range from granitic to tonalitic compositions, with variable degrees of
migmatisation. Homogeneous and more banded varieties, commonly with banding on a scale
of a few cm are found. They are also variably deformed, and minor folds and shear zones are
common. Several generations of pegmatite and pegmatitic veins occur. There are rapid
changes between these types, even in the same outcrop.
150
Figure 6.129: Intensely folded, biotite-bearing granitic migmatite (left, UTM 37S 499681
8611726) and amphibole-bearing tonalitic migmatite (right, UTM 37S 495760, 8610648), both
on sheet 1238 Xixano.
Figure 6.130: Minor fold in tonalitic gneiss with axis 206/20 (left, UTM 37S 515945,
8599604) and minor sinistral shear zone with direction 230 in granitic gneiss (right, UTM
37S 521909, 8591876), both on sheet 1239 Meluco.
The granitic gneiss is pinkish white and commonly well foliated. It is fine- to mediumgrained, heteroblastic and comprises 45-55 % K-feldspar, 30% quartz and 10-15% plagioclase.
Biotite, about 2-10 %, is the most common mafic mineral, and subsidiary amounts of magnetite
and titanite are also characteristic constituents. Accessory minerals include zircon, rutile and
apatite. Coarse-grained K-feldspar porphyroblasts locally give the rock an augen texture. It is
variably sheared, locally blastomylonitic, or migmatised with biotite as the most common
mafic mineral in the leucosome (Figure 6.132)
151
Figure 6.131: Folded tonalitic gneiss (fold axis Figure 6.132: Granitic migmatite with
228/20) with minor north-northeast-southcrosscutting pegmatite veins (UTM 37S
southwest-oriented shear zones along the
519847, 8594640), sheet 1239 Meluco.
limbs. No shear-sense indicators seen (UTM
37S 515172, 8600890), sheet 1239 Meluco.
Figure 6.133: Tonalitic gneiss with plagioclase, quartz, hornblende and minor biotite. Field of
view: 5,3x4,3 mm (Sample 36078, UTM 37S 507867, 8575688,) sheet 1239 Meluco
The tonalitic gneiss is greyish white and fine- to coarse-grained (1-5 mm). It is
heteroblastic and commonly comprises ~50 % plagioclase, 30 % quartz and subordinate
amounts of K-feldspar. The mafic minerals comprise 15-20 %, with more hornblende than
biotite (Figure 6.133). Titanite is a common constituent and accessory minerals include apatite
and opaque minerals. Thin bands/lenses of plagioclase are common in rather homogeneous,
well-foliated tonalitic gneiss (Figure 6.134). Migmatitic varieties generally contain amphibole
in the leucosome and biotite in the melanosome (Figure 6.134). Close to the contact to the
Montepuez Complex plan-foliated and blastomylonitic varieties are observed (UTM 37S
505304, 8572986).
152
Figure 6.134: Homogeneous tonalitic gneiss with thin lenses/bands of plagioclase (left, UTM
37S 507867, 8575688) (sheet 1239 Meluco) and tonalitic migmatite with medium-grained
hornblende in the leucosome and fine-grained biotite in the melanosome in good outcrop in
Rio Ntete (right, UTM 37S 515955, 8598728) (sheet 1239 Meluco).
The Nairoto Complex continues as a 1-5 km wide zone in the northern parts of sheets
1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi, separating the Montepuez and Lalamo Complexes in the
south and north respectively. Fine-grained, biotite-bearing granitic gneiss predominates along
this belt. Locally migmatisation and mylonitisation are observed.
6.7
Meluco Complex
6.7.1 Introduction
The Meluco Complex occurs in two large oval dome-like structures (dimensions 30 x 50 km
and 45 x 60 km) in the southwest part of sheet 1239 Meluco (Figure 6.135). The largest of
these structures continues onto sheet 1240 Quissanga-Pemba, where the Meluco Complex
makes up the major part of the Precambrian rocks. Three much smaller, restricted structures
occur on sheets 1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi.
The main part of the Meluco Complex was earlier called the Meluco Group, and was,
together with other high-grade orthogneiss units, assigned to the Nampula Supergroup by
Pinna and Marteau (1987). The high-grade units were interpreted by Jourde and Wolff (1974)
as an old migmatitic basement, extensively reworked by the ~1000 Ma, so-called Lurian
Orogeny. According to Pinna et al. (1993), the Meluco Group represents polyphase batholiths
emplaced in the deep part of a mature island arc or active continental margin. We have retained
the name Meluco, the name of the small town in the northernmost of the most characteristic of
the structures, but have changed the status of the components from Group to Complex.
The Meluco Complex consists of orthogneisses of mainly granitic to granodioritic
composition, with tonalitic rocks as a subordinate component. The granitic rocks tend to form
high mountainous terrain, e.g. south of Meluco and south of Metoro (Figure 6.136 and Figure
6.137).
153
Figure 6.135: Overview map showing the Meluco Complex and its relationship to the other
units.
The geophysical data on the two large dome structures of the Meluco Complex show a
rather irregular, folded pattern. This is in contrast to the supracrustal rocks in the surrounding
Lalamo Complex, which have a very banded pattern that seems to wrap around the Meluco
Complex in a concentric structure. The smaller bodies further S show more concentric banding,
with alternating granitic and granodioritic gneisses (see sheets 1339 Montepuez and 1340
Mecufi).
Figure 6.136: Digital terrain model, viewed northwards, showing the rugged terrain south of
Meluco, due to the presence of granitic to granodioritic gneisses in the Meluco Complex.
154
The idea that the Meluco Complex is a basement for the supracrustal rocks is therefore
plausible, but we have so far no proof for this. At the only place where the contact between the
complexes has been observed (sheet 1239 Meluco at UTM 37S 557097, 8612382), it is a
thrust, with the rocks of the Lalamo Complex thrust over the Meluco Complex in a "top-to-thesouth" movement.
Figure 6.137: Monte

Pamune, a pronounced
mountain ridge
consisting of granite
belonging to the
Meluco Complex. View
to the southwest from
the field camp close to
Metoro.
Granites in both the two major dome-structures have been dated (U-Pb dating of
zircons). The western granite dome yields an intrusion age of 947 r21 Ma (Jamal, 2005). The
easternmost granite yields an almost identical intrusion age of 946 r12 Ma (see Chapter 11).
Metamorphic overprint of the latter is dated to 585 r13 Ma (U-Pb zircon dating by ICP-MS).
A sample from the same locality (a quarry close to Rio Montepuez) dated by Jamal (2005)
gave an intrusion age of 944 r21 Ma. Four samples of granodioritic/granitic gneiss from the
Meluco Complex have been analysed by XRF. The data for the samples are quite similar, and
indicate a high-K calc-alkaline character for the complex: they can be classified as fractionated
I-type granitoids.
6.7.2 Granitic to tonalitic gneiss, locally migmatitic (94612 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P2MCgn)
Undifferentiated gneisses of granitic to granodioritic composition make up the major dome
structures of the Meluco Complex. Their composition is locally tonalitic, but it has not been
possible to define larger areas of this composition. The gneisses are coarse-grained, with
quartz-rich assemblages that include plagioclase, K-feldspar, biotite, opaque minerals and
hornblende. Red garnet occurs locally. The migmatitic textures vary from stromatic (with a
regular gneissosity defined by biotite-rich palaeosome seams and granitic neosome seams and
lenses on cm scale), to coarser fabrics with sharply defined, thicker neosome layers up to tens
of cm in thickness, to multi-phase, complex migmatites with disrupted mafic bands invaded by
granitic partial melt patches and with mafic (restite) lenses surrounded by rock rich in granitic
neosome veins and patches. The gneissosity becomes diffuse where there is extensive partial
melting. Some amphibolitic patches may represent wet partial-melt phases. There are also thick
(>10m) granite sheets concordant to the gneissosity.
155
6.7.3 Granodioritic gneiss (Unit P2MCgd)

Granodioritic gneiss is defined as such only on the two southernmost small structures on sheets
1339 Montepuez and 1340 Meluco on the basis of outcrops and geophysical characteristics.
The units form a concentric pattern, alternating with granitic gneiss on a 0.5-1 km scale.
In the western body the granodioritic gneiss is locally slightly porphyritic, but is
otherwise medium-grained and foliated. Some parts are strongly migmatitic. The eastern
outcrops are partly quite massive and homogeneous, fine- to medium-grained and contain some
xenoliths of biotite gneiss. Other parts are quite migmatitic and banded.
6.7.4 Granitic gneiss (Unit P2MCgr)
Granitic to granodioritic orthogneisses of the Meluco Complex are generally rather massive
and homogeneous on a large scale, but vary in their degree of migmatization from hardly
discernible to strongly migmatitic (Figure 6.139). Parts of the gneisses are nearly unfoliated
and could be designated as granite. This is especially true for the gneiss at Monte Pamune,
southeast of Metoro (Figure 6.137), which consists of fine- to medium-grained, weakly
foliated, biotite-bearing granitic gneisses. On the radiometric maps these rocks stand out with a
very high signal. This is partly due to the fairly good outcrops, but also because of high
contents of K-feldspar relative to plagioclase. The granitic gneisses are fairly leucocratic with
quite low contents of biotite (<10% in the described thin sections) (Figure 6.140). Otherwise
they have 40-55 % K-feldspar, 20-30 % quartz and 15-25 % plagioclase. Hornblende is
occasionally present in subordinate amounts.
Figure 6.138: Westernmost top of Monte Pamune (UTM 37S 596600, 8544400) (sheet 1339,
Montepuez) consisting of granitic gneiss, and close-up of weakly foliated, biotite-bearing
granite/granitic gneiss with magnetite-aggregates at Monte Pamune (UTM 37S 597885,
8544542).
156
Figure 6.139: Strongly migmatitic granitic gneiss with dark discontinuous bands of
biotite and hornblende and light bands of K-feldspar, quartz and lesser plagioclase.
Sample 40760 (dating, geochemistry) is taken from this locality. From quarry close to
Rio Montepuez, at UTM 37S 611174, 8600264, sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba.
Figure 6.140: Migmatitic granitic gneiss. Sample 40760, UTM 37S 611174, 8600264 from
quarry close to Rio Montepuez, comprising mainly microcline, quartz, biotite and green
hornblende. sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba. Field of view: 4.4x5.4 mm.
157
6.8
Mugeba Complex
6.8.1 Mafic granulitic gneiss (P2MBum)

This area is very poorly exposed: the outcrops registered consist of fine- to medium-grained
melanocratic granofels containing two pyroxenes, garnet and plagioclase, with a variable
degree of foliation.
6.8.2 Felsic to intermediate granulitic gneiss (P2MBfg)
The distribution of the unit has mainly been taken from Aquater (1983), modified by new
geophysical data, as there is almost no exposure in the area. The unit mainly consists of felsic
to intermediate granulitic gneiss, interbanded on a scale of 1-20 cm. It also includes bands of
more massive mafic granofels, similar to unit P2MBum.
6.8.3 Mylonitic to flaser orthogneiss (P2MBog)
These high-strain rocks form the base of the Mugeba klippe in the southeast corner of sheet
1636 Mocuba. They form just the western part of the main structure, which covers several
hundreds of square kilometres to the east. The distribution of the unit has mainly been taken
from Aquater (1983), modified by new geophysical data, as there is almost no exposure in the
area. The few outcrops that were observed are composed of very strongly foliated to mylonitic,
streaky, very fine-grained, pinkish, leucocratic, biotite-bearing quartz-feldspar gneiss. The
gneiss is relatively homogeneous with a regular planar fabric defined by cm-scale thin (<1 mm
thick) biotitic blebs and streaks along with some minor grain-size variations. According to
Aquater (1983), the gneisses identified by the present study fall into a leucocratic type of
blastomylonite, granoblastic, inequigranular rocks which are locally garnetiferous. Aquater
also recognised a second variety, garnet-sillimanite flaser gneisses, which form a
heterogeneous assemblage of fine- to medium-grained, highly foliated gneisses with quartzfeldspar-mica-amphibole-garnet sillimanite pyroxene parageneses.
6.8.4 Ultramafic rocks (P2MBum)
This unit is restricted to a few polygons within the Mugeba klippe in the southeastern corner of
sheet 1636 Lugela-Mocuba. These polygons have been taken from the detailed (1:50 000)
geological maps of Aquater (1983). They were not seen during the present study. According to
Aquater (1983), the ultramafic rocks occur in scattered outcrops and are composed of mediumgrained, altered rocks with anthophyllite, other fibrous amphiboles, chlorite and talc, with
occasional nodules of amphibolite and pyroxenite.
6.9
Xixano Complex
6.9.1 Introduction
Its highly distinctive, mainly low radiometric signature on the new high-resolution geophysical
data has facilitated the recognition of Xixano Complex as a new tectonostratigraphic unit. It
extends south-southwestwards from the Tanzanian border, east of Rio Lugenda to the Lurio
Belt. It includes significant parts of sheets 1138 Negomano, 1139 Mueda, 1238 Xixano and
1338 Namuno, as well as lesser parts of sheets 1239 Meluco and 1339 Montepuez. Analysis of
the new geophysical data shows unequivocally that two isolated areas (outliers) of Xixano
Complex rocks lie within the Marrupa Complex on sheets 1437 Malema and 1337 Marrupa.
These include a large, north-south-trending body near Nipepe (in grid square 37 845) and
another isolated mass to the west, in the Monte Macicoro area (grid square 35 844). A third
small mass at Tele (grid square 36 846) joins northwards with outcrops on sheet 1338 Namuno.
158
The major part of the complex comprises a great variety of metasupracrustal rocks
enveloping predominantly mafic igneous and granulitic rocks that comprise the core of a
regional north-northeast - south-southwest-trending synform. The paragneisses include various
forms of mica gneiss and schist, quartz-feldspar gneiss, metasandstone, quartzite and marble.
Felsic orthogneisses occur with the paragneisses, mainly in the northern and eastern part of the
complex. The complex is named after the village Xixano located in the northeastern part of
sheet 1238 Xixano (UTM 37S 473400, 8655000). The Xixano Complex includes part of what
was called the Chiure Supergroup as well as the Lurio Supergroup, as defined by Pinna &
Marteau (1987). Within the Chiure Supergroup it corresponds approximately to the Chiure
Group s. s. of Pinna et al. (1993). The contact to the underlying Marrupa Complex in the west
is a major shear zone that was subsequently folded against the Lurio Belt in the south. The
shear zone contact with the Montepuez Complex in the east is also strongly folded. A major
shear zone also separates the Xixano Complex from the Nairoto Complex in the east.
The oldest dated rock in the Xixano Complex is a felsic metavolcanic rock; a weakly
deformed metarhyolite from the central part of sheet 1338 Namuno gives a reliable intrusion
age of 818 10 Ma (sample 33410, UTM 37S 459178, 8514153, see Section 11.8). A similar,
but less precise age (799 44 Ma) was obtained from a granitic gneiss about 20 km further
northeast (sample 33420, UTM 37S 476043, 8528294). The intrusive age of an enderbitic
gneiss from a tectonic lens in the northeastern part of sheet 1238 Xixano is 742 16 Ma
(sample 36053, UTM 37S 485127, 8641812). The age of granulite-facies metamorphism, 735
4 Ma is recorded by a banded granulite from northern part of sheet 1338 Namuno (sample
33274, UTM 37S 443739, 8539932); i.e. significantly older than in the Ocua Complex (see
Section 11.14). The metamorphic grade within the Xixano Complex is dominantly amphibolite
facies, although granulite-facies rocks are preserved within tectonic lenses.
6.9.2 Quartz-feldspar-garnet gneiss (Unit P3Xgn)
The envelope of the Nipepe structure and the other outcrops of Xixano Complex rocks on the
sheet are composed of high-grade paragneisses mainly comprised of fine- to medium- grained,
biotite-bearing quartzo-feldspathic gneiss with some garnet. There is a fine (mm-scale)
compositional banding between mafic and more felsic layers, mainly dependant on biotite
content. Some mafic clots and lenses of biotite + garnet were observed. The rocks are
migmatitic, with K-feldspar dominated leucosomes, which form layer-parallel and crosscutting
veins and more diffuse patches (Figure 6.141). Leucosomes locally contain garnets up to 1 cm
across. The foliation varies from rather wavy and lenticular, to strongly planar in high-strain
zones near the base of the klippen. The biotite-rich semi-pelitic gneisses are interlayered
with fine- to medium-grained, more felsic leucogneisses and migmatites. Amphibolite blebs
and pods are present locally.
159
Figure 6.141: Typical outcrop of migmatitic paragneiss in the Nipepe klippe. (UTM
37S383465 8442544, sheet 1437 Malema).
6.9.3 Metarhyolite (81810 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3Xrh)
Felsic metavolcanic rocks do not cover large geographical areas within the complex but are
rather confined to tectonically dissected lenses. An apparently folded and dissected unit is
found in the centre of sheet 1238 Xixano, on the tectonic contact with the Marrupa Complex.
The lithology has a light brown, buff appearance in outcrop and is generally relatively
unfoliated. The rock has a distinct banding between mafic and felsic minerals on a mm scale.
Overall, the rock has a felsic composition, with a very fine grain size (0.5-1 mm). It is a quartzfeldspar rock with a few scattered grains of mm-sized plagioclase, haematite and biotite.
The primary volcanic texture is seen, in thin section, to be commonly preserved (Figure
6.142). Phenocrysts of K-feldspar up to1mm across are present. These are generally euhedral
and concentrically zoned (Figure 6.142b). The groundmass is homogeneous with a grain size
of 50-100 m. Layering is rarely seen in the samples described but, where present, it is defined
by preferred orientation of white micas (Figure 6.142d). The groundmass consists of quartz,
plagioclase and lesser amounts of K-feldspar. In some samples the matrix contains a significant
amount of white mica (Figure 6.142c): the phenocrysts often have a ragged texture in these
samples, suggesting that the white mica is an alteration product. White mica is found in the
interstices in the groundmass and can be seen breaking down to chlorite, suggesting processes
in greenschist facies. The preservation of the volcanic texture suggests, in fact, that the
metamorphic grade has not exceeded greenschist facies.
A larger unit of contiguous felsic metavolcanic rocks is found on sheet 1138 Negomano
as an east-northeast - west-southwest-trending tectonic sliver, southeast of Negomano, ~15 km
southwest of the village Nazogo. Here there are several outcrops of fine-grained quartzfeldspar-rich gneiss. The gneiss partly exhibits a very strongly developed planar
schistosity/foliation on a mm-scale. It is muscovite bearing where strongly deformed,
160
Figure 6.142: Typical felsic metavolcanic on sheet 1238 Xixano. A-Felsic metavolcanic
(Sample 36093, UTM 37S 433001, 8602358) showing preserved euhedral grains. B- Euhedral,
zoned potassium feldspar phenocryst in finer-grained quartz-feldspar groundmass (also
sample 36093). C- Porphyritic texture in meta-volcanic rock (Sample 36091, UTM 430722,
8614486). D- Detail of fine-grained groundmass in Sample 36091).
but otherwise contains some biotite. Its homogeneous character suggests that this is a
metavolcanic rock: according to geochemistry it is probably a metarhyolite. Thin sections
(Figure 6.143) show that it contains quartz, K-feldspar and plagioclase as major phases, while
muscovite, sericite, biotite, chlorite, apatite and opaques are accessory phases. The K-feldspar
is generally perthitic with exsolution of Na-phase in patches and strings. Texturally, because of
the strong deformation, it is fine-grained and heterogranular with 0,1-0,5 mm grains of quartz
and feldspar surrounded by subgrains especially of quartz with sizes (<0,01-0,03 mm) (socalled "mortar texture").
Sample 33410, a felsic volcanic rock collected about 20 km south of the town Balama
(UTM 37 459178 8514153), has been dated to 818 10Ma. In the field this is seen as a grey to
white, very fine-grained, slightly foliated rock. In thin section this sample has very fine-grained
groundmass with some phenocrystic grains of K-feldspar up to 0.5 mm in size. The
groundmass consists of K-feldspar, plagioclase and quartz with some muscovite, zoisite and a
few grains of opaque minerals. Both the field evidence and petrography indicate that the rock
is volcanic: its chemistry shows that rhyodacite is the correct name. The felsic volcanic rocks
in this area occur in close connection with the granitic to granodioritic gneiss that has been
dated to 799 44 Ma, (see section 6.9.18 and Chapter 11.8). This is, within error, the same age
161
as the volcanic rock so these rocks seem to be related. The age indicates that at least part of the
Xixano Complex is Neoproterozoic.
Figure 6.143: Strongly deformed metarhyolite, with grains of feldspar and quartz milled
down at the grain boundaries (mortar texture). (Sample 40752, UTM 37S, 468780, 8732418,
sheet 1138 Negomano. Field of view: 4,4 x 5,4 mm.
same age as the volcanic rock so these rocks seem to be related. The age indicates that at least
part of the Xixano Complex is Neoproterozoic.
6.9.4 Biotite gneiss, quartz-feldspar gneiss and amphibolitic gneiss (Unit P3Xbg)
More heterogeneous belts of paragneiss occur in the easternmost part of the Xixano Complex
across sheet 1138 Mueda, and as a partly intensely folded belt in the northeast part of this
sheet. In the central part of the north-northeast - south-southwest-trending belt, close to the
village Matio, fine-grained, greyish white and plane-foliated biotite gneiss with 1-4 cm thick
felsic bands that are assumed to represent paragneiss (UTM 37S 525810, 8713812) are
dominant. Similar, banded and locally migmatitic biotite gneisses are located north of Matio
(e.g. UTM 37S 526113, 8716712). They are assumed to be paragneisses as substantiated by
observation of quartz-mica schist with thin, interbedded layers of quartzite in nearby localities.
They continue south of the village, but a long traverse was made in that flat area with no
outcrops along the southern part of it. A typical sample of this gneiss comprises quartz, Kfeldspar, biotite, plagioclase and subordinate amounts of hornblende and titanite (sample
40654, UTM 37S 525963, 8713168).
162
Figure 6.144: Fine-grained

biotite gneiss with thin felsic
bands, 4 km southeast of Matio
(UTM 37S 525810, 8713812),
sheet 1138 Mueda.
In the northernmost part of the Mueda sheet this unit includes interbanded, mediumgrained quartz-feldspar and mafic gneisses, biotite gneisses, meta-sandstones and minor
amphibolitic gneisses. The gneisses are commonly plane-foliated and flaggy due to strong
deformation. Tight, minor folds are common, reflecting the large fold structure in the area.
Granular, homogeneous, fine-grained (<1 mm), greyish white, plagioclase-rich and
structureless rock is assumed to represent meta-sandstone (UTM 37S 523802, 8754216). Major
constituents in a fine-grained, banded amphibolitic gneiss are plagioclase, clino-pyroxene and
garnet (sample 40745, UTM 37S 523662, 8754440). Hornblende, orthopyroxene, titanite and
opaque minerals occur in subordinate amounts.
6.9.5 Quartz mica gneiss and schist, locally graphite-bearing (Unit P3Xqm)
This unit is widespread in the Xixano Complex and comprises broad belts that are generally
characterised by slightly elevated radiometric signals, especially for thorium, in the new
radiometric data set. The proportions of biotite and muscovite are variable. The unit is
important from an economic point of view because the gneiss and schist are locally graphitic
(see Chapter 13). They are also locally sillimanite-bearing. Minor localities of other
paragneisses such as quartz-feldspar gneiss, meta-sandstone, quartzite and amphibolite are
included in this unit where they not could be separated as mappable units due to lack of
exposures.
Quartz mica schist is a common rock type on sheet 1338 Namuno: it extends in a broad
northeast-southwest-striking band over 20 km wide from the northeast corner of the sheet
towards the southwest corner of the sheet where it is truncated by shear zone structures
juxtaposing the Xixano Complex with the underlying Marrupa Complex. It is also found in a
thin unit further west, 'wrapping' around the core of charnockitic rocks in the northern and
central part of the Namuno sheet and as thin tectonic lenses throughout the sheet, normally in
association with amphibolitic gneisses.
The rock has a very variable grain size, probably representing variations in the original
sediment and displays a grain size from fine- to coarse-grained and commonly has a schistose
texture. Graphite flakes are more common in the coarse-grained varieties. A bright green
phyllosilicate, probably fuchsite, is found in some outcrops. Quartzitic layers up to several cm.
thick are common. Many of these probably originated as quartz veins that have been later
deformed and folded. This rock is muscovite-rich schist with biotite present only in small
163
amounts. It is often strongly weathered to a yellow or yellow-brown colour (Figure 6.145).

More resistant quartz lenses on a cm scale lie between muscovite-rich bands and minor
feldspar-rich bands. The rock commonly contains 4-6 mm porphyroblasts of fuchsite and, less
commonly, of garnet (up to 10 mm). The rock is generally very well foliated, commonly with a
crenulation cleavage.
Figure 6.145:Quartz-mica schist from locality UTM 37S 470800, 8503702 on sheet 1338
Namuno. The quartz-mica schist generally occurs as small, low-lying outcrops. It is grey to
brown on weathered surfaces (A) and is well foliated. B shows a buff to brown colour on a
fresh surface and sheared porphyroclasts of quartz and feldspar.
In thin section sillimanite is seen to be commonly extremely abundant. It tends to be
preserved in the cores of large quartz porphyroclasts (Figure 6.146a). Sillimanite also appears
to be preserved around the margins of the quartz porphyroclasts, potentially in strain shadows.
The bulk of the rock is made up of white mica, as elongate crystals up to 1mm long. They
show an extremely well developed preferred orientation and are often intergrown on a m
scale with chlorite. Discrete micro-shear zones, displaying S-C fabrics contain chlorite that
records a greenschist-facies overprint.
Graphite-bearing quartz muscovite schist occurs in a minor rock quarry on the
southwest slope of Monte Macnilala (UTM 37S 461373, 8525144, Figure 6.147a) in the linear
belt of quartz mica schist. The fine-grained schistose gneiss is plane foliated with lenses, 2-3
cm long of quartz that give the rock a blastic texture. Graphite flakes, 0,2-0,8 mm long
comprise ~15 vol% of the schist (Figure 6.147b). Similar schistose and gneissic rocks are
found to the east. At the top of Monte Ricolo there is a small trench in graphite-bearing gneiss
(UTM 37S 478217, 8543012). The fine-grained graphite gneiss is >4-5 m thick and comprises
~30 % graphite, with minor amounts of sillimanite and epidote. Several minor graphite-bearing
horizons probably occur in the area southwest of the ridge, the graphite gneiss transects the
road over a length of 15 m (UTM 37S 477905, 8542748, Figure 6.148).
164
Figure 6.146: Quartz mica schist. A: Quartz porphyroclasts with needles of sillimanite. These
are unoriented and are probably relics of a high-grade metamorphic event. These crystals are
also present on the margins of the porphyroclasts in pressure shadows (bottom left) B:
Chlorite-rich shears in a white mica groundmass testify to greenschist-facies overprinting on
focused shear planes. (Sample 33379, UTM 37S 470800, 8503702, sheet 1338 Namuno).
Figure 6.147: Graphite-bearing quartz-muscovite schist 8 km E of Balama (UTM 37S 461373,

8525144, sheet 1338 Namuno). A) Outcrop in a minor rock quarry B) Photomicrograph with
black graphite-flakes (0,2-0,8 mm), muscovite laminae and granoblastic quartz. (sample
33211, Field of view: 5,4x4,4 mm).
There are few outcrops in the western belt of mica gneiss on sheet 1338 Namuno, but
boulders of graphite-bearing quartz-muscovite occur along a minor hill ~5 km north of Morrola
(UTM 37S 444146, 8543073). Up to 20 vol% graphite is found in thin section (sample
33276). Minor graphite occurs in a similar, quartz-muscovite gneiss 2 km further south (UTM
37S 443579, 8541058). A broad belt of mica gneiss and schist continues northwards across
sheet 1238 Xixano, partly enveloping granulitic and metagabbroic rocks. It continues along the
western part of sheet 1139 Mueda, and minor lenses/bands are found on sheets 1138
Negomano and 1239 Meluco. Additionally, more heterogeneous belts of paragneisses included
in this unit occur in the easternmost part of the complex across sheet 1139 Mueda, and as an
intensely folded belt in the northeastern part of the sheet.
165
Figure 6.148: A) Close-up of on roadside of B), fine-grained graphite gneiss southwest of

Monte Ricolo (UTM 37S 477905, 8542748, sheet 1338 Namuno).
On sheet 1238 Xixano this lithology appears to be soft and weathers readily: it has little
outcrop. The margins of the lithology are probably tectonic. The few localities in which the
rock outcrops demonstrate that it is schistose, fine- to medium-grained (0,1-3 mm) and consists
of quartz, white mica and biotite. More quartzitic layers are also present and these are often
folded on a cm-scale or segmented into quartz-rich augen. The presence of disseminated, finegrained chlorite gives a green colour. Large porphyroclasts of quartz are stretched out along the
foliation and are up to 10cm long. The rock is sub-mylonitic in some outcrops (Figure 6.149):
one sample comprises about equal amounts of quartz and muscovite. Fine-grained (0,1-0,3
mm), polygonal quartz grains constitute lenses enveloped by laminae of muscovite (sample
36051, UTM 37S 473177, 86500136). The extension of this unit along the western margin of
sheet 1138 Mueda is based on interpretation of the new airborne geophysical data; low
magnetic and slightly enriched thorium signals.
Figure 6.149: Close-up of

strongly sheared quartz mica
schist east of Serra Nicage on
sheet 1238 Xixano (UTM 37S
473177, 8650136).
A separate, minor lens of this unit was found in the northwest part of sheet 1139 Mueda
(UTM 37S 506350, 8753340) this is an outcrop of muscovite gneiss with mm-sized grains of
166
pale green muscovite (Cr-bearing), quite rich in mm-sized flakes of graphite. It consists of 70%
quartz, 20% muscovite, 10 % graphite and minor sillimanite. Sillimanite porhyroblasts are
overgrowing muscovite (Figure 6.150) Microprobe analysis shows that the muscovite has a
rather low chromium content: its composition (based on 4 analyses) is:
(K0.92-0.95Na0.05-0.06)(Al1.74-1.84Mg0.13-0.14Ti0.03-0.06Cr0.01-0.02)2Al0.80-0.91Si3.09-3.20O10(OH)2
Figure 6.150:
Graphite-bearing
muscovite gneiss,
showing sillimanite
overgrowing
muscovite. The black
laths are graphite.
Sample 40749, UTM
37S 506347,
8753338, on sheet
1139 Mueda. Field of
view:1,2x1,5 mm.
6.9.6 Meta-sandstone (Unit P3Xss)

Meta-sandstone occurs at only a few localities in the Xixano Complex, forming several
isolated tectonic lenses along a major shear zone juxtaposing the Xixano Complex with the
underlying Marrupa Complex. The rock type is a rather massive white, fine-grained, quartzrich, rock: it also contains varying contents of plagioclase, a fine-grained, unidentified, nonmagnetic dark mineral, possibly titanite, and locally small amounts of muscovite and
haematite. More impure, massive psammitic varieties are common, but some outcrops display
original sandstone bedding. The rock is more often light brown when more psammitic: this
variety is fine-grained (0,5-1,5 mm) and contains quartz, feldspar, white mica and locally
biotite, with variable amounts of plagioclase, which appears to govern how much the lithology
is weathered. The more psammitic varieties are often well-foliated and finely laminated, with
thin 1-2 mm banding due to variations in biotite content.
Thin sections show that quartz is dominant, but plagioclase and K-feldspar make up
50% of the groundmass (Figure 6.151a). The presence of both plagioclase and K-feldspar
suggests a granitic source for the meta-arenite. The grain size distribution is very
homogeneous, ranging from 50-100 m (Figure 6.151b). Larger grains, up to 200 m, are
exclusively of quartz. White mica, some biotite and opaque minerals are found in the
interstices. The opaque minerals (probably magnetite due to their regular sections) are
commonly euhedral.
167
Figure 6.151: Metasandstone (sample 36081) from UTM 37S 432064, 8597980 (sheet 1238
Xixano) in the Xixano Complex. A- Low magnification image showing fine-grained,
homogeneous, massive texture. B- High magnification photomicrograph showing the
interlocking, recrystallised fabric. However, many grains retain the angular shape.
6.9.7 Quartzite (Unit P3Xqz)
Quartzite is a common rock type within the Xixano Complex metasediments but occurs only as
thin tectonic slivers covering geographically very limited areas. For example, at UTM 37S
421000, 8500892 and 421134, 8500830 it occurs as folded lenses on the contact between the
Marrupa and Xixano Complexes. The quartzite generally contains more than 75% quartz and
locally could be called feldspathic quartzite. It is often massive in outcrop but is locally well
foliated. It has a wide range in grain size and compositions, from 0,1-0,5 mm in more wellfoliated bands (Figure 6.152) and up to 5-6 mm grain size in more massive outcrops. It
contains variable amounts of feldspar, appearing to grade into meta-arkose.
Figure 6.152: A- Well-foliated fine-grained quartzite at UTM 37S 480006, 8607948 (sheet
1238 Xixano). The rock is banded on a mm to cm scale based on varying grain size. B- More
massive quartzite from the same locality, demonstrating that the quartzite is variable over a
short distance. A finer-grained layer within the more massive quartzite displays a tight to
isoclinal fold.
168
Several lenses of quartzite, that locally form minor ridges, have been mapped in the
southwestern part of the complex on sheet 1238 Xixano. A representative sample of this rock is
a fine-grained, granoblastic (0,1-0,7 mm), nearly pure quartzite with just 1 % of both
muscovite and biotite (sample 38432, UTM 37S 430000, 8590712). In addition there are
'trains' of very fine-grained tourmaline in the quartzite (Figure 6.153).
Figure 6.153: Fine-grained, nearly pure quartzite with 'trains' of very fine grained, green
tourmaline (sample 38432, UTM 37S 430000, 8590712, sheet 1238 Xixano). (Field of view:
1,5x1,2 mm).
6.9.8 Marble (Unit P3Xma)
Marble is an important mineral resource in the Xixano Complex, despite occurring in only very
few outcrops. Several horizons are found:
x An extensive marble horizon is found in the northeastern part of sheet 1138 Negomano
within a banded series of meta-supracrustal rocks and continues into sheet 1139 Mueda.
It is interpreted to be, in total, about 50-60 km long and up to 1 km wide. A minor lens
occurs north of this.
x A minor, impure marble is found just south of Negomano village.
x A minor tectonic lens of marble is found in the southern central part of sheet 1138
Negomano, enclosed within amphibolitic gneiss. This lens is interpreted to be no more
than 3-4 km long and not more than 100 m wide based on a single outcrop in a poorly
outcropping area.
x A minor, folded tectonic lens is found within the quartz-mica schists in the southern
part of the Xixano Complex on sheet 1338 Namuno. A thin tectonic lens marble is
found in the northwest part of the Negomano sheet within a banded series of metasupracrustal rocks.
x A minor marble horizon in north-central part of sheet 1139 Mueda is interpreted to be
5-6 km long.
x The main Montepuez marble (see Section 6.14.4) is now interpreted to lie within the
tectonic mlange of the Montepuez Complex. This zone appears to be tectonically
'pinched-out' towards the southwest along a major ductile shear zone. The southsouthwest extremity of this marble lens has been clearly tectonically re-activated by a
major northeast-southwest late Pan-African ductile shear zone (see Chapter 9)
The chemical composition of sampled marbles is listed in Chapter 13, Table 9. Pure calcite
marble occurs in the southernmost tectonic lens, while the others represent variable
dolomitised marbles.
169
The extensive marble horizon in northern part of the complex varies along strike.
Coarse- grained marble with very coarse, 20 mm, clasts of calcite is found on sheet 1138
Negomano (UTM 37S 485761, 8750964). The marble horizon can be traced for more than 20
km along strike in the northwestern part of sheet 1139 Mueda. It is at least 50 m thick, white
and fine- to medium-grained (1-5 mm). Generally it is a pure marble, and only minor thin (1-3
cm) bands with some graphite and titanite were registered in one locality. About 5% tremolite
and accessory talc are found in intensely dolomitised marble (sample 40747, UTM 37S
510296, 8752516), while subordinate amounts of clinopyroxene occurs in partially dolomitised
calcite marble further southwest (sample 40662, UTM 37S 514560, 8747978).
Mostly boulders of marble are found south of Negomano village (UTM 37S 443758,
8736199). The rock is white and coarse-grained with some calc-silicate minerals; diopside and
epidote. It has previously been registered as a potential resource for dimension stone (Cilek,
1989), but is not regarded as having a high priority. The marble in the southern part of sheet
1138 Negomano (UTM 459043, 8684103: also 100 m further north) is relatively fine-grained
compared to the marble in the Montepuez area. The rock has a grain size of 1-2 mm and is
white to gray, sometimes with a reddish tint. It has a discrete colour banding (which may be the
result of minor variations in mineral composition), and it also contains a lot of epidote, both as
nodules up to 0,5 m across, but also as layers in the marble. A thin section (sample 39300)
from the same locality contains ~85% calcite, 10% epidote, and minor amounts of quartz,
tremolite and opaque minerals (Figure 6.154).
The thin tectonic lens within the southern part of sheet 1338 Namuno is no more than
300-400 m wide and forms a lens, which appears to be folded along east-northeast - westsouthwest-trending isoclinal, Lurio-related folds (UTM 37S 438831, 8497779). Outcrop is
poor but the marble forms many loose blocks up to 1 m3 on the ground. The grain size is 2-10
mm and very euhedral grains of calcite are seen with the naked eye as well as small (<1 mm)
rounded grains of opaque minerals or possibly titanite. The marble forms massive blocks
without any foliation.
Figure 6.154: Texture in marble
lens (sample nr. 39300) on sheet
1138 Negomano at UTM 37S
459043, 8684103. (Field of
view: 5,3 x 4,3 mm)
This marble lens is very pure calcite marble (sample 33386) and in thin section is seen
to consist of >95% calcite (Figure 6.155a), with very minor quartz (2%) and rare biotite and
white mica. The texture is recrystallised and contains interlocking, equilibrated grains of
calcite with only minor ragged grains on calcite grain boundaries (Figure 6.155b). Minor
170
rounded quartz, mica and opaque inclusions are always localised on the calcite grain
boundaries.
Figure 6.155: Marble seen in the southern part of sheet 1338 Namuno in a thin, folded tectonic
lens. (sample 33386, UTM 37S 438831, 8497779).
Minor outcrops of white, medium- to coarse-grained (2-10 mm) partially dolomitised
marble with a few graphite flakes (sample 40653, UTM 37S 523577, 8751122) are located in
the north-central part of sheet 1139 Mueda. The marble can be traced on the ground for more
than 100 m along strike.
6.9.9 Mafic granulitic gneiss (Unit P3Xpx)
Granulitic gneisses lithologically similar to those of the Xixano Complex occupy the core of
the main, Nipepe outcrop of the Xixano Complex on sheet 1437 Malema. They are made up of
a well-banded sequence of fine to medium grained, two-pyroxene granulites garnet, with
plagioclase typically comprising 20-30% of volume. Mesocratic to mafic bands are 10-40 cm
thick. The foliation is often intense and very planar, giving rise to a flaggy fabric. Some
outcrops tend to be more massive, with less well-pronounced banding.
Figure 6.156: Typical outcrop of
banded two-pyroxene granulite of
the Xixano Complex in the core of
the Nipepe Klippe. Note the very
strong, planar flaggy foliation.
(37S 375034 8428303, sheet 1437
Malema).
6.9.10 Mangeritic gneiss (Unit P3Xmn)

A separate, more mangeritic unit is found in the northern part of the basic intrusive massif in
the extreme northeastern part of sheet 1138 Negomano, with numerous outcrops in and around
171
the mountain massif of Bundi. The outcrops consist mainly of more or less retrograded
granulitic gneiss of intermediate (mangeritic) composition. The retrograded mangerite gneiss is
commonly foliated and has been transformed into hornblende-bearing gneiss (Figure 6.157a).
Relict grains of brown orthopyroxene are present in the cores of some of the amphibole grains
(
Figure 6.158). The non-retrograded granulite is massive, quite homogeneous, with 1-4 mm
grains of dark brown pyroxene and plagioclase. The proportions of mafic and felsic minerals
are ~50:50. At some localities the mangerite gneiss contain inclusions of fine-grained
amphibolitic gneiss (Figure 6.157b), which may be xenoliths.
Figure 6.157: Left: Outcrop of mangeritic rocks in the northern part of sheet 1138 Negomano
in the fold closure of the regional north-northeast-south-southwest trending syncline.Left
photo:Banded mafic-felsic layers in deformed mangeritic rock. UTM 37S, 492437, 8742730.
Right: Mangerite with xenoliths of amphibolite. UTM 37S, 491436, 8743124.
Figure 6.158: Mangeritic rock from (A) Sample 40750, at UTM 37S, 497972, 8746256 (sheet
1138, Negomano). The rock is equigranular and orthopyroxene cores are extensively
retrogressed to hornblende. (B) Sample 40751, at UTM 37S 488594, 8744660 (sheet 1138,
Negomano). Elongate crystals of both hornblende and pyroxene in mafic bands alternating
with bands of more felsic material (plagioclase and minor quartz). Field of view: 4,4x5,4 mm
(both photos).
6.9.11 Charnockitic rocks (74216 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3Xch)
Charnockitic rocks are found in two main outcrop areas within the Xixano Complex.
172
x A large, almost circular area in the north-central part of sheet 1338 Namuno continuing
into the south-central part of sheet 1238 Xixano.
x Further west, another zone strikes north-northeast-south-southwest and is truncated to
the south by a granite of the Monte Maco Suite. This unit appears to consist of several
tectonic lenses of granulitic rocks that continue northwards
Charnockitic rocks are also found in various tectonic lenses across sheet 1238 Xixano and the
western part of sheet 1139 Mueda as a result of flexural slip segmentation during formation of
the large north-northeast-south-southwest synclinal structure transposing the Xixano Complex
associated with the formation of the Lurio Belt.
The charnockitic rocks vary from more quartzose, light to dark brown charnockites to
darker, more mafic garnet-bearing granulites. The rock is often banded, showing a finegrained, dark greyish-brown, banded structure with both quartz- and pyroxene-rich bands. The
granulites are often very well foliated but are generally massive. Several granulites are of
intermediate composition and are finer-grained grey granulites. Compositional banding is
common and is linked to variation in the abundance of ferromagnesian minerals. Some
outcrops also display coarse-grained leucocratic veins with rounded garnet 1 cm in diameter.
These veins are interpreted as partial melts.
Figure 6.159 shows major features from different charnockitic units. Figure 6.159a and
b show retrogressed textures in a thin tectonic lens of charnockitic rock from a ductile sinistral
shear zone imbricate in the vicinity of the Marrupa-Xixano complex tectonic contact (UTM
37S 432666, 8572238). Orthopyroxene is being replaced by both white mica and chlorite.
Chlorite forms a wholesale alteration product of pyroxene breakdown, and also occurs as
haloes around the retrogressed grains. The grain size is bimodal; relict grains are 4-5 mm
across, whereas the altered groundmass is 100-300 m. This may suggest that fluid movement
was enhanced along these shear zones, while the rock was in greenschist facies. Figure 6.159c
and d show relatively fresh orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene with some minor alteration to
amphibole. This rock is medium- to coarse-grained, its grain size being up to 0,5-5 mm. It has
a granular texture with equant grains. Quartz only forms max. 10% of the groundmass and is
generally interstitial. Very weak layers containing relatively more quartz affected by sub-grain
formation define a weak banding. Orthopyroxene is partially broken down to amphibole. The
grain size varies from 10-20 m (groundmass) to 1-2 mm. It is interesting to note that this
sample comes from the thicker tectonic wedge of charnockitic rocks ~15 km east of the
Marrupa-Xixano complex contact (UTM 37S 432946, 8565282), suggesting that the
greenschist-facies metamorphism has had less influence here. Figure 6.159e and f show a more
mafic variety of charnockitic rock from the northern part of sheet 1338 Namuno (UTM 37S
459812, 8539484) where a thin tectonised sliver of charnockite is enclosed by amphibolitic
gneiss. This sample contains mainly plagioclase with two pyroxenes and very minor quartz. It
displays a granular texture with interlocking, equant grains and no banding. The orthopyroxene
forms smaller crystals than the clinopyroxene and both are partially retrogressed to amphibole
and chlorite.
Banded charnockitic rocks assumed to represent paragneisses are well exposed west of
Morrola in the northern part of sheet 1338 Namuno. The fine-grained, dark grayish brown rock
is cut by a 20-30cm wide doleritic dyke (Figure 6.160). Thin section of more felsic band
comprises 30% K-feldspar, 30 % quartz, 20 % garnet, 15 % sillimanite and subordinate
amounts of clinopyroxene, biotite, rutile and opaque minerals (sample 33220, UTM 37S
438328, 8537913). The garnet porphyroblasts are crowded with sillimanite needles, indicating
growth at high temperatures (see Chapter 7).
173
Figure 6.159: Granulitic rocks found on sheets 1238 Xixano and 1338 Namuno. ACharnockite from a thin tectonic sliver showing a replacement corona of white mica around an
orthopyroxene grain (Sample 36084, UTM 37S 432666, 8572238) B- Same sample showing
replacement of orthopyroxene by chlorite. C-Low magnification picture showing weak banding
of quartz and feldspar and more mafic minerals (opx, cpx and amphibole) (Sample 36088,
UTM 37S 432946, 8565282). D-.Large, relatively fresh orthopyroxene with corroded edge
suggesting retrogression (same sample as C). E-More mafic granulite from a folded tectonic
sliver on the Namuno sheet showing granular structure and orthopyroxene altered to
amphibole and minor chlorite (Sample 33383, UTM 37S 459812, 8539484). F-From same
sample as E: Opx and cpx (top-right) being replaced by amphibole (dark green).
174
Figure 6.160: Banded granulitic

gneiss crosscut by doleritic dyke,
west of Morrola (UTM 37S
438328, 8537913)
Only a few outcrops of charnockitic rocks forming tectonic lenses in the northern part
of sheet 1238 Xixano have been visited. The rock is generally massive and poorly foliated,
forming rounded, dark-coloured outcrops. The granulites are fine- to medium-grained, (1-4
mm) and equigranular. Green pyroxene is commonly observed and garnets porphyroblasts up
to 1 mm across occur. They have a dark brown colour on fresh surfaces and have a glassy
texture, often with blue metamorphic quartz. A sample of enderbitic composition has been
dated and gave an intrusion age of 742 16 Ma (see Chapter 11). It is granoblastic with
elongated quartz grains and comprises about 55% plagioclase, 35 % quartz, 5 % clino- and
orthopyroxene and subordinate amounts of talc and opaque minerals (sample 36053, UTM 37S
485127, 8641812) (Figure 6.161). Accessory minerals include hornblende, biotite, apatite and
zircon. Talc forms coronas around pyroxene.
Figure 6.161: Enderbitic gneiss with coronas around pyroxene and equigranular plagioclase
and quartz (sample 36053, UTM 37S 485127, 8641812, sheet 1238 Xixano). (Field of view:
3,0x2,4mm).
6.9.12 Amphibolitic gneiss (Unit P3Xag)
Amphibolitic gneiss is one of the most common units encountered within the Xixano Complex
and covers a large area. It is found in four main localities.
x A large area in the eastern part of sheet 1338 Namuno, east of a major reactivated
ductile shear zone where it is isoclinally infolded with the rocks of the Montepuez
Complex to the east.
175
x As a 15 km wide unit trending north-northeast - south-southwest on the east side of the

regional north-northeast - south-southwest-trending syncline east of the central Serra
Necaga Intrusive Suite on sheet 1338 Namuno.
x As more sheared and banded units, which are tectonically segmented on the northwest
limb of the north-northeast - south-southwest-trending regional syncline, near the
Tanzanian border on sheet 1138 Negomano and lenses on northeast limb on sheet 1139
Mueda.
x As more minor tectonic slivers, primarily associated with the mylonitic rocks defining
the western tectonic contact of the Xixano Complex with the Marrupa Complex on
sheet 1338 Namuno.
The amphibolitic gneiss is the most varied lithology within the Xixano Complex, occurring in
foliated fine-grained, massive coarse-grained and banded varieties. The different varieties are
widespread, but more banded amphibolites are concentrated in the northernmost areas.
Although many of the amphibolitic gneisses have been altered and retrograded to greenschist
facies, evidence exists that they have had a range of different protoliths.
The fine-grained varieties of amphibolitic gneiss have a grain size generally < 1 mm,
are well foliated, often with a strong mineral lineation, and contain dark green to black
amphibole. Mm-sized garnets are quite common (e.g. on sheet 1138 Negomano UTM 37S
440507, 8730168). The fine-grained amphibolitic gneiss tends to be homogeneous, consisting
of amphibole + plagioclase + minor chlorite and quartz. Where amphibole dominates, the
plagioclase occurs interstitially.
Figure 6.162: Amphibolitic gneiss

at UTM 37S 482222, 8753826,
northeast of Negomano.
The coarse-grained varieties of this rock unit are almost pure amphibolite and have a
grain size averaging 5 mm. Plagioclase is a minor component in these rocks. 1-2 mm long
needles of actinolite are common. These coarser-grained varieties are less foliated and can
generally be interpreted as completely recrystallised, altered gabbro (for example in the central
part of sheet 1338 Namuno, UTM 37S 435294, 8518053).
Banded varieties of amphibolitic gneiss occur (e.g. Figure 6.162 and Figure 6.163). The
banded amphibolites are often fine-grained (0.5-1 mm), commonly with layers of quartz and
calcite along the foliation. Extensive boudinage of the layering and new growth of K-feldspar
crystals in foliation-parallel migmatite leucosomes are common. The banding can vary from
the presence of thin (several mm thick), irregular veinlets of quartz + feldspar up to sub176
continuous, commonly boudinaged feldspar-rich lenses on a dm-scale. The banded rock

commonly has a migmatitic appearance and amphibole phenocrysts up to 4mm across occur in
the neosomes. The banded amphibolitic gneisses are commonly strongly deformed, with bands
of light and dark minerals with varying contents of amphibole, biotite, garnet and feldspar. The
garnets vary from mm scale in some bands, up to 1-2 cm in other bands (Figure 6.164).
Figure 6.163: Typical finegrained amphibolitic gneiss from
northeast of Negomano (sample
37210, UTM 37S 482222,
8753826)
consisting
of
recrystallised
quartz
and
plagioclase in the groundmass
(grain size 50-250 m). The
preferred
orientation
of
hornblende and biotite defines the
foliation.
Figure 6.164: Banded

amphibolitic gneiss with frequent
up to 1-2 cm large garnets. In
other parts of the outcrop the
garnets are only mm-sized.
Locality: UTM 37S 442660,
8733158, sheet 1138 Negomano.
A lens of banded amphibolitic gneiss occurs in the northwestern part of sheet 1139
Mueda (e.g. UTM 37S 508748, 8752896). The rock is fine- to medium grained (1-3 mm) with
alternating bands dominated by hornblende and plagioclase. Apatite, chlorite, biotite and
opaque minerals (sample 40748) are present in accessory amounts. Further west the rock is
characterised by bands and lenses enriched in coarse-grained plagioclase and possibly
diopside, alternating with mm-grained amphibole-rich bands. Garnet and epidote are present. It
is likely that all these minerals formed at the expense of calcareous bands. Similar amphibolitic
gneiss, that may represent paragneiss, is also found in the Negomano area further west.
Amphibolitic gneiss occurs in minor hills in the westernmost part of sheet 1139 Mueda.
It is homogeneous, foliated, fine-grained (0,1-0,4 mm) and granoblastic and comprises 55%
177
hornblende, 40 % plagioclase and subordinate amounts of quartz, titanite and epidote. A few
porphyroblasts of plagioclase are found (Figure 6.165, sample 40652, UTM 37S 503236,
873434). Minor outcrops of medium-grained metagabbroic rocks are also found in this area.
Figure 6.165:Porphyroblasts of
plagioclase in fine-grained
amphibolitic gneiss (sample
40652, UTM 37S 503236,
873434, sheet 1139 Mueda) Field
of view: 3,0x2,4mm.
In some cases titanite is found in the finer-grained examples, in such amounts that it is
visible to the naked eye and is seen to be elongated parallel to the foliation. Parts of the
amphibolitic gneiss are at greenschist facies and displays a light green discolouration, probably
due to epidote. At one locality in the southern part of sheet 1238 Xixano, a fine-grained
amphibolite takes on a spotted appearance with epidote aggregates up to several mm across
(UTM 37S 443168, 8581174).
In several outcrops close to the northern margin of the Lurio Belt on sheet 1338
Namuno, sub-mylonitic amphibolitic gneisses are seen (for example UTM 37S 430258,
8650818). These are strongly banded: light-coloured bands (2-10 mm thick) are plagioclaserich and highly-boudinaged and folded. Darker layers consist of amphibolite + chlorite +
biotite with a much smaller grain size (1-2 mm). The darker layers have the appearance of an
original, unmylonitised fine-grained amphibolite. These have been invaded by lighter-coloured
veins (now seen as patches) of more coarse-grained, plagioclase-bearing amphibolite during
ductile deformation and migmatisation.
6.9.13 Metagabbro (Unit P3Xmg)
Fine- to medium-grained (1-2 mm) metagabbro, partly banded/layered on a scale of a few cm,
occurs north of the Nairoto-Lusaka road in the central part of sheet 1238 Xixano. It is located
in a relatively flat area where outcrops are scarce. The outline of the body is interpreted from
aeromagnetic data. The metagabbro is granoblastic and commonly unaltered (Figure 6.166).
Major constituents in various proportions are hornblende, clinopyroxene and plagioclase
(anorthite). Biotite, quartz and K-feldspar are present in lesser amounts. Garnet occurs
frequently, up to 10-15vol%, in the more felsic layers in the layered metagabbro. PT-estimates
based on analyses of garnet, clinopyroxene and plagioclase indicate garnet-amphibolite-facies
metamorphism (see Chapter 7).
Weak sulphide disseminations are found locally. The rock is partly scapolitic and
strongly carbonatised, and carries abundant disseminated, fine-grained pyrrhotite (Figure
178
6.167). The contents of Cu and Ni are, however, very low. In this locality the metagabbro is in
contact with strongly weathered felsic gneiss to the east.
Figure 6.166: Photomicrograph of unaltered metagabbro comprising brown pleochroic

hornblende, greenish clinopyroxene and plagioclase (sample 38443, UTM 37S 466693,
8608060, sheet 1238 Xixano). Field of view: 3,0 x 2,4 mm.
Figure 6.167: Photomicrograph of altered metagabbro with carbonate (carb), scapolite (scp)
and pyrrhotite (po). (sample 38442, UTM 37S 468044, 8605158, sheet 1238 Xixano). Field of
view: 5,4 x 4,4 mm.
6.9.14 Metagabbro (Serra Nicage Suite) (Units P3XSgb)
The Serra Nicage Intrusive Suite forms part of a geographically extensive unit on sheet 1238
Xixano and sheet 1138 Negomano. It is characterised by a low radiometric signature. The suite
is an intrusive complex, which is less deformed than most of the other rocks in the region. It is
well exposed in and around the prominent Serra Nicage. There appear to be gradational
transitions between gabbro, diorite, quartz diorite and tonalite, seen even on the same outcrop.
However, it is possible to delineate areas on a regional scale, which are dominated by tonalite.
The other, more mafic lithologies are not discriminated, although on a local scale, diorite
appears to be intruded by quartz diorite. Both mafic and felsic dykes cut the diorite. The
gabbro and quartz diorite outcrops are generally rounded and massive and are dark green to
black on weathered surfaces. The tonalite is well exposed along the west side of Serra Nicage
and is also assumed to comprise most of the prominent mountain. Extensive areas of this suite
are found both further north and south.
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The meta-gabbro is fine- to medium-grained (Figure 6.168), and equigranular and most
of the pyroxene seems to be altered to amphibole and biotite. At some localities where
deformation has been localised, the rock seems to be recrystallised to an amphibolite.
Pegmatitic gabbro and gabbroic dikes, a few centimetres to several metres wide are also
observed. At UTM 37S 461141, 8650950 a fine-grained, dark amphibolitic/metagabbroic dyke
with coarse-grained garnet, 5-8mm, cuts felsic gneiss.
Figure 6.168: Metagabbro, sample 38423, (UTM 37 460170, 8659389, sheet 1238 Xixano)
showing a grain of orthopyroxene (upper right corner) with a rim of amphibole. Field of view:
1.3x1 mm.
6.9.15 Tonalite (Serra Nicage Suite) (Units P3XStl)
Tonalite/quartz-diorite is a primary igneous variation of the metagabbro described above and
can be seen to grade into the metagabbro. The rock generally has a poor foliation but is locally
well foliated. A characteristic feature is that it has numerous mafic inclusions and dykes, both
of meta-gabbro (Figure 6.169) and more fine-grained mafic dykes, that are partly fragmented (
Figure 6.170).
Locally the quartz in the quartz diorite is observed to occur in rounded grains up to 1-2
cm across. The quartz content in this type is relatively high. It is a fine- to medium-grained
rock, with equant grains, but with larger grains of plagioclase (up to 2-3 mm). Hornblende is
the major mafic mineral (up to 20-25%), although biotite also occurs. The mafic minerals
commonly comprise aggregates (Figure 6.171) that give the rock a spotted appearance. The
quartz content is around 15%, and quartz usually constitutes aggregates and lenses. Both white
and more bluish quartz are observed, indicating possible retrogression from granulite facies.
The felsic minerals typically stand up on weathered surface. Minor constituents are garnet,
apatite and opaque minerals.
180
Figure 6.169: Xenoliths of

meta-gabbro in tonalite (UTM
37S 459212, 8658780, sheet
1238 Xixano).
Figure 6.170: Intrusion of mafic dyke in tonalite (UTM 37S 460707, 8659792, sheet 1238
Xixano) and fragmented mafic dyke (UTM 37S 465616, 8659528, sheet 1238 Xixano).
Figure 6.171: Photomicrograph of quartz diorite of Serra Nicage Suite with poikilitic
hornblende (bluish green pleochroic), plagioclase and quartz (sample 38446, UTM 37S
459580, 8659098, sheet 1238, Xixano).Field of view: 5,4x4,4mm).
The tonalite in the western part of Serra Nicage is commonly medium grained, 2-3 mm,
and locally it comprises coarse grained, 6-10 mm, porphyroblasts of quartz and plagioclase.
The content of mafic minerals, mainly hornblende, is commonly 5-15 %. Locally the rock is
181
enriched in coarse-grained, poikilitic garnet. Minor relicts of clinopyroxene replaced by

hornblende, and minor talc and opaque minerals are observed in thin sections (Figure 6.172).
Figure 6.172: Clinopyroxene replaced by amphibole and talc in tonalite, Serra Nicage Suite
(sample 38448, UTM 37S 459996, 8655862, sheet 1238 Xixano). Field of view: 3,0x2,4 mm).
6.9.16 Tonalitic gneiss (Unit P3Xto)
More intermediate orthogneisses including tonalitic to dioritic gneisses are present on the
sheets 1238 Xixano, 1138 Negomano and 1139 Mueda. The tonalitic gneiss present on the
sheet 1139 Mueda is migmatitic with frequent irregular leucosomes of quartz and plagioclase
alternating with darker more fine-grained biotite r hornblende layers and bands (Figure 6.173).
The bands are folded into tight to isoclinal folds forming a transposition foliation. Locally the
leucosomes are disrupted and develop into an augen-gneiss structure. A later generation of
leucosomes is locally present in the form of late veins cutting across the banded gneiss. Minor
outcrops of tonalitic gneiss occur elsewhere, but are hard to depict at a scale of 1:250.000.
Figure 6.173:
Tonalitic gneiss,
strongly migmatitic
with alternating
bands of light,
coarse quartzfeldspar and biotitehornblende layers.
Later migmatitic
veins crosscut the
banding. Locality:
UTM 37S 515386,
8752086, sheet 1139
Mueda.
6.9.17 Augen gneiss (Unit P3Xau)

Augen gneiss forms three very minor units, each occurring as tectonic slivers in. These are:
182
x A complexly folded, sheared unit contained within amphibolitic gneiss (Unit P3Xag) in
the south-central part of sheet 1338 Namuno. The unit is re-folded in southwestnortheast-trending folds associated with the Lurio Belt.
x A thin tectonic sliver on the northern limb of the southwest-northeast-trending syncline
in the northern part of sheet 1138 Negomano.
x A thin tectonic sliver parallel to the northeast-southwest Lurio-related fold trend in the
central part of sheet 1338 Namuno.
Outcrop of these bodies is poor. However, the lithology is distinctive and merits
description. Figure 6.174 shows the type locality for this rock type at UTM 436827, 8501532.
The rock consists of elongate porphyroclasts of K-feldspar. These are intensively sheared and
sit in a finer grained groundmass of quartz, feldspar and mica. Biotite defines the foliation. In
places the augen are highly deformed and the rock takes on a sub-mylonitic, ribbon texture.
The shear sense is ambiguous, suggesting some pure-shear overprint. Mineral lineation is
moderately developed on the foliation surfaces, suggesting stretching on a southwest-northeast
trend associated with the augen development. The augen are seen in thin section to consist of
interlocking grains of quartz and feldspar, with the quartz showing ribbon straining. These are
cut by micro-shears consisting of white mica and biotite, which show ambiguous top-tonorthwest simple shear sense. Low-magnification images of the sample confirm a vertical
flattening of the porphyroclasts, removing their asymmetry. This is most likely associated with
a crustal thinning event. Late shears (not shown here) contain white mica only and demonstrate
pure shear.
Figure 6.174: Augen gneiss within the Xixano Complex. A- Large, sheared pink potassium
feldspar porphyroclasts are up to 2 cm long and 1cm wide in a groundmass of finer grained
quartz, feldspar and micas. Shear sense is ambiguous, suggesting some pure-shear overprint.
The foliation dips towards the southeast. (UTM 436827, 8501532, sheet 1338 Namuno) BPhotomicrograph (sample 33385) from the same locality showing quartz+feldspar augen and
cross-cutting mica shears.
6.9.18 Granitic to granodioritic gneiss (79944 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3Xgd)
Granitic to granodioritic gneiss is a moderately common component in the Xixano Complex. It
is found as tectonic lenses in the western part of the complex along the contact to the Marrupa
Complex on sheet 1238 Xixano. A broad zone also occurs along the eastern contact, with the
Nairoto Complex on this sheet. The zone continues northwards, and granitic to granodioritic
orthogneiss comprises a major constituent of the Xixano Complex on sheet 1139 Mueda and
westwards into the northern part of sheet 1138 Negomano. They are red to pinkish-white, fineto medium-grained (0,5-4 mm) rocks (Figure 6.175), containing quartz + plagioclase and
183
variable amounts of K-feldspar. Biotite is the dominant mafic mineral, but some amphibole is
present. The mafic minerals commonly comprise ~5% of the rock, although even more
leucocratic varieties exist. Some types of granitic gneiss are locally slightly porphyritic, with
K-feldspar crystals up to several mm long. The gneisses normally have a good foliation, but
they can also be more or less massive. In more deformed varieties, the rock has the appearance
of augen gneiss but these do not occur on a scale, which can be shown at 1:250,000.
Granitic gneiss is also found as several other tectonic slivers on sheet 1238 Xixano. It
occurs in the northwest part of the sheet as a 10 km wide, 30 km long lens between the two
Karoo Basins juxtaposed against the Marrupa Complex granitic gneisses (Unit P2MRgg) along
a mylonitised contact. AT UTM 443405, 8663222 we find a medium- to fine-grained, buff to
creamy coloured granitic gneiss with a reddish tinge on the weathered surface. The granitic
gneiss is poorly foliated (but becomes more foliated towards the west in the vicinity of the
tectonic contact) and displays massive, rounded outcrops. The grain size is 0.5-1.0 mm and the
constituents are quartz + plagioclase (buff yellow colour)+biotite and a small, rounded dark
mineral with a grain size of < 0.1 mm.
Figure 6.175: Deformed granitic gneiss from the southern part of sheet 1238 Xixano (UTM
37S 426828, 8595106)
In thin section, the rock appears to retain a primary magmatic, interlocking texture.
Quartz, K-feldspar and plagioclase make up most of the groundmass. Biotite is found in the
interstices as euhedral flakes and appears to cut the grains of quartz, K-feldspar and
plagioclase.
A thin sliver of granitic gneiss is also found near the Tanzanian border on sheet 1138
Negomano, on the northwest limb of the regional synclinal fold on the south bank of Rio
Rovuma. Here the granitic gneiss is significantly coarser-grained than that found further south,
on sheet 1338 Xixano: the grain size is 0,5-4 mm. The rock is very massive, with a weak
foliation. In thin section quartz + plagioclase +K-feldspar are seen to make up the bulk of rock,
which displays an interlocking, partially magmatic texture. Interstitial material consists of
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finer-grained quartz + white mica. Extensive sericitic alteration is observed in the feldspars
(Figure 6.176).
Figure 6.176: Granitic to granodioritic gneiss on sheet 1138 Negomano at UTM 37 481052,
8754388 (Sample 37209).
The granitic to granodioritic gneisses are relatively well exposed in the northern part of
sheet 1139 Mueda, but in the central part of the area it is variably weathered and hard to
distinguish. The southwards extension is interpreted from geophysical data, In the northwest
part of the sheet, medium grained (2-4 mm), pinkish white to greyish red, biotite-bearing
granitic gneiss comprises minor hills along a traverse northwards to Rio Rovuma. Aggregates
(1-5 mm) of biotite give the gneiss a spotted appearance. Locally it is irregularly folded, but
the general strike of the foliation is east-west. The geophysical data show that it comprises an
arcuate area enclosed by various paragneisses.
Granitic orthogneiss predominates south of this area, along the main road between
Mueda and Negomano, although rocks of more intermediate composition also occur here. The
granitic gneiss varies from being homogeneous and nearly undeformed, with hardly any
recognizable foliation to strongly deformed, migmatitic gneiss with bands and slivers of quartz
and feldspar in a more fine-grained biotite-bearing matrix. Other varieties include unfoliated to
very weakly foliated, medium- to coarse-grained granite to granitic gneiss that is partly
pegmatitic and occurs in scattered outcrops along a traverse between the Negomano road and
the village of Matio. A sample of well-foliated granitic gneiss in this area (UTM 37S 513384,
8741392) comprises 40 % K-feldspar, 30 % quartz, 25 % plagioclase and 5 % biotite.
Accessory minerals include opaques, chlorite, apatite and zircon.
Granitic to granodioritic gneiss occurs as several tectonic slices along northeastsouthwest-trending shear zones in the central part of sheet 1338 Namuno. One of these slices
forms a prominent ridge south of the road between the towns Balama and Montepuez. The
gneisses in this area are generally medium-grained (3-4 mm), containing variable amounts of
quartz, plagioclase and biotite. Some white mica is also observed. Occasionally, large
aggregates of biotite are observed, up to 10 mm. These are often smeared out along the
foliation where it is well developed. Magnetite is commonly present, and is seen to weather to
haematite as red spots.
185
Sample (33420) from this granitic to granodioritic gneiss from locality UTM 37S
476043 8528294 was dated to 799 44 Ma. In thin section this is an equigranular rock with
grain size 0,3-0,5 mm containing about 35% microcline, 30% quartz and 20% plagioclase. The
Ca content of the rock is very low indicating that the placioclase is an albite. The rock is well
foliated with aggregates of a blue-green hornblende and a pyroxene of the same colour
identified as hastingsite along the foliation. It has also ~2% titanite and some opaque minerals.
The similarity in age of this gneiss and the felsic volcanitic rock has already mentioned (see
section 6.9.3).
6.9.19 Monte Mapancane Granite (739+8 Ma)(P3XMgr)
This unit covers ~130km2 in the easternmost part of sheet 1338 Namuno. Originally it was
grouped together with the Maco Suite on the same sheet and with a similar lithology, but age
determinations have shown that this intrusion is significantly older. A U-Pb age on zircons
from this body has given an intrusive age of 739 8 Ma while the Maco Suite is 140-160Ma
younger (see Chapter 11). The geophysical signatures also indicate that this body is different
from the Maco Suite, which has a marked positive magnetic signature while this body cannot
be seen on the magnetic maps. However, it stands out with a pronounced signature on the
radiometric maps and with a sharp boundary to the surrounding gneisses.
From its shape it is obvious that the granite has taken part in the deformation of the
Xixano Complex, but the observed localities show relatively massive granite. The colour is
white to grey, but the rock's characteristic feature is randomly oriented K-feldspar crystals
generally 1-3cm across but with some phenocrysts up to 5-6 cm (Figure 6.177). The
phenocrysts commonly have a preferred orientation, which is attributed to magmatic flow. The
outcrops also commonly show some banding or layering related to variation in the abundance
of phenocrysts. The layers are 10-20cm thick and are attributed to magmatic processes. At
UTM 37S 480147, 8517972 the porphyritic phase is cut by several more finely grained dykes
that are interpreted to be late phases of the same magma (Figure 6.178). This is supported by
the similar chemistry of the two phases as shown in Chapter 10. Sample 33351 and 33352
represent the aphyric and porhyric phases in Figure 6.178, respectively.
Figure 6.177: (Left) Porphyritic granite (UTM 37S 485350, 8515258, sheet 1338
Namuno) where sample 33306 is dated to 739 8 Ma. The pencil is ~12cm long.
(Right) The same sample showing part of two phenocrysts of K-feldspar and
groundmass of quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase and biotite. Field of view: 5.4x4.4mm.
Mineralogically the porphyritic granite is rather simple. The phenocrysts are
microcline. They are poikiloblastic with inclusions of microcline, plagioclase and quartz. The
186
groundmass is slightly recrystallised and consists of K-feldspar, plagioclase and quartz and
normally has a biotite content of ~5%. Small amounts of hornblende may also be present.
Other minerals are titanite, which normally occurs with a well-developed crystal form, epidote,
sericite and other accessories such as apatite and zircon. In a few samples opaque minerals are
also found.
Figure 6.178: Crosscutting relationships between porphyric and aphyric phases of the
granite. Locality: UTM 37S 480147, 8517972, sheet 1338 Namuno.
Table 6.2:Geochemical analyses (XRF) of the porphyric granite. See also Chapter 10.
6.9.20 Mylonite (Unit P3Xmy)

Mylonitic rocks in the Xixano Complex are restricted to thin mappable zones striking northnortheast-south-southwest along the contact between the Marrupa Complex and the Xixano
Complex, and as minor zones sub-parallell to the north-northeast-south-southwest trends of the
187
litologies in the Xixano Complex. The rocks are mylonitised equivalents of rocks in either the
Marrupa Complex or the neighbouring, juxtaposed Xixano Complex. These form bifurcating
mappable units up to several hundred metres wide, which delineate a zone of tectonic lenses
between the two complexes (Figure 6.179). The mylonitic rocks which occur here formed from
various protoliths, mainly granitic orthogneisses, but also tonalitic orthogneisses and quartzitic
meta-supracrustal rocks, depending on which lithologies the shear zones intersected.
Figure 6.179:
Aeromagnetic map
showing the contact
zone between the
Marrupa and
Xixano Complexes.
A ~10 km wide zone
of sheared rock
occurs at the
contact on which
Xixano Complex
meta-supracrustal
rocks are
tectonically
juxtaposed with the
Marrupa Complex.
Figure 6.180: Mylonites within the Xixano Complex (see explanation in text).
188
In the field, mylonites within quartzitic lithologies are recognised as being extremely
fine grained, and well-foliated, displaying a 'slabby' outcrop from with individual slabs no
more than 15cm thick but continuous over several metres (Figure 6.180a and b). Layers of pure
quartz, which are grey in colour, alternate with layers of buff-coloured, attenuated quartz and
feldspar layers which are up to 5 mm thick. In outcrop, individual quartz crystals can be seen
with stretching aspect ratios of up to 10:1. Mineral lineation is difficult to determine on these
quartzitic mylonites (Figure 6.181). Mylonitised rocks on the contact between the Marrupa
Complex and the Xixano Complex seen in outcrop (Figure 6.180c and d), display a relatively
coarse-grained mylonite with a grain size between 1-4 mm in the groundmass and layers with
attenuated K-feldspar migmatites, which have been sheared into the foliation. In these layers
K-feldspar porphyroclasts are up to 30 mm in size. These are very rarely asymmetric and show
rotated porphyroclasts symmetries as in Figure 6.180c (sinistral sense of shear), but are
generally rounded and flattened and therefore demonstrate no kinematic data, suggesting a pure
shear flattening orthogonal to the foliation.
Figure 6.181: Mylonitic quartzite
along the contact between Xixano
and Marrupa Complexes, west of
Balama (sheet 1338 Namuno,
sample 33223, UTM 37S 414334,
8513130). (Field of view:
3,0x2,4 mm).
Where granitic gneiss is intersected by these mylonitic shear zones, mylonite of granitic
composition is produced (Figure 6.182). This consists of a very fine-grained groundmass of
quartz, K-feldspar and plagioclase. This is interpreted as the result of mechanical crushing and
grain sliding related to mylonitisation. The groundmass is interspersed with quartz ribbons with
aspect ratios up to 30:1. We interpret these to be stretched quartz grains and their aspect ratios
are testament to intense deformation. Angular relationships between the ribbons and the weak
compositional banding within the mylonite (parallel to the long edges of the photomicrograph)
suggest strike-slip shearing.
189
Figure 6.182: Typical granitic mylonite within the Xixano Complex (Sample 36080). This is
from locality UTM: 427286, 8599878 on sheetb1238 Xixano, just south of the southern Karoo
Basin. Extremely stretched, elongate quartz ribbons with aspect ratios up to 30:1 cross a very
fine-grained groundmass.
6.10 Muaquia Complex

6.10.1 Introduction
The complex occurs in the northeast part of sheet 1336 Majune, the northwest corner of sheet
1337 Marrupa, the southeast part of sheet 1236 Mavago and the southwest corner of sheet 1237
Mecula.
190
Figure 6.183: Outline of the Muaquia Complex

(left), compared to the regional aeromagnetic
pattern (top left) and the total count
radiometric response (top right). Width of the
maps: 248 km.
On sheets 1336 Majune and 1236 Mavago, the magnetic map shows a conspicuously
low magnetic relief over this complex, seen as mainly yellowish colours on Figure 6.183. This
is in contrast with most of the surrounding lithological units, which show more contrasting
high/low "ridges and valleys" in the magnetic response pattern. Magnetic structures are parallel
with the observed banding and lineaments on the available satellite images, but unlike the
neighbouring complexes, large tracts of magnetic low and low relief are evident in between
slightly more marked lineaments along the margins. A magnetic low extends eastwards into
sheet 1337 Marrupa, forming the core of an isoclinal regional fold structure that is inferred in
this area. The lower magnetic susceptibility probably indicates retrogression in which
magnetite has been broken down in a shear zone related to the emplacement of the obviously
interrelated M'Sawize and Muaquia Complexes.
The total radiometric pattern (Figure 6.183) also indicates continuity between the rocks
south, west and north of the M'Sawize Complex. This pattern is composite but probably mostly
reflects ridges on which potassic rocks are exposed. The border to the low-potassic M'Sawize
Complex, partly surrounded by the Muaquia Complex is evident from Figure 6.183. The
geophysical data for this area are of lower quality than the new data in other parts of the project
area but should neither be over-emphasized nor disregarded. They are therefore used in a more
intuitive way rather than as a basis for quantitative geophysical analysis. Figure 6.183 can give
the impression that the Muaquia Complex extends southwards through the central part of sheet
1336 Majune to form a near complete border zone between the Unango Complex and the
Marrupa Complex. This has not been confirmed by observations in the field but the exposure
in this area is extremely poor.
191
Muaquia is the name of a village located in the east-central part of sheet 1336 Majune,
UTM 37S 267000, 8516400. The Muaquia Complex mainly comprises part of the supracrustal
sequence, Chiure Supergroup of Pinna et al. (1993). The term "Muaquia Group" was earlier
used by Costa et al. (1983) for the basal sequence of metasedimentary and ultramafic igneous
rocks in the Mugeba klippe further S.
The Muaquia Complex is very heterogeneous. Exposure is sparse, but some general
conclusions can be drawn:
x Compositions are mainly granitic and the textures are mainly blastomylonitic and
mylonitic.
x Small lenses of quartzite and very quartz-rich two-mica schists are present, especially
in the western part. In the eastern part the meta-supracrustal rocks are less fragmented
and form larger units of granitoids and meta-supracrustal quartz-feldspar rocks.
Infolded sub-units of amphibolite and calcsilicate rocks follow the other metasupracrustal rocks in mode of occurrence.
x Less deformed mega-lenses (3-4 km across) of granite, tonalite and granodiorite are
preserved within the main lithology. These occur near the Marrupa Complex on sheets
1336 Majune and 1337 Marrupa in particular.
x Deformation increases towards the border wth the Unango Complex to the west.
x A late shear deformation creates shear surfaces and microshears in all lithologies that
initiates growth of muscovite, chlorite and/or epidote.
x There are a few, widely separated indications of an early high-pressure metamorphic
event.
6.10.2 Amphibolite (Unit P3Qam)
Amphibolite occurs in only one small area about 20 km west of the village Muaquia. It is
found as a lens within the mylonitic granitic to granodioritic gneiss (P3Qmy) and is interpreted
as a supracrustal rock. It has a very planar foliation and the amphibole seems to be mainly
actinolite. It also contains thin bands of quartzite. The amphibolite is cut by late quartz veins
that indicate a sinistral movement.
6.10.3 Calc-silicate gneiss (Unit P3Qcs)
A quite large area (about 40 km2) of this rock type is found in the southeast corner of sheet
1237 Mecula. This is thinly laminated plagioclase amphibolites that is fine- to medium-grained
and equigranular. Plagioclase seems to define a lenticular, folded fabric. The central part of this
rock unit is almost continuously exposed and shows fine-grained, ribbed, epidote-rich quartzofeldspathic schists. However, large loose blocks cover the whole exposure so no readings of
foliation are possible. Locally garnets form clusters up to ~1cm in diameter. The rocks have a
characteristic brownish olive-green weathered rind. Mafic units and calc-silicate rocks have
also been found elsewhere in the Muaquia Complex. Small exposures are found on sheet 1336
Majune, north of Muaquia village in close association with muscovite-biotite gneiss and schist.
A few grains of orthopyroxene have been found in a small exposure of calc-silicate

rock at UTM 37S 262282, 8529332. The largest grain is 1 mm across while the matrix consists
of only hornblende, plagioclase and quartz with a grainsize of ~0,2 mm. The orthopyroxene is
located in a > 1 mm wide vein transecting the thin section.
192
6.10.4 Muscovite-biotite gneiss and schist, locally mylonitic (Unit P3Qbg)

This name is used as a general term that incorporates a variety of mica-rich rocks, usually both
muscovite and biotite. Its main occurrence is on sheet 1236 Mavago. Variably deformed
muscovite-biotite and biotite gneisses form a large wedge north of the mafic gneisses of the
M'Sawize Complex in the eastern part of the sheet. Locally they contain some muscovite
and/or garnet, and at a few localities they can best be described as coarse-grained muscovite
gneisses or schists. The unit forms several long ridges in the central-southern part of sheet
1236 Mavago. The ridges trend north-south in the south, but turn northeast-southwest to eastwest further north on the sheet. The unit also widens from 2-3 km in the south to 20-30 km in
the north. This thickening is probably due to repetition of layers because of tectonic
imbrication. The unit is rich in biotite and partly in muscovite. It is banded on a scale of some
metres to tens of metres due to variations in the proportion of mafic minerals and the nature of
the micas present.
In hilly terrain along the road, midway between Mavago and M'Sawize, the western
ridges are dominated by muscovite-biotite gneiss, while the eastern ridges are more
granodioritic to granitic in composition and are included in the mylonitic granitic to
granodioritic gneiss (P3Qmy). Scattered, fine-grained garnet is common. Blastomylonitic and
mylonitic biotite- and muscovite-biotite gneisses are exposed. Locally K-feldspar
porphyroblasts are present and minor lenses of granitic gneiss occur. Local SL fabric indicates
top-to-west-northwest movement.
The wedge-shaped area to the north of M'Sawize, also mainly consists of banded
muscovite-biotite gneiss. A higher proportion of muscovite characterises the gneiss occupying
the southern part of the wedge. The rock was found in two outcrops (UTM 37S 236749,
8616643 and 257880, 8640280) to be very rich in muscovite, with up to cm-large flakes of
muscovite in cm-thick layers alternating with quartz-feldspar layers. In the former, the rock
shows strong crenulation cleavage with fold axes plunging 164/12. The gneiss shows shallow
dips (10-15), but due to lack of exposures it is hard to estimate the thickness of the sequence.
Garnet is common in scattered mm-sized porphyroblasts.
Biotite gneiss dominates the northern part of the area, with little or no muscovite. The
rock is generally banded and foliated with biotite-rich layers/laminae separating quartzfeldspar layers (Figure 6.184). Garnet is a common subordinate mineral, occurring as scattered
mm-sized porphyroblasts. Augen texture is developed locally, with lenses/augen up to 1 dm
thick of quartz and plagioclase surrounded by thin layers of biotite (flaser texture, see Figure
6.185).
193
Figure 6.184: Banded and well foliated biotite

gneiss (UTM 37S 252026, 8640634, sheet 1236
Mavago)
Figure 6.185: Biotite gneiss with augen

texture. (UTM 37S 259125, 8640955, sheet
1236 Mavago).
The muscovite-biotite gneisses are generally strongly foliated, and locally mylonitic
with 2-3 mm thin laminae. Strong shearing is also observed in the northernmost part of the
large wedge-shaped area on sheet 1236 Mavago. The shear zone has a shallow dip (20) to the
east in this area (UTM 37S 248830, 8640104). It shows two senses of movement from small
fold relationships. The first is a strike-slip dextral movement producing F1 (?) folds followed
by a dip-slip movement producing F2 (?) folds, which record an apparent extensional top-toeast movement.
These muscovite-biotite gneisses were also seen on sheet 1336 Majune, where they,
together with gneiss of more granitic composition form elongate vertical blocks and kopjes.
They are flaggy, grey gneisses with mm-thick planar fabrics. The linear component of local SL
fabrics plunges southwards. Zoned feldspar grains are locally present. A small exposure of this
rock on sheet 1336 Majune (UTM 37S 268286, 85292226) is particularly interesting due to
relict minerals indicating its metamorphic development. The exposure is quite remote from
other comparable rock exposures but must be assumed to represent part of a tectonically
disrupted sequence of meta-supracrustal rocks. Close to a calcsilicate gneiss there is an
exposure of pelitic gneiss. It is a dark grey, micaceous schist with conspicuous pseudomorphs
after staurolite and sillimanite in two separate layers several m. thick (Figure 6.186). Several
crossed twins, some of whom have been slightly pressed to narrow Y-shapes, indicate the
staurolite pseudomorphs. Thin sections show only relics of the pseudomorphs. Thin tracks of
chemical transport (now filled with iron oxides) lead away from the pseudomorphs to parts of
the sample, less than 1 mm away, where blocky crystals of chlorite have crystallised clearly in
connection with the path. The matrix is a granoblastic quartz-feldspar-muscovite rock. If
staurolite and sillimanite were part of the same paragenesis during the maximum metamorphic
grade, T must have been <630oC and P >6,2 kb (Spear, 1993), provided the rock composition
has moderate contents of Al2O3 and MnO. The breakdown of staurolite to chlorite has possibly
taken place at T >580 o C and P>3 kb (Spear 1993). See also Chapter 7.
194
Figure 6.186: Pelitic schist (UTM 37S 268286, 85292226, sheet 1236 Mavago). A)
Pseudomorphs after staurolite. XRD analysis shows that the minerals present are muscovite,
paragonite and quartz. Width of view: ~0,3 m. B) Pseudomorphs of sillimanite nodules,
consisting of quartz and micas. Width of view:0,5 m.
The texture of the Muaquia Complex is a penetrating foliation defined by thin mineral
lamination, optically preferred orientation and variable shape-preferred orientation. This
always dips north and east underneath the M'Sawize Complex except for the most southeasterly parts of the complex where a steep southerly foliation is observed. A stretching
lineation has been observed locally as drawn-out sigma porphyroblasts, at least locally on sheet
1336 Majune, showing the upper part being moved southwards. Regional folds have been
inferred from geophysical data sets and satellite images. The measured structural elements are
also in agreement with this interpretation. The axes of the folds have an orientation similar to
the observed lineation, indicating an east-west or northwest-southeast compression at a late
stage of its formation.
On sheet 1236 Mavago, the schist inside the folded quartzite layer (see Quartzite,
muscovite and kyanite bearing (P3Qqz) below) has been included in the Muscovite-biotite
gneiss and schist (P3Qbg). There are also muscovite-schists in the gneisses immediately
underlying the kyanite-quartzites. A thin (<1 m) amphibolite was noted in the biotite-gneisses.
This amphibolite is fine-grained and flaggy with a strong foliation parallel to a mineral
layering. Quartz veins with or without muscovite are a common feature of the gneisses. The
amount of feldspar in the gneisses is variable. A tight upright antiform with a moderate plunge
to the northeast was found in the gneisses between the quartzite lenses.
6.10.5 Quartz-feldspar gneiss (meta-arkose) (Unit P3Qqf)
A unit of quartz-feldspar paragneiss is present in a major fold structure in the extreme
southwest corner of sheet 1237 Mecula. The thickness of the unit is 4-5 km, and the fold
structure has quartzitic gneiss in its core. It extends southwest across sheet 1337 Marrupa into
sheet 1336 Majune. A unit of calc-silicate gneiss bounds the southern flank of the fold, and
calc-silicates are also found in the northern limb. The gneiss is dominated by quartz and
plagioclase, while biotite, and locally muscovite are present as subordinate phases. Epidote is
also locally present. The gneisses are generally fine-grained, and often laminated to banded on
mm-cm scale. Quartz rich bands stand up in the terrain. Minor fuchsite is seen in feldspar rich
bands.
195
At one locality (UTM 37S 300645, 8571600) large blocks of fine-grained siliciclastic
rock (possibly metasiltstones) impregnated by malachite with less common azurite are found.
There are also extensive malachite coatings along fractures and foliation surfaces (see also
Chapter 13.2.1). This is a very fine-grained rock with a very thin banding defined by malachite
stringers parallel to opaque seams and quartz-bearing seams. Interlocking, cloudy plagioclase
grains (80%) dominate the thin section (sample 37264). Opaque and malachite grains are
disseminated in the plagioclase matrix with secondary epidote grains (combined opaque,
malachite and epidote mode of 15%).
Another unit of partly more quartz-rich gneiss is present further southeast, on the
southern side of Rio Lureco where it comprises a minor ridge (~UTM 37S 29000, 8552000).
This unit appears to extend into both sheets 1337 Marrupa and 1336 Majune. The rock unit is
fine-grained, laminated to banded, with varying contents of quartz, feldspar, biotite,
hornblende and clinopyroxene. A sample of an assumed metasediment in the northern slope of
the ridge (sample 36058, UTM 37S 290013, 8552238) comprises nearly 60 % quartz, 30 %
plagioclase and 10 % clinopyroxene and subordinate amounts of titanite, garnet and apatite
(Figure 6.187). The banding is due to the variation in content of clinopyroxene. Hornblendebearing varieties also comprises garnet and epidote.
6.10.6 Quartzite, muscovite- and kyanite-bearing (Unit P3Qqk)
In the northwest part of the complex, close to the M'Sawize Complex, a remarkable unit
of metasediments is present as two lenses or limbs of an isoclinally folded layer of quartzite
with kyanite and minor mafic subunits rich in garnet. It extends for 14 km northeast from UTM
37S 225300 8567000 with an inferred fold closure at the northeast end. Between the
limbs/lenses there is flaggy biotite gneiss. The tectonically lowest quartzite is at least as thick
as the tectonically overlying quartzite. It is not clear whether the two quartzites represent a
single unit in a recumbent fold structure or whether they form two distinct stratigraphic units.
Figure 6.187: Photomicrograph of clinopyroxene-bearing quartz-feldspar gneiss with finegrained titanite in medium-grained clinopyroxene in lower part (sample 36058, UTM 37S
290013, 855223, sheet 1337 Marrupa); Field of view: 3,0 x 2,4 mm).
The muscovite-kyanite quartzite gneiss is represented as two lensoid fold limbs on the
map. They cap several hills and comprise medium-grained to pegmatitic flaggy rocks with blue
kyanite grains set in an equigranular quartz matrix with variable amounts of interstitial
sericite/muscovite. The amount of kyanite is highly variable, from <5 % to pure kyanite rocks
that tend to be pegmatitic. The quartzites are strongly foliated, locally with a quartz-leaf fabric.
196
A curviplanar primary banding is only locally preserved. Quartz veins are ubiquitous, whereas
tiny red garnets are seen only locally. Two separate kyanite-quartzite units were mapped,
separated by the various gneisses described in the next paragraph. The tectonically highest
(easternmost) quartzite is about 30 m thick and caps a range of prominent hills with easterly
dipping dip slopes underlain by quartzite pavements. This quartzite is well exposed at locality
(UTM 37S 228840, 8572186) where it typically comprises quartz and kyanite with a light blueturquoise colour. Muscovite, plagioclase, titanite, rutile and zircon and lazulite are present in
minor amounts (Figure 6.188). The kyanite crystals are mostly parallel and define a foliation.
Figure 6.188: Muscovite-kyanite quartzite. a) Kyanite in a groundmass of strained quartz (left,

width of photo 6mm), b) Kyanite and lazulite (vivid blue colour) in groundmass of quartz
(right, width of photo 1,5mm) (Sample 40436, UTM 37S 228840, 8572186, sheet 1236
Mavago).
This lithology is very similar to quartzites found further southwest (near Lichinga) in
that it consists mainly of quartz and an aluminium silicate. However, it differs from these in
having a light bluish colour, larger bands of quartz + kyanite rock and a more homogeneous
texture and mineral distribution.
x
x
x
There are several possible modes of formation for kyanite-quartzites:

Metasomatic alteration of volcanic rocks during diagenesis,
Metasomatic alteration during high-grade metamorphism, or
Deposition of aluminium silicates (clays) on a palaeo-weathered surface together with
quartz sand, followed by at least amphibolite-facies metamorphism.
The flaggy biotite-gneisses between the quartzite lenses are generally fine-grained and
equigranular with S and SL fabrics and boudinaged mafic seams. A mineral banding is
disrupted into lenses by the foliation. They are locally muscovitic and have concordant
pegmatite sheets. The proportion of muscovite increases upwards towards the overlying
kyanite-quartzite with individual muscovite flakes larger than biotite flakes in these two-mica
gneisses. On sheet 1236 Mavago, this schist has been included in the Muscovite-biotite gneiss
and schist (P3Qbg). There are also muscovite schists in the gneisses immediately underlying
the kyanite-quartzites. Quartz veins, with or without muscovite, are a common feature of the
gneisses. The amount of feldspar in the gneisses is variable. A tight upright antiform with a
moderate plunge towards the northeast was found in the gneisses between the quartzite lenses.
Kyanite-bearing quartzites are also found in the Unango Complex southwest of Malanga on
sheet 1336 Majune (UTM 37S 189000, 850300), where they are thought to have formed a large
197
raft of quartzite in charnockitic magma. They are also found in the Unango Complex south of
Lichinga (UTM 3S6 102688, 8526270), incorporated into a bordering shear zone on the south
side of an unretrograded charnockitic granofels. These occurrences differ from the firstmentioned in that they contain discrete kyanite-bearing lenses in quartzite.
6.10.7 Quartzite (Unit P3Qqz)
This lithology occurs within the Granitic to granodioritic gneiss, mylonitic (P3Qmy) (section
6.10.9 below), as lenses or long bands, particularly along the southern border of the Muaquia
Complex on sheet 1336 Majune. Its quartz content is close to 80 %. The high quartz content
allow the grains to interlock and rocks of this type stand out from the more micaceous wall
rock as ridges due to a marked increase of strength when a certain percentage of quartz is
reached.
6.10.8 Amphibolitic gneiss (Unit P3Qag)
Two extensive belts of amphibolitic rock have been mapped in the northwest corner of sheet
1337 Marrupa, crossing over to sheet 1237 Mecula. Smaller lenses are also found within the
unit of Granitic to granodioritic gneiss, mylonitic (P3Qmy), particularly on sheet 1336 Majune.
The main rock type is fine-grained (0,5-1 mm) dark grey gneiss rich in plagioclase,
amphibole and clinopyroxene. The rock is interpreted as a metavolcanic rock of intermediate
composition: meta-andesite/-dacite. The foliation is well defined and folded along open folds.
Lensoid seams of plagioclase form bands parallel to the foliation. The rock locally contains
epidote. Some leucocratic layers parallel to the foliation are observed, and even granitoid
rocks have been reported (possibly veins or infolded country rock?). In these cases biotite is
the most common mafic mineral next to the granitoid. Within the amphibolite, there are
smaller pods of metagabbro. These are also fine-grained, contain magnetite and have no
foliation. The amphibolite is strongly schistose elsewhere, with quartz-feldspar-rich bands and
fine-grained biotite. Felsic segregations are disrupted in a curviplanar foliation. Biotite replaces
hornblende next to felsic segregations and there is minor epidote disseminated in the
amphibolites. The microtexture is generally granoblastic and garnet occurs (UTM 37S 290070,
8556526) in amphibolites: blue-green hornblende is the most common mafic mineral together
with small biotite laths. In layered amphibolites, iron-stained quartz knots are present together
with ptygmatically folded quartz veins.
Minor bodies of metapyroxenite and metagabbro occur in these mafic belts. An
undeformed metapyroxenite (sample 36056, UTM 37S 289779, 8549678) consists coarsegrained (up to 10 mm) amphibole (40 %) in a granoblastic (0,2-1 mm) matrix of clinopyroxene
(30 %), orthopyroxene (25 %), and subordinate amounts of plagioclase and opaque minerals.
Talc and quartz form rims to the mafic minerals.
6.10.9 Granitic to granodioritic gneiss, mylonitic (Unit P3Qmy)
The rock name is a common name for quartz-feldspar-rich rocks that have fine- to mediumgrained bands and lenses with granoblastic to grano-lepidoblastic texture, separated by thin
microshears < 0,3 mm) related to retrograde growth of white mica and/or epidote.
The mafic minerals are distributed in very thin and laterally extensive lenses, almost as
streaks < 1 mm thick. In some cases these are overprinted by the granoblastic texture, an
indication on an early mylonitic event prior to granoblastic to grano-lepidoblastic
recrystallisation, which again is prior to new shearing forming semi-penetrative microshears
and retrogression as seen in thin sections (Figure 6.189).
198
In other cases the gneiss within this unit reflects a strong late deformation only. In these
cases the pre-deformation rock seem to have been a coarser granitic rock. An example of this is
the highly sheared granitic to granodioritic gneiss that forms a wedge in the S central part of
sheet 1236 Mavago. Pronounced foliament banding is observed on the satellite images in the
western zone, a signature similar to that on the partly mylonitic muscovite-biotite gneisses
described above (P3Qbg).
Figure 6.189: A quartz-mica-rich
felsic blastomylonite with two
deformation textures. Note late
micro-shears ("Shear") cutting
foliation and promoting muscovite
("Ms") growth. (sample 34252:
UTM 37S 252968, 8516844, sheet
1336 Majune). Width of field: 2,8
mm.
Figure 6.190: Highly strained

granitic gneiss with dark grey,
fine-grained grey band along the
pen, on top of augen gneiss
(UTM 37S 215884, 8600582, sheet
1336 Majune).
The highly strained granitic gneisses occur in a belt east of a unit of muscovite-biotite
gneisses (unit P3Qbg, see below). They outcrop along the road traverse midway between
Mavago and M'Sawize. Like the mica-gneisses they form several long ridges in the centralsouthern part of sheets 1236 Mavago and 1336 Majune. The ridges trend north-south in the
southern part, but turn northeast-southwest in the north. The reason for the elongated ridges is
strong deformation, generally in the form of mylonitic fabric and banding (Figure 6.190). The
bands are dominated either by augen gneiss, fine-grained bands with sparsely distributed
porphyroblasts or by very fine-grained, finely laminated mylonitic bands. S-C fabrics indicate
dextral sense of movement (Figure 6.191).
199
Figure 6.191: S-C fabric in

granitic to blastomylonitic gneiss.
The fabric shows that the sense of
movement is dextral. Photo taken
towards the east (UTM 37S
215884, 8600582, sheet 1236
Mavago).
Similar rocks were seen along traverses in the northernmost part of sheet 1336 Majune,
where they form standing stones and elongate knolls. They are flaggy, grey gneisses with mmthick planar fabrics. The linear component of local SL fabrics plunges southwards. Zoned
feldspar grains are locally present. The gneisses in the southeast part of the unit are slightly less
sheared, and migmatitic gneisses are locally seen. Stromatic tonalitic and granitic gneisses, and
augen gneiss with SC fabrics were registered. These are flaggy, biotite-bearing, fine-grained
gneisses with common secondary epidote. Sinistral offset was inferred from the fabric in the
augen gneiss. Similar augen gneiss is also observed on sheet 1336 Majune in the same
lithological unit.
Very few outcrops are observed north of the village of Muaquia on sheet 1336 Majune,
but the ground is often littered with white quartz-vein debris. Similar quartz veins are found in
exposures of the granitic to granodioritic gneiss, mylonitic (P3Qmy), mostly as 2-7 cm wedgeshaped tension gashes. From this it is fair to assume that most of the area is underlain by the
same lithology.
Except for a few samples, all the rocks sampled from this unit (as in most of the entire
Muaquia Complex) contain muscovite and/or epidote, depending on composition. The
muscovite has formed later than biotite. Biotite has a pleochroism that varies from pale yellow
to almost black, indicating high ferric iron. A later set of shears is penetrative on an outcrop
scale but discrete on a microscopic scale (Figure 6.189). This granodioritic gneiss was initially
deformed and recrystallised to a semi- granoblastic texture. Late deformation created a
foliation with biotite and slightly elongated quartz and feldspar. Muscovite is not part of this
texture, but thin discrete shears cut the foliation, milling the biotite and other minerals and
promoting growth of 0,2 0,3 mm porphyroblasts of muscovite (Ms) and lenses of quartz. All
the observations of this late shear phase have shown orientations very close to the earlier
biotite foliation. It breaks down biotite, quartz and feldspar in a semi-brittle fashion, giving rise
to recrystallisation adjusted to a new P-T regime, in which muscovite grows. Muscovite
commonly nucleates within layers in older biotite crystals pushing these aside as it grows,
leaving a texture in which biotite often rims the muscovite porphyroblasts (not to be mistaken
for a prograde texture).
200
Close to the Marrupa Complex to the south (on sheets 1337 Marrupa and 1336
Majune), the rock becomes more obviously meta-granitic or meta-granodioritic, a transition
that is seen in a gradual northwards reduction in the size of relict igneous grains (3-4 mm) of
plagioclase, K-feldspar and antiperthite. The change into a medium-grained blastomylonitic
rock to the north may be followed over a distance of <1 km, and the most deformed rocks are
found along the road from Majune to Marrupa, but highly-strained granitic to granodioritic
rocks are the prevailing lithology also further north. Quartzite lenses seem to be more common
in the Muaquia Complex close to the Marrupa Complex, but scarce exposure further north may
be an explanation for this.
The existence of mylonitic granitic gneiss along the contact to the M'Sawize Complex
has been verified in the east-central part of sheet 1236 Mavago. The shear zone is some
hundred metres wide and consists of both strongly foliated, lineated granitic gneiss and banded
mylonite, which consists of 1-3 cm green (chlorite?) layers alternating with quartz-feldspar
layers (e.g. UTM 37S 265108, 861855599.
6.10.10Granitic to granodioritic gneiss (Unit P3Qgr)
This lithology is sometimes easily recognised as an igneous rock mainly due to local, relict
porphyritic textures. In more mylonitic parts however, distinction between this rock and a
meta-sedimentary quartz-feldspar rock is difficult, and much of the latter may be tectonic
mixtures of the two. The rock is medium- to fine-grained granodioritic gneiss with mostly
equigranular granoblastic texture. A homogenous, penetrative schistosity is developed
throughout the complex and in the main lithology this is formed by shape- and optically
preferred orientation of grains and parallelism of very thin bands in which mafic and accessory
minerals are concentrated. Outcrops tend to take the form of flaggy benches. A small exposure
of this rock is easily accessible at the roadside between Malanga and Marrupa (UTM 37S
279870, 8518225). The most extensive exposures of the rock are in the far northwest corner of
sheet 1337 Marrupa where it alternates with other lithologies in 3-5 km thick bands and
extends westwards into sheet 1336 Majune. Less extensive lenses are included in the Granitic
to granodioritic gneiss, mylonitic (P2Qmy) on sheet 1336 Majune and, as a slightly more
deformed variety, in the muscovite-biotite gneiss and schist, locally mylonitic (Unit P3Qbg) on
sheet 1236 Mavago.
The rock is pale pink, fine- to medium-grained (1-3 mm) with a small amount of biotite
(<1%) and even less muscovite. The mica sometimes envelops felsic aggregates but more
often, the mica aggregates are simply arranged in parallel to form a foliation. The rock appears
to be quite homogenous and occasionally contains some porphyritic feldspar giving an obvious
igneous appearance. Strongly deformed quartz veins up to 20 cm across cut the rock.
On a microscopic scale, the original igneous feldspar grains seen to be ~1 mm across
and surrounded by abundant new crystallisation of more fine-grained microcline with
plagioclase, quartz and myrmekite along their borders. At one locality (Figure 6.192) this
recrystallisation has formed a perfect granoblastic matrix between relict igneous and deformed
feldspar. In most of the localities dark brown to yellow biotite has recrystallised during the first
deformational event. Later, semi-brittle shears and cracks have developed almost parallel to the
biotite foliation and promoted growth of muscovite. More calcic lithologies however, develop
blue-green hornblende that retrogrades to epidote instead of muscovite as seen in Figure 6.192.
In rocks of intermediate composition, epidote and opaque minerals often replace bluegreen hornblende as seen in Figure 6.192. One may occasionally see larger, strongly deformed
201
feldspar grains up to 2 mm long in a matrix of almost perfectly equilibrated fine-grained quartz

and feldspar (0,1-0,3 mm). In Figure 6.192 a relict igneous feldspar is seen in the upper left
part of the field of view. The rocks are interpreted as igneous rocks that experienced strong
deformation and subsequent recrystallisation under non-deviatoric stress. The recrystallisation
of hornblende might have taken place during a later stress regime, most likely
contemporaneous with the micro-shears seen in Figure 6.189.
A conspicuous "banding" of 1 mm-sized grains of quartz has formed
contemporaneously with the biotite. Locally this is sufficiently penetrative to constitute a
foliation to the rock together with the parallel orientation of biotite aggregates.
Figure 6.192: Strongly deformed
relict igneous feldspar (Fd) in a
matrix of recrystallised grano-blastic
quartz and feldspar. Skeletal remains
of blue-green hornblende (Hbl) give
way to epidote (Ep). (Sample 38412,
UTM 37S 314057, 8545036, sheet
1237 Marrupa). Width of field: 2,8
mm.
6.11 M'Sawize Complex

6.11.1 Introduction
The M'Sawize Complex underlies the southeastern part of sheet 1236 Mavago, the northeastern
part of sheet 1336 Majune and the southwestern part of sheet 1237 Mecula. The M'Sawize
Complex overlies the Muaquia Complex and is partly surrounded by it (Figure 6.183). Their
strongly contrasting lithologies and textures make it necessary to define them as separate
complexes. Similarities exist however, e.g. both complexes have experienced early high-grade
metamorphism: the M'Sawize Complex contains mangeritic orthogneiss and the Muaquia
Complex contains mica schists with pseudomorphs after staurolite. Late epidote growth is
present in both units, which may suggest that they were juxtaposed prior to final retrograde
metamorphism. An early phase of high-pressure granulite-facies metamorphism is recorded in
the mafic gneisses of this complex.
M'Sawize is the name of a major village located on a flat plain in the northwest part of
the complex (UTM 37S 232000, 8609000). The M'Sawize Complex as defined here, comprises
part of the Msawize Group of Pinna et al. (1993), who included their unit as part of the Lurio
Supergroup. The latter corresponds to 'The eastern thrust granulite' preserved in synforms as
nappe outliers (Pinna et al. 1993).
The M'Sawize Complex is subdivided into four major units:
x Granodioritic to gabbroic gneiss (P3SWgd)
202
x Metatonalite (P3SWto)
x Metagabbro and amphibolite (P3SWgb)
x Banded migmatite with minor migmatitic granite and amphibolite (P3SWmi)
The northern and western borders of the M'Sawize Complex are seemingly related to
several shear zones that cross the region from the northeast, making a sharp turn towards the
south at about UTM 220000, 8600000 on sheet 1236 Mavago (Chapter 12). This change of
direction of the shear zones is coincident with the border, and is envisaged to relate to "bending
up" of the fault planes near the Unango Complex in the west. This will change the relative
movement on the faults from normal hanging wall towards south-southeast in the eastern and
central parts of the complex, to dextral shear on steep zones along the western border. Field
observations supporting this have been made but also sinistral shear zones have evidently been
active in the same area and the exact sequence of movements is ambiguous, when judged only
from local observations in the complex. Regionally, a period of northwest-southeast extension
is suggested (Chapter 12). The faults and the shear zones underneath the M'Sawize Complex
are possibly antithetic faults in the same extension system since they have opposite dip to the
main fault in the south. In this case the faulting and related shearing is later than the thrust
movements of the eastern complexes over the Unango Complex in the west, possibly it
represents a gravity collapse structure. Deformation of the western part of fault surfaces may
be transverse contraction to the northwestsoutheast extension. Alternatively, deformation
could be due to folding of an early thrust plane that later was reactivated as a fault plane.
Few shear zones are exposed on the borders of the complex but at one isolated locality
within it, a well-developed shear zone is exposed. This indicates that the shear zones along the
northern and western borders, may also pass through the M'Sawize Complex and may possibly
explain why the metagabbro and amphibolite unit are is split in two, one (footwall) on sheet
1236 Mavago and one (hanging wall) on sheet 1336 Majune.
6.11.2 Banded migmatite with minor migmatitic granite and amphibolite (Unit P3SWmi)
Migmatitic gneisses are very well exposed along the Rio Lugenda. The main lithologies are:
x
Migmatitic gneiss with several generations of felsic veins, including pegmatites cutting
grey biotite- and hornblende-bearing tonalitic gneisses.
x
Massive migmatitic (nebulitic) granite
x
Amphibolite and pyroxenite
x
Muscovite-bearing granitic pegmatite
x
Charnockitic rocks (in the southern part of the outcrop area)
The first four lithologies are juxtaposed on all scales, with the muscovitic pegmatites cutting
the other three phases. Stromatic migmatites (Figure 6.193) are the main lithology in which the
banding is usually a simple alternation between dark mafic and reddish, more granitic layers
(Figure 6.193 a). The mafic bands in this rock unit are granodioritic to dioritic in composition.
There is a small exposure of coarse hornblende-pyroxenite at UTM 37S 257540,
8579970. Downstream on the Rio Lugenda, this rock becomes more anatexic in appearance as
the neosome bands and lenses become thicker and more abundant. Garnets are present (UTM
37S 266000, 8596000) and at the sharp bend in the river (UTM 37S 272000, 8592000), the
rock has a charnockitic appearance. The contact between stromatic migmatites and the
charnockitic orthogneisses is not directly exposed.
203
Primary hornblende is a stable mineral in the various lithologies and together with
plagioclase forms a polygonal granoblastic texture with a grain size of ~2 mm. During a later
deformation event, new small sub-grains have formed. Aggregates of biotite and epidote cut
and forms rims around hornblende crystals, and are aligned to define a new foliation. Tiny red
garnets occur locally in amphibolites and in the migmatitic gneisses. The migmatites are
variably deformed and are locally mylonitic. They form the core of a major overturned ~eastwest trending antiform. A large parasitic S-fold is exposed at UTM 37S 262237, 8583321 with
moderate plunges towards the east-northeast and a co-axial lineation. In the area around (UTM
37S 255000, 8575000), the banded gneiss forms the core of a regional fold closing westwards
with a steep west-plunging hinge line.
Figure 6.193:
a) Upper left: Pegmatoid migmatitic
lenses on Rio Lugenda (UTM 37S 255680,
8574300, sheet 1236 Mavago). Pegmatoid
syn-/early-tectonic lenses ~6 cm thick. b)
Upper right: From the same locality:
neosome lenses with 1 cm hornblende
crystals forming the melanosome. The
hammer is 45 cm long. c) Left: Banded
migmatite on Rio Lugenda (UTM 37S
262265, 8583392, sheet 1236 Mavago).
Felsic bands may be transposed dikes,
volcanic layering or early-/syntectonic
neosome, modified by later migmatisation.
The camera is 30 cm long.
6.11.3 Metagabbro and amphibolite (Unit P3SWgb)

Metagabbro and amphibolite occupy the northwestern- and southwesternmost parts of the
complex. Mafic granofelsic and gneissic rocks are exposed in the M'Sawize area tectonically
above a broad curviplanar belt of mylonitic rocks that marks the tectonic boundary between the
M'Sawize Complex and the underlying Muaquia Complex. The area surrounding M'Sawize is
generally flat but becomes hillier towards the south where there are isolated knolls of massive
metatonalite and ridges of amphibolitic lithologies.
204
Massive, equigranular, mafic granofelsic rocks as well as flaggy gneisses are exposed.
The relative proportions of mafic and felsic minerals are variable in both types of lithology as
are the relative proportions of amphibole and pyroxene. Garnet is common and occasionally
scapolite is found. Granulite-facies mineralogy is variably preserved, as demonstrated in a road
traverse in the northern part of the unit. In the northwesternmost locality (UTM 37S 219149,
8599388), finely banded amphibolite occurs in a boulder field, and this sequence could well
represent the more deformed lowermost part of the thrust sheet. It is followed 50 m further east
by well-foliated hornblende-gneisses. A fine-grained, slightly foliated metagabbro is exposed
further to the east (UTM 37S 223045 860012, sample 31794). Texturally the rock is granoblastic with medium-grained (1-4 mm) plagioclase and more fine-grained mafic minerals,
comprising aggregates of clinopyroxene, hornblende and garnet. It contains no orthopyroxene
and only a few grains of quartz. Clinopyroxene is partly replaced by hornblende (Figure
6.194). Garnet and scapolite occur in subordinate amounts and accessory minerals include
titanite, magnetite, quartz and rutile. The garnets are often broken down to a symplectite of
hornblende and plagioclase that may occur both as rims and cores. This is clearly an
orthopyroxene-free garnet-clinopyroxene-plagioclase paragenesis, indicating HP granulitefacies peak metamorphism. The few grains of quartz present seem to belong to the peak
paragenesis. The implications of this are further discussed in Chapter 7.
Figure 6.194: Metagabbro west of M'Sawize (sample 31794, UTM 37S 223045, 8600102, sheet
1236 Mavago). Mafic aggregates comprising hornblende, clinopyroxene and garnet. Pyroxene
is partly replaced by hornblende and garnets is partly rimmed with plagioclase + hornblende
rims. Plagioclase has undeformed twin lamellae and garnets are euhedral. (Field of view: 5,4
x 4,4 mm).
Both homogeneous and banded mafic gneisses occur further west of M'Sawize.
Granoblastic fine- to medium-grained rocks comprising brown hornblende, orthopyroxene,
clinopyroxene and plagioclase with minor quartz, scapolite and K-feldspar occur east of the
village and could represent gabbro-norites. A slightly retrograded mafic granulite comprises
50-60 % plagioclase while clinopyroxene, hornblende and orthopyroxene form mafic
aggregates (UTM 37S 241388, 8606286, sample 31796). Minor garnets and opaque minerals
occur scattered through the rock. Susceptibility measurements around 30x10-3 SI units indicate
about 1 % magnetite. Banded mafic granulites are also found south of M'Sawize. There is also
a small lens of fine-grained, felsic, quartz-feldspar gneiss with minor amounts of amphibole.
Mafic granulite and spatially associated plagioclase-hornblende gneisses are the two
main lithologies that are exposed north of Rio Levele. The rock commonly contains
clinopyroxene and garnets together in certain areas (Figure 6.194 an indication that this
lithology is actually a mafic granulite in many cases, rather than an amphibolite (Coutinho
205
et.al. 2004. See also Chapter 7, Figure 1). They vary from massive to flaggy rocks with
variably developed gneissic fabrics.
The mafic rocks in the northernmost part of sheet 1336 Majune are fine- to mediumgrained and well foliated. They are commonly homogeneous although some variations in
plagioclase content and fine-scale banding are locally observed (Figure 6.195). This
metamorphic rock is also a mafic granulite (following Coutinho et al. 2004) but the main body
seems to have an orthopyroxene paragenesis while the orthopyroxene-free (high-pressure
granulite) clinopyroxene-garnet paragenesis has only been established along veins where
carbonic fluids have promoted reaction. It must be noted that these observations are very
scattered so both types of parageneses could be present in both the northern mafic granulite
field on sheet 1236 Mavago and the southern mafic granulite field on sheet 1336 Majune.
Figure 6.195: Fine- to medium-grained amphibolite (UTM 37S 231964, 8558610).

6.11.4 Granodioritic to gabbroic gneiss (Unit P3SWgd)
This unit is more heterogeneous than 'Metagabbro and amphibolite' described above, although
it comprises some of the similar rock types. The heterogeneity and higher proportions of felsic
gneisses are the most prominent distinguishing features.
The following rocks are well exposed on the north side of the Rio Levele :
x Plagioclase-hornblende-gneiss
x Felsic gneiss
x Charnockitic granofels
These rocks are locally cut by muscovite pegmatites and secondary epidote is common.
Amphibolites and spatially associated plagioclase-hornblende gneisses are the two main
lithologies that are exposed in the area traversed. Felsic gneisses contain mafic lenses and
seams (mm-thick) as well as disseminated mafic and opaque grains in an equigranular felsic
matrix. Charnockites are massive, coarse-grained granofelsic rocks with onionskin weathering.
Aligned mafic mineral aggregates define a weak gneissosity.
206
Banded, greenish grey to white gneiss with minor lenses of amphibolite dominates
along a profile in the southwestern part of this unit on the northern part of sheet 1336 Majune.
The banding is on a cm- to m-scale. The gneiss is fine-grained (0,2-1 mm), granoblastic and
comprises 40-60 % plagioclase, 30-35 % quartz, 5-20 % clinopyroxene and subordinate
amounts of hornblende, titanite and opaque minerals (sample 36064/36065). Hornblende
commonly forms rims on clinopyroxene. Figure 6.196 shows a mafic granulite from this rock
unit that displays a clear intermediate-pressure granulite facies paragenesis.
Figure 6.196: Photomicrograph of sample 3197 from UTM 37S, 247185, 8586667 on sheet
1236 Mavago. Mafic granulite with mafic minerals clustered in clots. Plagioclase grains show
a high degree of granoblastic texture. Hornblende seems to grow in equilibrium with the
pyroxenes or in a late retrogressive period. Field of view: 5.3 mm.
A number of shear zones occur within this rock. One is exposed at UTM 37S, 252877,
8550810, sample 31911(Figure 6.197). The mineralogy is granitic and the mafic mineral is
biotite. There is no muscovite or epidote in the mylonite and the quartz may form 0,3 0,6 mm
thick "ribbons" more than 10 cm long. These are partly recrystallised with smaller quartz subgrains, but they can be seen to have originated in grains reaching across the ribbon (Figure
6.197). According to Stel & Touret (2006) these ribbons form in granulite facies under
carbonic fluid dominance, but are destroyed in the H2O-dominated fluids of the amphibolite
facies (for again to be preserved during low-grade metamorphism). Some authors suggest that
quartz ribbons indicate a period of static grain growth after cessations of dynamic growth
(Culshaw & Fyson 1984). Another mylonite within this rock unit is exposed at locality UTM
37S 242504, 8575766.
207
Figure 6.197: Mylonite at UTM 37S 252877, 8550810 on sheet 1336 Majune (sample 31911).
Small (< 0,3 mm) quartz grains have formed in the quartz ribbons that originally had grains
reaching across the ribbon. Biotite laths are almost black to light yellow. Quartz ribbons of
this type are formed in granulite facies under partial melting but are destroyed during
amphibolite-facies retrogression. Width of view: 5,3 mm for each photo.
The quartz ribbons define a planar fabric in this laminated mylonitic granite. The rock
is very fine-grained, with most grains < 0,3 mm in diameter. The main mafic mineral is the
same very dark brown-black biotite as in the migmatites. The dominant quartz fabric is the
same type of "ribbon quartz" observed in many high-grade tectonites, in which single grains of
quartz make up the entire thickness of the lens and the internal quartz grain borders are
preferentially at 45 to the foliation.
6.11.5 Metatonalite (6404 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3SWto)
The metatonalite is a massive, medium- to coarse-grained dark grey, variably gneissic rock
with common small (up to 5cm long) mafic clots and minor felsic veins. Aligned mafic grains
define the gneissic fabric. The metatonalite may be an altered subvolcanic intrusive.
Examination of a thin section (sample 31978, UTM 37S 248255, 8588574) of the
metatonalite shows that there are three dominant phases (plagioclase: ~ 65 %, combined
orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene: ~20 %) in a medium-grained (1-2 mm) granofelsic texture
of interlocking subhedral grains. Hornblende blades appear, at least locally, to replace the
pyroxenes. Zircon forms tiny rounded, barrel-shaped grains although sphene is relatively
common as larger anhedral grains. Apatite and quartz are also present as accessory phases. The
zircon crystals have a width of ca 150 m and a fat prismatic habit, with possible metamorphic
overgrowth. 19 LA-ICPMS analyses of zircon yield an age of 640 4 Ma representing the
magmatic intrusion of the tonalite (see Chapter 11.10).
208
6.12 Lalamo Complex

6.12.1 Introduction
The Lalamo Complex is situated east and north of the Nairoto Complex and overlain by the
Cenozoic to Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of the Rovuma Basin to the east. It is the most
prominent unit on sheet 1239 Meluco, and covers much of the southern part of sheet 1139
Mueda, the northeast part of sheet 1339 Montepuez and the northwest part of sheet 1340
Mecufi. The name comes from a village situated in the central part of the complex on the
Meluco map sheet (UTM 37S 572500, 8642500). The complex comprises part of the former
Chiure Supergroup of Pinna et al. (1993).
The Lalamo Complex comprises predominantly various metasupracrustal rocks; biotite
gneiss, meta-sandstone, quartzite, marble, amphibolite and conglomerate and minor metaigneous rocks of granitic to ultrabasic composition. The rocks of the Lalamo Complex have
generally experienced amphibolite-grade metamorphism, based the parageneses found and on
petrographic data.
The western contact with the Nairoto Complex is a shear zone, along which a dextral
movement cuts off the various units of the Lalamo Complex. The lithologies are rather similar
to those in the Montepuez Complex, but the Nairoto Complex always separates these two
complexes, except in the extreme east where the contact is a shear zone. Since they also have a
totally different tectonic style they are distinguished as two complexes on the map. It has been
observed that the Lalamo Complex has been thrust upon the Meluco Complex, which might
represent a basement for the supracrustal rocks.
Granitic gneiss from the north-central part of sheet 1239 Meluco has been dated and
gives an intrusion age of 696 13 Ma (sample 40667, UTM 37S 562796, 8647918). This
further indicates that rocks of the Lalamo Complex are younger than those of the Meluco
Complex (see Chapter 6.7).
6.12.2 Conglomerate (Unit P3LMco) and overlying sequence, including cordierite-biotite

gneiss (unit P3LMcg)
South of the village Homba on the northernmost part of sheet 1239 Meluco there is a quite well
exposed section of metasediments, as shown in Figure 6.198. The section includes (from north
to south) horizons of conglomerate (unit P3LMco), meta-arenite and quartzite (unit P3LMss),
alumina-rich, cordierite-bearing biotite gneiss (unit P3LMbg) and impure marble (unit
P3LMma) (Figure 6.199). The whole sequence is ~2 km thick and dips 70-80o south-southeast.
The conglomerate is strongly foliated and sheared (dextral sense of movement). It
contains up to 20-30 cm large, sub-rounded clasts of fine-grained granite, diorite, quartzfeldspar gneiss, amphibolite and calc-silicate gneiss in a matrix of fine-grained biotite gneiss,
which also seems to be clastic (Figure 6.200). To the south, across strike, there is fine-grained
strongly deformed amphibolitic gneiss, which probably represents metamorphosed calcareous
sediment. This is structurally overlain by another layer of the same conglomerate, followed by
a fine-grained homogeneous layer of amphibole-pyroxene gneiss. Thin sections of this rock
show it to be heteroblastic, with up to 5 mm strongly poikiloblastic grains of clinopyroxene
(probably diopside) overgrowing a matrix of 0.1-1 mm grains predominantly of quartz,
clinoamphibole, K-feldspar and carbonate. This rock is also most likely a calcareous
metasediment.
209
Figure 6.198: Part of sheet 1239 Meluco, showing the site of a well-exposed
sedimentary sequence. The red line is 2 km long and shows the section sketched in
Figure 6.199.
Figure 6.199: Section through

the sedimentary sequence
displayed in Figure 6.198.
dioritic gneiss (Figure 6.201). This arenitic sandstone grades into a more fine-grained
sandstone, now a biotite-muscovite schist/gneiss, which is muscovite-rich. It contains up to 2-3
mm quartz grains and is otherwise bedded to banded on a scale of a few dm.
210
Structurally above the amphibole-pyroxene gneiss there is a thick unit of muscovitebiotite schist/gneiss, which represent a meta-arenitic sandstone, quite strongly sheared with
some mm-cm sized quartz clasts and a few clasts up to 2-3 cm thick and 5-10 cm long of
Figure 6.200: Polymict conglomerate, with flattened fragments mainly of

various orthogneisses in a matrix of biotite gneiss. Locality: UTM 37S,
565363, 8668830, sheet 1239 Meluco.
Figure 6.201: Metasandstone/grit, rich in muscovite with flattened clasts of

dioritic gneiss and quartzite. Locality: UTM 37S, 565323, 8668676, sheet
1239 Meluco.
211
Structurally above this metasandstone, about 1 km to the southwest, there is a strange,

very dark rock consisting of up to 25-30 cm long crystals in a "garben"-texture (Figure 6.206).
Otherwise the rock contains abundant up to cm-sized garnets with a ruby colour. This unit has
been called cordierite-biotite gneiss (unit P3LMcg, see Figure 6.198 and Figure 6.199). Thin
sections (Figure 6.207) show that the large elongate crystals are made up of strongly
poikiloblastic grains of cordierite. Some of the grains contain relict grains of staurolite, which
makes it likely that the cordierite is a pseudomorph after staurolite. In thin section the rock is
texturally poikilo-porphyroblastic with large cordierite and garnet poikiloblasts in a
recrystallized, granoblastic matrix of up to mm-sized grains, mainly of quartz and biotite.
Important accessories include chlorite, muscovite and gedrite (the latter has been confirmed by
microprobe analysis).
Microprobe data show that the garnet is a pyrope-almandine with 21-25% pyrope and
65-71% almandine. The biotite is fairly Mg-rich with an Fe/Mg+Fe ratio of 0.35-0.36, and also
has a low content of Ti (7-11 mol%). The plagioclase is andesine (An34). The microprobe data
confirm the presence of cordierite and staurolite, with the following compositions:
Cordierite: Al2.95-2.98Fe3+0-0.04(Mg1.50-1.53Fe0.47-0.48)AlSi5O18
Staurolite: (Fe1.56-1.60Mg0.40-0.44)(Al8.60-8.65,Fe3+,Ti,Cr)9Si3.79-3.82Al0.18-0.21O20(O,OH)4
On the basis of its mineral assemblage this rock probably represents an aluminous
metasediment, and forms the top of a well-defined graded sequence that starts with the
conglomerate at the structural base, grading into arenitic sandstone, homogeneous finergrained sandstone and then ends with the argillaceous metasediment at the structural top.
Further up section (structurally), there is an impure, strongly sheared marble with
interbedded calc-silicate gneiss. The marble contains fine-grained graphite and locally epidote
and diopside (Figure 6.210). There are also individual calcsilicate layers up to 1 m thick. Some
thin layers are alse enriched in mica. The whole marble-bearing sequence is about 100 m thick
in outcrop. Between the cordierite gneiss and marble there are outcrops of pegmatite with
abundant black tourmaline.
6.12.3 Biotite gneiss, locally graphitic, interlayered with meta-sandstone, quartzite and
amphibolite (Unit P3LMbg)
Biotite gneiss is the major constituent of the meta-sedimentary sequence in the Lalamo
Complex. It has, overall, a lower magnetic signature than the felsic orthogneisses. It can be
seen that it has a banded pattern, both on the radiometric and the aeromagnetic data, and
certain layers can be followed over long distances, clearly suggesting that this must represent a
paragneiss. The banded pattern is due to variations in composition. In areas where this unit is
better exposed, biotite gneiss is the most common rock type. The other meta-supracrustal rocks
have been depicted in the maps where data permits, and are then described separately. In some
parts of the area, quartz rich sediments seem to dominate where there are exposures. Minor
marble bodies may also exist within this unit, but they are not easily defined at 1:250,000 due
to the relative scarcity of outcrops.
The typical biotite gneiss has a banded appearance with dark- and light-coloured bands
at a dm- to metre-scale due to varying contents of biotite and quartz. This is especially the case
in the northeastern part of sheet 1340 Mecufi, where the deformation is not so strong (Figure
6.202).
212
Figure 6.202: Banded biotite gneiss (UTM 37S 623907, 8551471, sheet 1340 Mecufi). The
banding is thought to represent primary layering that reflects difference in quartz and biotite
content. To the right, a photomicrograph from the same locality (sample 40726) containing
quartz, plagioclase, biotite and a poikiloblastic garnet. Field of view: 5.3 x 4.3mm
Commonly the gneiss comprises 40-50 % quartz, 30 % plagioclase and 10-15 % biotite,
but locally the biotite content is much higher. The rock contains garnets up to 1 cm in
diameter: the layers are more or less garnet-rich due to the composition of the rock. The
garnets have an irregular form, are poikiloblastic and seem to have rotated during their
formation. Hornblende is a common constituent in minor amounts, in layers associated with
marble horizons, and also clinopyroxene can occur in amounts up to 10%. Within the
layers/banding there are local isoclinal folds. The biotite gneisses are intruded by sporadic
granitic and pegmatitic veins, which are mainly parallel to the foliation although crosscutting
veins have also been observed (Figure 6.203). Some variations in metamorphic grade exist, and
locally the unit might be called schist.
Figure 6.203: Biotite gneiss with subconcordant and crosscutting granitic and pegmatitic veins
(UTM 37S 584821, 8558710 and 560452, 8682552, on sheet 1339 Montepuez)
The most interesting variety of this unit in an economic context is the graphite-bearing
biotite gneiss. It is known from the Ancuabe area, at the conjunction of the four sheets 1239
213
Meluco, 1240 Quissanga-Pemba, 1340 Mecufi and 1339 Montepuez. The Ancuabe graphite
mine (UTM 37S 608377 8561868) was in operation from 1994 to 1999, and is currently on
care and maintenance (see Chapter 13). The graphite-bearing mica gneiss is banded and
medium-grained (1-3 mm) mainly comprising quartz and graphite and subordinate amounts of
biotite and feldspar. The gneiss also contains minor titanite, rutile and pyrite. The banding is
due to variation in the graphite and quartz content. Medium- to coarse-grained graphite-flakes
(3-8 mm) are enriched in 5-20 cm thick bands and lenses over a thickness of 2-3 m in the main
open pit (Figure 6.204). Local enrichments of coarse graphite are observed in minor folds and
along quartz veins. The total thickness of the graphite-bearing sequence in the mining area is
10-20 m.
Figure 6.204: Graphite-bearing biotite gneiss in the open pit in the Ancuabe graphite mine
(UTM 37S 608377, 8561868, sheet 1339 Montepuez).
Amphibolite is found at several places within the meta-sediments in the Lalamo
Complex, but none of the occurrences is large enough to be depicted at 1:250,000. The
amphibolite is commonly associated with marble in the southern part of sheet 1139 Mueda.
Zones that are >100 m wide have been observed (UTM 37S 561814, 8681798). Commonly the
amphibole is altered to biotite near the marble.
Several minor amphibolite layers have been observed in the northern part of sheet 1339
Montepuez. The amphibolite can be banded on a cm-scale and is cut by 5-15 cm-thick
pegmatitic veins (Figure 6.205). A thin section of a minor horizon of fine-grained amphibolite
associated with a calcite marble horizon in the northern part of sheet 1339 Montepuez, consists
of 40 % plagioclase and equal amounts of brown pleochroic amphibole and clinopyroxene
(UTM 37S 577317, 8548844). Titanite is present as an accessory mineral. The rocks are nearly
flat lying in this area, and repetition of lithologies might be due to folding or thrusting.
214
Figure 6.205: Banded amphibolite with subconcordant pegmatitic veins (UTM 37S 579080,
8550804, sheet 1339 Montepuez).
6.12.4 Meta-arenite and quartzite (Unit P3LMss)
Meta-sandstone with interbedded layers of quartzite occurs as extensive, thin horizons in the
southern part of sheet 1139 Mueda and the northern part of sheet 1239 Meluco. The unit
commonly appears as layers in the biotite gneiss or in association with the marble units.
Locally it forms ridges that can be followed over a long distance in the terrain, e.g. at UTM
37S 530000, 8660100 and UTM 37 555800, 869400) and southwards.
The meta-arenite commonly has a banded appearance due to varying contents of quartz
or impurities like biotite. This reflects the primary layering, but due to recrystallisation and
deformation no other primary sedimentary structures have been observed. The rocks are buff to
pale grey and reddish-coloured depending on the degree of weathering. They are generally
fine-grained (< 1 mm) and granoblastic, and banding on a cm-scale is frequently observed. The
proportions of quartz and feldspar vary. The quartz content is generally 40-90% and pure
quartzite occurs quite rarely. Feldspar is the other main constituent, with microcline and
plagioclase in roughly equal amounts. The contents vary from ~10-60% and locally exceed that
of quartz. Biotite occurs in amounts up to 5%. It has an olive brown colour and is arranged
parallel to the foliation. Generally muscovite occurs only in small amounts, but is locally quite
abundant (UTMS 37 564887, 8668685). Sample 40713 (UTM 37S 532056, 8657625), which
comes from a sandstone horizon within a thin bed of marble, has ~60% quartz, 25% diopside,
10% tremolite and also some titanite and opaque minerals.
215
Figure 6.206: Up to 25-30 cmlong crystals of cordierite in

garben texture. The crystals are
probably pseudomorphs after
staurolite, of which remnants
can be seen in the cores of
cordierite grains in thin
section.
Figure 6.207:
Photomicrograph of the
cordierite gneiss, showing
remnants of staurolite (yellow)
in the cores of cordierite grains
(hexagonal twinning). Sample
40757. Locality: UTM 37S
564648, 8667932. Field of
view: 4.4 x 5.4 mm.
Many occurrences of the sandstone contain sulphide minerals, predominantly pyrite, in

amounts up to 2-3% that give the rock a rusty appearance (Figure 6.208). Seven samples of
sandstone and quartzite from the Lalamo Complex were analysed for gold. All the analyses
were negative with gold contents only up to 15 ppb. No economically interesting values of
other metals were detected either (see Chapter 13). The rocks also contain some chlorite and
detrital grains of garnets, rutile, zircons and opaque minerals other than pyrite.
216
Figure 6.208: Micrograph of meta-sandstone with quartz, feldspar, some grains of biotite and
black grains of pyrite. Field of view: 4.5x5.5mm. Sample 40714 (UTM 37 534402,8660783,
sheet 1239 Meluco)
6.12.5 Marble (Unit P3LMma)
Marble is a widespread rock unit in the Lalamo Complex. It is relatively well exposed
compared to the biotite gneiss, which is the rock with which the marble is commonly
associated. The marble in the Lalamo Complex has a variable thickness, from a few tens of
metres to several hundred metres. It is similar to the marble in the Xixano and Montepuez
Complexes. The thickest sequence occurs south of Meluco, but in the northern part of sheet
1239 Meluco, the northwestern part of sheet 1340 Mecufi and the northeastern part of sheet
1339 Montepuez, there are sequences wider than 1 km. From the regional picture it is most
likely that the marble south of the Meluco Complex (UTM 37 569000, 8585000) is a
synclinorium so the apparent thicknesses do not represent the original thickness of the marble
unit: this is probably also the case with the other marble sequences too, but the thickness of the
units must be considerable.
The marble in the Lalamo Complex generally has, like the Montepuez marble, a
strikingly white colour, but there are also some grey varieties. It is rather coarse-grained, with a
grain size generally 2-4 mm, but varieties with grains up to 1 cm are not uncommon, e.g. at
(UTM 37 569274, 8585934), in the thick sequence south of Meluco, and at (UTM 37 613064,
8555017) in a thin sequence in the northwest part of sheet 1340 Mecufi. A local, weak banding
on a scale of 10-15 cm could reflect primary layering. The composition varies from nearly pure
calcite marble to dolomite. In sample 40670 (UTM 37 573236, 8656464) more than half of the
carbonate is magnesite, but it is uncertain how common this constituent is in the marble in
general. The chemical composition of sampled marbles is listed in Chapter 13.7, Table 9. Pure
calcite marble, partially dolomitised marble and magnesite marble are registered.
The marble commonly includes some calc-silicate minerals. The calc-silicates generally
include diopside, which can be green or colourless, tremolite, epidote and andradite: olivine
may be present. The silicates generally occur as small pods or lenses scattered in the marble,
but they can also occur in layers up to 1 m thick. The marble also contains titanite, biotite,
muscovite and serpentine. Graphite is common, normally in flakes several mm in size. There
are also sulphides that locally give the marble a smell of H2S on fresh surfaces. Layers of mica
217
schist and impure quartzite occur in the marble. In some areas there are numerous amphibolitic
lenses from 1 dm to several tens of metres in width (Figure 6.209). These amphibolites
probably represent disrupted dykes. Intrusions of granite and pegmatites are also common.
Figure 6.209: Impure marble with a dark lens of amphibolite and smaller lumps of diopside
(green) (UTM 37S 562100, 8556586, sheet 1339 Montepuez)
Marble occurs in several localities in the southeastern part of sheet 1139 Mueda. Here it
is commonly fine- to medium-grained (2-4 mm), greenish-white and contains diopside and
other calc-silicate minerals, and very minor graphite. In an area where it is crosscut by granitic
pegmatites it is muscovite- and garnet-bearing (UTM 37S 557700, 8683543). Several horizons
have been observed, from a few m to at least 50 m thick. At UTM 37S 542060, 8679972 the
width of the marble is of the order of 200-300 m but with a quartz-rich sediment of
considerable thickness (50-100 m) interlayered within it. The marble horizons forms large open
to tight folds. There are occasionally intercalated lenses and layers of banded calc-silicate
gneiss (Figure 6.210) and associated biotite gneisses.
Figure 6.210: Impure marble with thin lenses of calc-silicate minerals (left, UTM 37S 558252,
8682430) and associated calc-silicate gneiss (right UTM 37S 562325, 8681830), both on sheet
1139 Mueda.
218
Heterogeneous marble is well exposed along a traverse north of Lalamo in the northern
part of sheet 1239 Meluco, just south of Rio Messalo (e.g. UTM 37S 573236, 8656464). It is
several hundred metres thick, with some zones a few m thick of massive, homogeneous,
medium- to coarse-grained (2-8 mm), white or locally pinkish marble (Figure 6.211),
alternating with more heterogeneous, fine-grained, pinkish to flesh-coloured marble, which is
more irregularly weathered. The latter is locally brecciated, which might indicate the presence
of paleokarst structures. Slightly greenish, diopside-bearing marbles are also found. A sample
(40670) of the white marble contains > 50 % magnesite, and minor amounts of diopside,
tremolite and chlorite (Figure 6.212).
Figure 6.211: Outcrop of white, magnesite-rich

marble (UTM 37S 573236, 8656464, sheet 1239
Meluco).

magnesite-rich marble with grains of
diopside (dp) and tremolite (tr) (sample
40670, UTM 37S 573236, 8656464, sheet
1239 Meluco). Field of view: 5,4x4,4 mm.
On sheet 1239 Meluco the thickest marble sequence is found south of Meluco (UTM 37
569000, 8585000), where a section ~4km wide is exposed along the road. A few interbanded
quartzite layers are found within the marble. From satellite images and geophysical data we
can deduce that the sequence forms a synclinorium that closes both to the east and the west.
Other marble belts are not so thick and have only a few outcrops. Their distributions are drawn
from the radiometric data, which give a good indication of the complex folding within the
sediments. All the marbles are rather coarse grained and impure, with calc-silicate minerals,
graphite and numerous bodies of amphibolite.
The main road between Chiure and Metoro in the northern part of sheet 1339
Montepuez crosses a marble horizon several hundred metres that can be traced for at least 20
km westwards. Minor intercalations of amphibolite and granitic gneiss are present. The marble
is white to greyish-white and medium- to coarse-grained, 2-6 mm. A rather pure calcite marble
that includes aggregates of graphite flakes has been sampled (Figure 6.213, sample 33240).
Accessory minerals include quartz, muscovite and plagioclase.
On sheet 1340 Mecufi there are at least two marble belts 1km or more thick (UTM 37
612800, 8577000 and UTM 37 621100, 8556600), which can be followed for many kilometres
along driveable tracks. Both belts contain marble with grain-size of 2-5 mm. The marble is
generally relatively impure, with lots of calc-silicate minerals. There are, however, rather large
219
areas, in which the marble is white, with few impurities except big flakes of graphite that seem
to be present nearly everywhere.
Figure 6.213: Calcite marble with aggregates of black graphite flakes (sample 33240, UTM
37S 577275, 8548564, sheet 1339 Montepuez). Field of view: 5.3x4.3 mm.
6.12.6 Ultramafic rocks (Unit P3LMum)
Ultramafic bodies occur at several places in the Lalamo Complex, but are most abundant in the
southeastern part of the complex on sheet 1340 Mecufi. The most prominent is a ridge ~5 km
long, 1 km wide and 150 m high, north of the main road between Metoro and Pemba (UTM 37
632000,8548000); there are bodies further south that are almost as large, but not so prominent
in the terrain. There are also bodies that seem to be only a few cubic metres in size. In some of
the bodies (e.g. at UTM 37 638000, 8527000) the ultramafic rocks occur along with gabbroic
rocks. This seems to indicate that these rocks belong to differentiated complexes of
mafic/ultramafic composition, but that only ultramafic rocks are exposed in most of the bodies.
None of the ultramafic bodies has been studied in detail, but a profile through the most
prominent body shows a lot of variation. On the southwest side close to its outer border (UTM
37 631800,8547800) there is a 20-30 m wide zone of rather pure talc schist. In the more central
part the rock varies from fine- to coarse-grained and the texture from massive to schistose.
There are a few areas where the composition goes over to gabbro, but most of the body is
ultramafic. No primary features could be seen in the field. At several places the body has been
cut by later intrusions. At (UTM 37 632000,8548100) the ultramafic rock is cut by a granitic
pegmatite. At (UTM 37 630695, 8548839) the ultramafic rocks are cut by a fine-grained
tonalitic vein ~5 m thick. There are also a lot of quartz veins in the same area.
South of the main ultramafic body, a minor ultramafic lens has been investigated with
regard to its talc content. This has been exploited in a trench, which trends approximately eastwest, and is 8 m long, 1,5 m wide and up to 3,5 m deep (Figure 6.214). The occurrence
220
comprises a 30-40 cm wide zone of chlorite schist with 5-10 cm thick lenses of talc in the
ultramafic rock.
Figure 6.214: Talc schist (sheet 1340 Mecufi,

UTM 37S 631780, 8541740).
The other ultramafic bodies seem to be similar. Thin sections reveal a relatively simple
mineralogy: no primary minerals have been identified. The most massive samples consist of
either tremolite or serpentine, and these minerals are rarely found together. In sample 40724
(Figure 6.215 ) there is a lot of anthophyllite in addition to tremolite. The rocks contain up to
5-10% opaque minerals. The opaque minerals occur in small grains, and locally form a pattern
so that the grains seem to define original grain boundaries. These are probably magnetite
formed during breakdown of olivine, or possibly chromite or chrome-spinel. Chlorite is also a
major component in the more schistose varieties of the ultramafic rock.
Several chemical analyses are available. Sample 40720 is of the serpentine-rich type. It
has 36% SiO2, 13.4% Fe2O3 and 33.8% MgO. Sample 40730 is of the tremolite-rich variety
and contains 45% SiO2, 10.2% Fe2O3 and 30.1% MgO. Both samples show nickel and
chromium contents of 3,000-6,000 ppm: the chromium contents indicate that some of the
opaque minerals are chromite or chrome-spinel. Some of the nickel is probably bound to
silicates. One analysis of a talc schist (40759) shows 58% SiO2, 5% Fe2O3 and 28.7% MgO,
which is close to the normal composition of talc.
Mineral analyses have been made only on sample 40727, which contains mainly
tremolite and opaque minerals. Five analyses of the tremolite have FeO values about 4.5% and
MgO values about 13%. Three of four analyses of opaque minerals are of magnetite with
chromium contents between 2 and 2.5%. One grain has a Ni content of ~2%.
221
Figure 6.215: Micrographs of two common types of ultramafic rock. Sample 40724 to the left
(UTM 37S 612793, 8545941, sheet 1340 Mecufi) contains anthophyllite (long coloured
needles) and tremolite. Field of view: 5.3 x 4.3mm. Sample 40720 to the right (UTM 37S
589143, 8661328, sheet 1239 Meluco) consists of serpentine with some opaque minerals.
Plane polarized light, field of view: 5.4 x 4.4mm.
6.12.7 Amphibolitic gneiss (metagabbro) (Unit P3LMag)
Metagabbro and amphibolitic gneiss occur in three small areas in the northeastern part of sheet
1340 Mecufi, in association with ultramafic rocks, and in one large area in the southwestern
part of sheet 1239 Meluco. The rocks are variably deformed: varieties with relict gabbroic
texture and fine-grained, well-foliated amphibolitic gneiss are found.
A large area in the southwest part of sheet 1239 Meluco is interpreted to comprise of
metagabbro (UTM 37S 528000, 8600000). Minor boulder fields, with weakly deformed mafic
igneous rocks are found in a sparsely exposed flat-lying area. Both fine- and medium-grained
varieties occur, and some of these might represent dykes. One sample (36073) is
heterogranular, 1-8 mm, and comprises ~55 % plagioclase, 22 % olivine, 20 % clinopyroxene
and subordinate amounts of orthopyroxene, biotite and opaque minerals. The olivine is partly
replaced by serpentine and opaque minerals (Figure 6.216).
Figure 6.216: Gabbro with plagioclase, clinopyroxene and somewhat altered olivine (sample
36073, UTM 37S 527463, 8599738, sheet 1239 Meluco). (Field of view: 2,65 x 2,15 mm)
An area of relatively massive meta-gabbro is located close to Rio Megaruma (UTM 37
637600, 8526700). A rather large lens makes a hill where the rock is relatively massive. In this
area the rock is, however, cut by several east-west-trending shear zones, which impart a strong
222
foliation to the gabbro. A thin section from this area, sample 40729 (UTM 37 637611,
8526706), shows a rock consisting of ~60% amphibole, 30% plagioclase and no pyroxene. The
amphibole is a normal hornblende with blue to green colour, and a certain orientation along the
foliation. The plagioclase is very altered. In addition there are small amounts of epidote,
titanite, rutile and opaques. Further northwest, along the river, a minor metagabbroic body with
both clinopyroxene and hornblende is found (UTM 37S 630566, 8532440). It is somewhat
altered, and granoblastic aggregates of scapolite occur interstitial to the clinopyroxene, which
has a rim of hornblende and inclusions of carbonate. Titanite occurs in aggregates.
North of this area there are some bodies in which the amphibolitic gneiss is very fine
grained and schistose and is close to amphibolite. Also of these appear to occur in connection
with ultramafic bodies.
6.12.8 Tonalitic gneiss (Unit P3LMto)
Tonalitic gneiss occurs at several places in the Lalamo Complex. It comprises minor lenses in
the southeastern part of sheet 1139 Mueda, and on sheet 1239 Meluco: three lenses are large
enough to be marked at the map. Minor occurrences are found elsewhere.
Both texturally and structurally they have an appearance similar to the granitic gneisses
and are thought to be of the same age as these. Rocks that have tonalitic compositions can also
be found within the granitic to granodioritic gneisses, but on the map the tonalitic gneisses are
shown only where they occur in larger massifs. While the granitic to granodioritic gneisses
tend to stand out as highs on the aeromagnetic maps the tonalitic gneisses normally show up as
magnetic lows.
The tonalitic gneiss has a white to grey colour. It is fine- to medium-grained, and both
biotite and amphibole occur in various proportions: However, biotite seems to be the dominant
mafic mineral and generally occurs in amounts up to 10-15%. At one locality (1139 Mueda,
UTM 37S 565049, 8687610) the tonalitic gneiss has scattered feldspar blasts up to 1 cm across.
The degree of deformation in these rocks is quite variable. In some areas on sheet 1239
Meluco the tonalitic gneiss is banded on a centimetre to metre scale but it can also be massive
or migmatitic. At (UTM 37S 571269, 8666610) the gneiss is hardly deformed, but in other
areas (e.g. UTM 37 547586, 8571900) it is migmatitic and folded. Late granite veins, probably
emplaced during the Pan-African orogeny, cut the gneiss at this locality. A thin section of the
tonalitic gneiss southeast of this locality shows a granoblastic texture with grain size of 2-4mm
(sample 38430, Figure 6.217). It consists of ~70% plagioclase, 20% quartz and 10% biotite.
Only traces of amphibole are found. The plagioclase has well-developed albite twinning, but
seems to be totally recrystallised. The biotite is dark brown. The rock also contains some
titanite.
Weakly deformed tonalitic gneiss can be well studied in a major rock quarry close to
the Pemba-Montepuez road on sheet 1340 Mecufi (UTM 37S 637239, 8549076). The main
rock type in the quarry is grey, fine-grained tonalitic gneiss with a weak foliation. It is
generally homogeneous, but contains biotitic zones a few cm thick. It is intruded by a fine- to
medium-grained, slightly pinkish grey, biotite-bearing granitic gneiss (Figure 6.218). Both
rocks are intruded by dykes of fine-grained granite, and by K-feldspar pegmatites of several
generations (Figure 6.218).
223
Figure 6.217: Tonalitic gneiss, sample 38430, (UTM 37S 551032, 8568752, sheet 1239
Meluco). The section shows plagioclase and quartz; the dark minerals are biotite and one
grain of amphibole (upper left). Field of view: 5.3 x 4.3mm.
Figure 6.218: Weakly foliated, grey tonalitic gneiss intruded by pink, granitic gneiss (left):
these rocks are intruded by granite dykes and K-feldspar pegmatites (right). Both photos from
major rock quarry close to the Pemba-Montepuez road (UTM 37S 637239, 8549076, sheet
1340 Mecufi).
The tonalitic gneiss is heterogranular, 0,2-3 mm, and consists of 50% plagioclase, 35%
quartz, 6% biotite, 4% hornblende, 4% epidote and minor amounts of titanite and zircon
(Figure 6.219).
224
Figure 6.219: Tonalitic gneiss with plagioclase, quartz, biotite (bt), hornblende (hbl), epidote
(ep) and titanite (ttn) (sample 40673, UTM 37S 637239, 8549076, sheet 1340 Mecufi). (Field
of view 5,3 x 4,3).
6.12.9 Granitic to granodioritic gneiss (69613 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3LMgd)
Felsic orthogneisses are very common in the Lalamo Complex, ranging generally from granitic
to granodioritic in composition. This unit covers large areas in the southeast part of sheet 1139
Mueda, the northeast part of sheet 1239 Meluco and the northernmost parts of sheets 1339
Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi. Minor bodies are found elsewhere. Generally the unit is better
exposed than the paragneisses of the Lalamo Complex. Granitic gneiss predominates, but
granodioritic to tonalitic varieties are also present. The rock is locally migmatitic, but generally
the migmatitisation is far from being as pervasive as within the enclosing Nairoto Complex.
The orthogneisses are clearly of more than one generation, because some of them are observed
crosscutting other units.
The main road from Mueda towards Nairoto follows a marked ridge just south of
Mueda. This consists mainly of fine-grained (1-2 mm) granitic gneiss. It is strongly foliated
and folded with north-south-trending, almost horizontal fold axes. The gneiss varies from
being rather homogeneous to having a banded structure with lenses and bands of more coarsegrained quartz and feldspar. It is biotite-bearing and locally scattered <1 mm garnets are found.
Small rock quarries for production of gravel are found on the upper part of the ridge. In the
largest quarry, fine-grained, greyish-white granitic gneiss with scattered grains of biotite and
amphibole is exploited (UTM 37S 557468, 8707216). The gneiss consists of 45 % K-feldspar,
30 % quartz, 25 % plagioclase, 3 % opaque minerals (mainly magnetite) and 1 % each of
hornblende and biotite.
Granitic to granodioritic gneisses occur commonly as intrusions in the paragneisses on
sheets 1239 Meluco and 1240 Quissanga-Pemba sheets, and especially in the northeast part of
sheet 1239 Meluco. The intrusions are better exposed and more magnetic than the surrounding
sediments so they are relatively easy to map from the aeromagnetic data. In the
granitic/granodioritic gneisses there are also small areas of rock with tonalitic to quartz-dioritic
compositions. In some areas basic dykes intrude the gneisses. The dykes have intruded at an
early stage and are sheared and disrupted along the foliation in the gneisses, see Figure 6.220.
225
Figure 6.220: Granitic gneiss with basic dykes, UTM 37 S 521866 8559591, sheet 1339
Montepuez.
Granitic to granodioritic gneisses forms minor hills and large surface outcrops west of
Lalamo. The rocks are fine grained, pinkish to greyish white and biotite-rich (4-5%). Locally
they are intensely folded and migmatitic. Some sub-rounded quartz grains and feldspar
porphyroblasts, veins a few cm-wide of red K-feldspar and quartz, and irregular lenses with
biotite+amphibole aggregates are seen (Figure 6.221).
Figure 6.221: Porphyroblastic granitic gneiss with minor K-feldspar-quartz veins (UTM 37S
559643, 8643802, sheet 1239 Meluco).
Zircons in a sample of granitic gneiss from this area have been dated and give an
intrusion age of 696 13 Ma (Sample 40667, UTM 37S 562796, 8647918, see Chapter 11).
The rock is fine-grained, granoblastic and contains ~40% K-feldspar, 35% quartz, 20%
plagioclase, 4% biotite and 1 % hornblende. Garnet, zircon and opaque minerals occur as
accessory minerals.
226
6.12.10 Granitic gneiss (Unit P3LMgr)

Granitic gneiss is common in the northwest part of sheet 1340 Mecufi: its intrusive relationship
to the tonalitic gneiss has been discussed above (Chapter 6.12.8, Figure 6.218) The granitic
gneiss in the rock quarry (UTM 37S 637239, 8549076) is heterogranular, with a grain size of
0,5-2 mm, and contains ~45% K-feldspar, 30% quartz, 20% plagioclase and 2% biotite:
Accessories include opaque minerals, epidote, muscovite, apatite and zircon. Similar pinkish to
greyish white, granitic to granodioritic orthogneisses are observed W of the quarry. They are
fine- to medium-grained and biotite-bearing, and garnet is occasionally observed. They are
intruded by medium- to coarse-grained (4-5 mm) granite/granitic gneiss dykes, in which the
foliation transects the contacts (Figure 6.222). Pegmatites are common and xenoliths of biotiterich banded gneiss (Figure 6.230) are also seen.
Figure 6.222: Granitic to granodioritic gneiss intruded by granitic dyke (left, UTM 37S
634991, 8547860) and xenolith of biotite gneiss in granitic gneiss (right, UTM 37S 634769,
8547124, both on sheet 1340 Mecufi).
6.13 Mecubri and Alto Benfica Groups
6.13.1 Mecubri Group
Widespread outcrops of meta-clastic rocks occupy an area of ~500 km2, in a single large
outcrop area and one fault-controlled outlier, around the town of Mecubri on sheet 1438
Ribu-Mecubri. The rocks are well exposed in a group of inselbergs close to Mecubri. The
contacts of the Mecubri Group with the surrounding gneisses of the Nampula Complex are
not exposed, but there is good circumstantial evidence to suggest that it is unconformable,
rather than tectonic. The lines of evidence that support this include:
x The dip of the foliation, while locally steep, is often shallower than in the enveloping
Nampula Complex, suggesting that the Mecubri Group occupies the core of a large,
relatively open synformal structure;
x The group appears to regionally overlie and locally overstep different units of the
Nampula Complex;
x No evidence of shearing was observed at the contacts, even in localities that can only
be a few tens of metres from observed contacts;
x Coarse conglomeratic units contain boulder-sized clasts that may be correlated with
lithologies in the adjacent, underlying Nampula Complex.
227
6.13.2 Gneissic metaconglomerate and meta-arkosic gritstone (Unit P3CBco)

The Mecubri Group contains isolated sequences of spectacular conglomeratic gneiss as layers
and lenses within the grey gneisses. Mappable areas were found in five places, where they can
form whole mountains, but are nevertheless fairly restricted in extent (e.g. in grid square 48
839). The stratigraphic position of this unit in the metasedimentary sequence is not clear from
field relations, but the occurrence of these conglomerates near the contacts with the Nampula
Complex suggests that many of them occur close to the base of the Mecubri Group true
basal conglomerates may occur, but this cannot be unequivocally demonstrated. Matrix- and
clast-supported conglomerates occur and many small lenses within the grey gneisses could not
be depicted at 1:250,000. Some of the outcrops must contain several hundred metres of original
sedimentary strata, though the degree of tectonic repetition is unknown. The most northerly
outcrop shown in grid square 48 839, for example, includes whalebacks >100m high,
consisting entirely of metaconglomerates with a moderate regional westerly dip.
The clasts are overwhelmingly composed of rounded to sub-rounded leucogneiss and
leucogranite, identical to typical local Nampula Complex lithologies (P2NMlc). Very few clasts
of other kinds were seen, but there are rare clasts of amphibolite, quartzites and schist. The
largest clasts are 50 cm long, but they are mostly 5-20 cm long. All the clasts are strongly
deformed, with flattening and elongation of pebbles commonly to an aspect ratio of about 5 or
10:1 (Figure 6.223). Some pebbles however, just show flattening. The matrix is friable,
granular, coarse-grained quartzo-feldspathic biotite gneiss, with abundant biotite schlieren.
Garnet is locally present (up to 1,5 cm diameter), in both clasts and matrix, and locally
overgrows the foliation.
In many localities, the conglomerates are interlayered with friable, granular, amphibolespeckled, layered ("bedded") rocks, which may represent pockets of different sedimentary, or
possibly tuffaceous, material within the original sediment pile (Figure 6.224). Size grading of
dark amphibole spots in these layers may represent metamorphosed graded bedding. The layers
are strongly folded and disrupted, though in general the strain in these rocks is strongly
heterogeneous by virtue of the extreme textural and compositional variation. Strain partitioning
has also caused small pebbles to be generally more strongly deformed than the boulders. Strain
interference is common between clasts, with boulders sometimes folded over each other.
The conglomeratic sequences are locally migmatitic, with veins and pockets of
leucosome. Locally, a spaced foliation is present, associated with diffuse leucosome. The
coarse bouldery nature of these rocks suggests that they are extremely immature, proximal
deposits representing original screes or proximal intermontaine fans.
228
Figure 6.223: Highly

deformed clast-supported
coarse metaconglomerate of
the Mecubri Group,
showing leucogranitic gneiss
pebbles derived locally from
the Nampula Complex.
Locality (UTM 37S 488474
8385790), sheet 1438
Ribu-Mecubri.
Figure 6.224: Possible grey

tuffaceous layer (bottom of
picture) interbedded with
clast-supported
metaconglomerates in the
Mecubri Group. (UTM 37S
488474 8385790), sheet
1438 Ribu-Mecubri.
In a petrographic study of the coarse-grained Mecubri metaconglomerates, only the

matrix was examined, as the clasts are recognisably derived from the underlying Nampula
Complex The matrix has poorly foliated, granoblastic to interlobate texture with a grain size of
~ 1 mm, containing quartz, plagioclase, microcline, clinopyroxene, green amphibole and
biotite, with accessory opaque minerals, titanite, carbonate, and apatite. The amphibole
commonly forms thin symplectites at the margins of clinopyroxene grains that it partially
229
replaces. Locally, secondary muscovite is present and an opaque mineral (ilmenite?) is often
mantled by titanite.
The 20-50 cm thick speckled layers seen in the field to be interbedded with the
conglomerates are made up of granoblastic plagioclase, quartz, clinopyroxene, titanite and
opaque minerals, with traces of epidote and apatite (Figure 6.225). The clinopyroxene is
commonly poikiloblastic with a total crystal length of several mm, and sometimes coalesced
into rounded multi-crystal aggregates ~5-10 mm in diameter. These layers, which possibly
represent either tuff beds or bands of calc-silicate, do not show a significant fabric at the scale
of individual mineral grains.
Figure 6.225: Photomicrograph of grey-green layer interbedded with clast-supported

metaconglomerates in the Mecubri Group, possibly representing a metatuff or calc-silicate
bed. The photomicrographs shows poikiloblastic green clinopyroxene associated with
abundant titanite forming rounded cm-scale clinopyroxene-rich mineral aggregates. Planepolarized light. Field of view: 4.4 x 5.4 mm. (UTM 37S 488474 8385790), sheet 1438 RibuMecubri.
6.13.3 Biotite gneiss, locally conglomeratic and with sillimanite nodules (P3CBbg)
The Mecubri Group has been subdivided into two mappable units: this unit makes up >90%
of the area mapped as the Mecubri Group. It consists of well-banded, mainly medium- to
coarse-grained, heterogeneous, grey biotite gneisses with strong compositional layering. They
have a characteristic friable sandy appearance and form large, blocky, rounded isolated
whalebacks and ranges, the flanks of which weather out with huge overhangs and caverns the
only lithotype in the Nampula area to exhibit this feature. In many localities the gneisses are
not truly layered, but the matrix material contains many discontinuous streaked out biotite-
230
rich layers, pods, lenticles, wisps and schlieren, accentuated by considerable layer-parallel
grain size variations. Small monomineralic biotite clots, wisps and layers are common and
probably represent originally impure pelitic beds. Some diopside-bearing layers may have calcsilicate affinities. This heterogeneity doubtless testifies to an original sedimentary
compositional and textural heterogeneity. The metamorphic foliation is strong, often swirling
and irregular, and locally isoclinally folded.
The gneisses show variable amounts of migmatisation. Leucosomes comprise pods and
lenses of coarse magnetite-bearing leucogranite and pegmatite up to 2 m in size and on a
smaller scale with stromatic and/or irregular, diffuse, nebulitic and crosscutting leucosome
patches and veins. Minor K-feldspar blastesis was observed in a few localities and diffuse
leucosomes are also associated with small-scale ductile shear bands. The rocks have a
granoblastic to interlobate texture, are medium-grained, with a grain size of ~0.6-1 mm and
contain abundant microcline, quartz, plagioclase, opaque mineral, biotite and hornblende, with
accessory zircon. A weak internal fabric, possibly representing a relict S0 bedding lamination,
is defined by variations in the abundance of biotite and opaque minerals. Coarser-grained,
more felsic, paragneisses contain additional tabular to acicular sillimanite as radial or flat,
fibrolitic aggregates up to 4 cm in diameter, which, along with oriented biotite, help to define
the planar fabric. These rocks also have a granoblastic to interlobate texture, with a grain size
of c. 2 mm and contain plagioclase, abundant K-feldspar mesoperthite, quartz, biotite and
sillimanite, along with minor apatite and muscovite.
Other paragneiss layers contain diopside and have more calc-silicate affinities. These
medium-grained (ave. 0.8 mm), granoblastic to interlobate rocks contain plagioclase, quartz,
clinopyroxene, titanite and epidote, and minor amounts of opaque mineral. Epidote commonly
surrounds clinopyroxene and appears to be an alteration product. Such rocks have a very weak
fabric defined by the general orientation of clinopyroxene + epidote aggregates.
The gneissose sequence also contains layers and pockets of matrix-supported pebblebed conglomerate. These are up to 10m thick and may be followed along strike for several tens
of metres. They have an overall granitic composition, made up of granitic clasts set in a quartzfeldspar-biotite matrix, which sometimes additionally contains garnet. The granite clasts are
typically only slightly flattened, ovoid in shape and up to 5 cm and quite sparsely distributed in
the coarse-grained, granular host gneiss (Figure 6.226). The clasts appear to be predominantly
composed of coarse- to medium-grained, foliated pink biotite granite. Sometimes there is a
size-gradation of clasts, which may represent an original sedimentary grading. In many
outcrops of pebble-bed conglomerate, the clasts are set in a foliated matrix that is deformed by
small- to meso-scale tight to isoclinal folds (Figure 6.227). Locally, the flattened clasts define a
fabric, which is at an angle to the foliation in the enclosing gneiss. This feature could represent
original sedimentary imbrication or, alternatively, it could be tectonic, showing that the rocks
underwent at least two phases of deformation. In certain widespread zones, the gneisses
contain highly characteristic layers up to 5 m thick of layers of sillimanite-nodule pseudoconglomerate. These rocks are grey and pink-weathering quartzo-feldspathic gneisses with
evenly-spaced, oblate white lenses of fibrous sillimanite up to 20 cm long (typically 2-5 cm),
strung out parallel to the foliation, and set in a medium-grained, granoblastic to interlobate,
felsic gneiss matrix containing microcline, quartz, plagioclase, biotite and opaque mineral, with
traces of apatite, muscovite, zircon and monazite. The planar fabric of the rock is defined by
the orientation of biotite, and elongate lensoid form of the sillimanite-bearing nodules, which
contain quartz, with a similar grain size as the matrix, acicular sillimanite, biotite and an
opaque mineral. There is a higher proportion of opaque mineral in the nodules than the matrix
231
(Figure 6.228). The nodules typically occur in swarms within the gneiss (Figure 6.229) and
are considered to represent the metamorphosed equivalents of aluminous protoliths such as
clay nodules or concretions. The pseudo-conglomerates often occur in close proximity to true
conglomerates.
Figure 6.226: Matrix-supported metaconglomerate of the Mecubri Group,
with scattered, flattened granite clasts in
a sandy quartzo-feldspathic matrix,
which shows some diffuse leucosome
development (e.g. bottom-left). Note that
the long axes of the clasts are at an angle
to the layering, possibly representing
original imbrication. Locality (UTM 37S
491806 8378416), sheet 1438 RibuMecubri
Figure 6.227: Sparse

pebble-bed conglomerate
with tightly folded matrix
gneiss showing incipient
mig-matisation. Location
(UTM 37S 491806
8378416), sheet 1438
Ribu-Mecubri.
232
Figure 6.228: Sillimanitenodule pseudo-conglomerates in the

Mecubri Group.
Location (UTM 37S
490210 8376187), sheet
1438 Ribu-Mecubri.
Figure 6.229: Sillimanitenodule pseudo-conglomerate from the

Mecubri Group. The
section cuts the contact
between a sillimanitebearing nodule with
acicular, fibrolitic,
sillimanite bundles and
large opaque mineral
grains (lower right) and
the quartzo-feldspathic
matrix. Note the similarity
of grain size on these
domains. Sample 26897,
field of view 4.4 x 5.4 mm.
Location: as Figure 6.228
6.13.4 Alto Benfica Group (Unit P3AB)

The Alto Benfica Group is a stratified quartzitic metasedimentary package that lies upon, and
is restricted to, the Mesoproterozoic Nampula Complex basement. It occurs as a series of
narrow, isolated lens-shaped outcrops in the region around Alto Benfica in the central-southern
part of sheet 1636 Lugela-Mocuba and in the easternmost part of sheet 1635 Milange. The
main lithology is matrix-supported metaconglomerate, which contains biotite granite, and
leucogranite gneiss pebbles with fresh pink K-feldspar, ranging in size from a few cm up to 15
cm (Figure 6.230). The clasts are set in a medium- to coarse-grained matrix of feldspathic
(microcline) quartzite with muscovite and biotite chlorite, which lacks a pronounced
foliation. Some layers have less uniform pebble-size distribution (1-15 cm) with some finergrained, gravely layers containing uniformly small (1-2 cm) pebbles. The pebbles are generally
flattened and slightly elongated, in the approximate aspect ratio 1:2:6 and define a coarse
layering. Both matrix and pebbles contain macroscopic muscovite and biotitesillimanite. The
conglomerates are interbedded with discontinuous layers (<2cm thick) of quartzite, within
233
which minor asymmetrical folds occur. In these feldspathic quartzite layers, micaceous layers
tend to alternate with layers rich in sillimanite and there is a strong foliation defined by
strained, elongate quartz grains, oriented micas and fibrolitic sillimanite aggregates (Figure
6.231).
Figure 6.230: Matrixsupported metaconglomerate (Alto Benfica
Group). The clasts are of
medium-grained foliated
granite and the matrix is
quartzitic. Locality ECG32
(215381 8159496), sheet
1636 Lugela-Mocuba.
Thin sheets of granite, pegmatite and minor quartz veins locally intrude the Alto Benfica rocks
though the sequence itself appears to be largely non-migmatitic and records only medium
grade metamorphic conditions without the extensive partial melting associated with the
underlying Nampula Complex migmatites. In the west, at the boundary between sheets 1635
and 1636, the conglomerates are associated with layered quartz-feldspar biotite paragneisses
that also contain fine- to medium-grained muscovite. Both the paragneisses and
metaconglomerate-quartzite sequences have very low to zero magnetic susceptibilities. The
northeastern outcrops at Alto Benfica are aligned in a northwest-trending direction and
correspond to low aeromagnetic anomalies, suggesting that the sequence may be quite thick.
Figure 6.231: (UTM 37S, 215381,
8159496 asFigure 6.230) Matrix of
meta-conglomerate of the Alto Benfica
Group, consisting of granoblastic impure,
feldspathic quartzite containing quartz,
microcline, muscovite, biotite, an opaque
mineral, sillimanite, zircon and monazite.
The sillimanite is acicular and
concentrated in cm-scale nodules,
elongated parallel to the foliation. Field
of view 4.4 x 5.4 mm.
The relationship of the Alto Benfica Group to the high-grade gneisses of the Nampula
Complex has not been directly observed, as the two sequences were nowhere seen in direct
234
contact. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that the observed difference in metamorphic grade reflects
a metamorphic gradient, so the metaconglomerates were either deposited directly on the
basement, or they were emplaced tectonically into their present position. No evidence of
exceptional shearing was observed in outcrops near the contact area, so it seems most likely
that the rocks occur in tightly-folded, possibly synformal keels downfolded and preserved
within the high-grade basement upon which they were unconformably deposited.
The outcrops near Alto Benfica show different structures from the westernmost
outcrops. At Alto Benfica, the foliation trends approximately northwest and plotted poles of
foliations form a great circle, indicating possible folding on northwest-trending axes, though
folding is not seen on the mesoscale. In the west, the metaconglomerates and paragneisses
strike perpendicular (northeast) to the outcrops at Alto Benfica, and the foliation planes are
sub-vertical, probably because of their close proximity to the northeast-trending Liciro
Lineament.
A bulk sample of metaconglomerate was taken for U-Pb SHRIMP analysis on detrital
zircons (samples EGC31+32, UTM 37S 215381, 8159496, sheet 1636 Mocuba). Most of the
zircons have a core-rim structure. Fifty-five analyses of detrital zircon cores range from 3315
8 to 626 22 Ma (see chapter 11.11). A probability density plot shows that more than half of
the detrital zircon cores have ages of 1380 to 990 Ma, indicating they were derived from late
Mesoproterozoic basement rocks. A smaller population was derived from Palaeoproterozoic
basement ranging in age from ~2020 to 1660 Ma. Three zircons yielded discordant ages from
about 3320 to 2930 Ma, indicating a minor contribution from Archaean source rocks. The
youngest zircon core dated has a 238U/206Pb age of 626 22 Ma, which can be taken as a
maximum age for deposition of Alto Benfica Group sediments. Three analyses from zircon
rims yielded a weighted mean 238U/206Pb age of 492 12 Ma, which is interpreted as the age of
metamorphism of the metaconglomerate.
235
6.14 Montepuez Complex

6.14.1 Introduction
The Montepuez Complex forms a wedge-shaped unit of strongly deformed para- and
orthogneisses in the southeastern part of the mapped area (Figure 6.232). Pinna et al. (1993),
defined it as part of the large Chiure Group, also including the adjoining Nairoto and Xixano
Complexes in this Group. The Montepuez Complex comprises orthogneisses ranging from
granitic to amphibolitic in composition, and paragneisses comprising mainly quartzite, metaarkose, marble, quartz-feldspar gneiss and biotite gneiss.
The rocks are strongly folded into tight and isoclinal folds on all scales, and have later
been cut by a number of mainly northeast-southwest-trending shear zones (see especially sheet
1339 Montepuez). The structural history is further discussed in Chapter 9). The strong
deformation makes the lithologic succession very complex with large variations on all scales
both within and between the lithologies.
Figure 6.232: Tectonostratigraphy of the Niassa and Cabo Delgado Provinces, northeastern
Mozambique.
It can be concluded. on the basis of the parageneses in the different lithologies,
petrographic and mineralogical analyses, that the rock assemblages of the Montepuez Complex
have generally experienced amphibolite grade metamorphism (see Chapter 7). A leucosome in
a paragneiss in the western part of the complex was dated to 942 r14 Ma with a metamorphic
overprint at 599 r10 Ma (Jamal, 2005, see also Chapter 11).
236
6.14.2 Biotite gneiss (Unit P3MPbg)

Biotite gneiss is present in several extensive layers in the Montepuez Complex. It is typically
migmatitic with coarse-grained quartz-feldspar leucosomes, sometimes containing K-feldspar,
but generally with plagioclase as the major feldspar (Figure 6.233). It is also generally banded
on cm, dm to m scales with more leucocratic, locally granitic bands, alternating with more
mafic, biotite-rich layers. The biotite-rich layers quite commonly contain up to cm-sized
porphyroblasts of hornblende, giving the layers a spotted appearance. Generally the grain-size
varies from a few millimetres to a few centimetres, with the coarser grains in quartz-feldspar
bands and layers. The compositional banding on different scales attests to a sedimentary origin
for the biotite gneiss. Another clue to the origin of the gneiss is that it is usually associated with
metasediments like quartz-feldspar gneiss, quartzitic gneiss and marble. Some graphite-rich
varieties also occur and have been targeted for economic consideration (see Chapter 13).
Figure 6.233: Folded, banded biotite gneiss, with bands enriched in amphibole, biotite and
quartz+feldspar, alternating at cm-dm scale and truncated by coarse quartz-feldspar veins. The
veins represent leucosomes intruding during deformation, which was also responsible for the
folding of the gneiss. Locality: North of Chiure, UTM 37S 583895, 8521650, on sheet 1339
Montepuez.
6.14.3 Quartz-feldspar gneiss (Unit P3MPqf)
Several layers of quartz-feldspar gneiss are present in the Montepuez Complex. The most
extensive ones are found some kilometres north and northeast of Chiure and south and
southwest of Montepuez. The quartz-feldspar gneisses are usually associated with layers of
biotite gneiss (unit P3MPbg, section 6.14.2).
The quartz-feldspar gneiss is fine-grained, light-coloured, mainly consisting of quartz
and feldspar, with a variable content of biotite and/or muscovite. Small garnets, as well as
amphibole, are locally present. The gneiss is often banded or layered on a cm-dm scale defined
by variations in contents of quartz, feldspar and phyllosilicates (Figure 6.234). More
homogeneous varieties may have an origin as felsic volcanics, while the banded and layered
varieties most likely are of sedimentary origin (meta-arkose, see section 6.14.4).
6.14.4 Quartzite, meta-arkose and quartzitic gneiss (Unit P3MPqz)
A major horizon of quartzitic gneiss occurs in the northeastern corner of sheet 1339 Montepuez
and extends into the adjoining sheet, 1239 Meluco. The quartzitic gneiss varies from being a
quartz-rich paragneiss with minor feldspar and mica, to meta-arkose and to more coarsegrained, pure quartzite.
237
Figure 6.234: Folded, banded, migmatitic

biotite and magnetite-bearing quartz-feldspar
gneiss. The 2-10 cm thick, dark, layers are
rich in biotite and amphibole. Locality: UTM
37S 593835, 8528326, sheet 1339 Montepuez.
In the southwestern corner of sheet 1239 Meluco a thin layer of quartzite occurs as a
marked ridge that can be followed >30 km from sheet 1338 Namuno. It forms a prominent
open fold together with the Nairoto Complex northwest of the town of Montepuez (UTM 37S
513000, 8580000). The quartzite is here rather fine-grained: its composition varies from rather
pure quartzite over to more feldspathic varieties. The quartzite also varies texturally, from
weakly recrystallised, with angular to subangular quartz grains (1-2 mm) in a very fine-grained
quartz matrix (Figure 6.235), to polygonal, more strongly recrystallised quartzite with sutured
grain boundaries.
Figure 6.235: Weakly

recrystallised quartzite with
angular quartz grains in a finegrained quartz matrix (sheet 1239
Meluco, sample 36077 UTM 37S
508396, 8575064). Field of view:
5,4x4,4 mm.
A similar thin quartzite layer is present 15-20 km south of Montepuez, forming a ringlike structure around a core of granitic to tonalitic orthogneiss, together with feldspar-rich
psammite (Figure 6.236) and quartz-feldspar schist.
238
Figure 6.236: Fine-grained,

banded, feldspar-rich psammite.
Banding due to variations in
biotite content. Locality: UTM
37S 496800, 8541420, sheet 1338
Namuno.
Pyrite-bearing, fine-grained, grey quartzite with a rusty weathering surface occurs in

1 m layers associated with marble and strongly weathered biotite gneiss east of Mazeze (UTM
37S 619230, 8527150).
A 50-100 m thick unit of meta-arkose occurs 1-2 km south of Mazeze (UTM 37S
630040, 8521940). It contains sub-angular feldspar fragments up to 1 cm in size in a finegrained quartz-feldspar-mica matrix (Figure 6.237). This unit may continue westwards in a
major horizon extending from Chiure Velho to Chiure, which contains partly feldspar
fragments and otherwise varies from pure quartzite to fine-grained, banded quartz-feldspar
gneiss.
Figure 6.237: Meta-arkose, showing large K-feldspar fragments in a matrix of quartz. The
quartz has recrystallized and has later been deformed, as shown by interlocking grain
boundaries and undulating extinction. Sample 40767, UTM 37S 630043, 8521936, sheet 1340
Mecufi. Field of view: 4.4 x 5.4 mm.
239
6.14.5 Marble (Unit P3MPma)

There are several horizons of marble within the Montepuez Complex. The most important is
found just north of Montepuez on sheet 1338 Namuno, where the marble is exploited as
dimension stone in several quarries (in the area of UTM 37S 497700, 8553000) This is
described in detail in Chapter 13). The colour of the marble varies from pure white to grey, but
also pinkish layers are found. Its grainsize is from mm to cm-scale. Ther ock is bedded on a
dm-m scale and is folded in tight to isoclinal folds (Figure 6.238). Layers of amphibolite,
partly boudinaged, occur quite commonly throughout the deposit. The Montepuez marble
continues eastwards into sheet 1339 Montepuez, where it terminates in a fold closure.
Figure 6.238: Photos from the Montepuez marble

quarries, showing the tight folding and bedding in
the marble.
Another important marble horizon is found north of the road to Mazeze (UTM 37S
619420, 8527250). This unit is >200m thick and consists of very coarse calcite marble (grains
up to 1 cm). It is mostly white, but at its northern boundary it is red to yellow in folded bands
(Figure 6.239). It locally contains fine-grained pyrite, diopside, chlorite and phlogopite. Pilotscale quarrying has been carried out.
A third marble horizon is found a few hundred metres northeast of Chiure Velho. This
marble varies from being rather pure to quite impure, with abundant diopside, apatite,
phlogopite and graphite. Tremolite is also present. The thickness of this zone is >100 m.
6.14.6 Amphibolitic gneiss (Unit P3MPam)
Amphibolitic gneiss is rare in the Montepuez Complex, but is occasionally found in thin lenses
and layers (Figure 6.240). The only known larger lens occurs 7-8 km east of Montepuez, at
Monte Metete (UTM 37S 514520, 8551750, see Figure 6.241). This lens is associated with a
major body of marble, which makes up most of the mountain. Plagioclase, hornblende and
clinopyroxene are major phases, while garnet occurs in accessory to subordinate amounts.
There are numerous lenses of more felsic character within the unit, and the amphibolitic gneiss
may have a sedimentary origin.
240
Figure 6.239: Marble west of Mazeze, showing coloured and folded banding in grey, yellow
and red. Locality: UTM 37S 619420, 8527250, sheet 1340 Mecufi.
The geochemistry of two samples (Chapter 10) shows that they are sub-alkaline calcalkaline basalts in composition.
Figure 6.240: Light, cm-banded,
hornblende-biotite gneiss,
probably meta-tonalite, with an
isoclinally folded layer of
amphibolitic gneiss. Locality: UTM
37S 613700, 8520540, sheet 1340
Mecufi.
241
Figure 6.241: Section of sheet

1339 - Montepuez, showing the
geological relationships around
Monte Metete.
6.14.7 Dioritic gneiss (Unit P3MPdi)

A minor unit of dioritic gneiss occurs in the eastern part of sheet 1139 Montepuez, close to
Chiure Velho (around UTM 37S 597000, 8524000). There are also a few other scattered
outcrops too small to be represented on the maps. The gneisses are foliated and banded with
alternating feldspar- and biotite-hornblende-dominated bands. Some outcrops contain garnet.
6.14.8 Tonalitic gneiss (Unit P3MPto)
Tonalitic gneiss occurs in irregular bodies, layers and lenses together with the granitic and
granodioritic gneisses. The largest bodies are present in the western part of the sheet 1339
Montepuez. Generally, the tonalitic gneiss is dominated by plagioclase and quartz. Biotite is
the common major Fe-Mg phase, but locally also hornblende is a subordinate to major
constituent. Garnet occurs locally in subordinate amounts. It varies from being massive and
homogeneous, to banded and migmatitic on a cm-dm scale. At locality 37S 613700, 8520540
(Figure 6.240) the tonalitic gneiss has dark and light lenses and laminae alternating at a scale of
2-3 mm, and contains frequent 2-3 mm dark red garnets. The microscope reveals that it is
strongly heteroblastic, with 0.1-5 mm grains with lobate grain boundaries. It contains about
10% green hornblende as the major Fe-Mg mineral, partially replaced by biotite at the rims and
along cleavage traces. The garnets are zoned with slightly poikilitic cores. Geochemical data
from a sample from this locality (Chapter 10) shows chemistry in accordance with a subalkaline, calc-alkaline tonalitic composition.
6.14.9 Granitic to granodioritic gneiss, not differentiated (Unit P3MPgd)
This unit of granitic to granodioritic gneisses cannot be further differentiated at a scale of 1:250
000, partly because the individual layers and lenses of the two rock-types are too small
(outcrop scale or less). They are also distinguished from the unit of granitic gneiss (described
below) on the basis of their radiometric signature. As with the granitic gneiss, these rocks vary
from quite massive and homogeneous to migmatitic and are often strongly foliated. Biotite is a
major phase in addition to feldspar and quartz, while hornblende is subordinate to accessory
constituent.
6.14.10 Granitic gneiss (Unit P3MPgr)
Granitic gneiss, together with granodioritic gneiss (unit P2MPgd) is very common in the
Montepuez Complex. The two units are separated mainly on the basis of the radiometric
242
signature, (granite has higher contents of K-feldspar), but are generally found together. Parts of
the granitic gneiss are nearly unfoliated and could be designated as granite. In other areas,
however, the gneiss is migmatitic and folded in several phases. Most commonly the granitic
gneiss is strongly foliated and/or has a mylonitic texture (Figure 6.242, Figure 6.243). Its
colour is red to white and the rock is generally fine- to medium-grained. Late crosscutting
pegmatites of granitic composition are common. Lenses of supracrustal rocks can be found
locally in the granite.
Generally the granitic gneiss is dominated by heteroblastic, coarse-grained quartz, Kfeldspar with cross-hatch twins and weakly sericitised plagioclase (Figure 6.244). Biotite is the
most common Fe-Mg mineral, but the rock locally contains some clinoamphibole, typically as
porphyroblasts. Garnet is present locally as less than 1mm porphyroblasts.
It is not clear whether the gneisses represent magmatic rocks that were emplaced before
the main deformation or whether they represent a basement for the supracrustal rocks (e.g. the
migmatitic Nairoto Complex to the northeast (Pinna et al. 1993) or if the gneisses were
tectonically emplaced into the sequence. The contacts to the surrounding supracrustal rocks
appear everywhere to be concordant.
Figure 6.242: Granitic gneiss, mediumgrained pinkish white, characterised by

small, elongated quartz lenses. Locality UTM
37S 587654, 8526734, sheet 1339
Montepuez.
Figure 6.243: Granitic gneiss, migmatitic,

strongly deformed with augen gneiss/flaser
texture, close to the contact with the Ocua
Complex. Dextral sense of shear. Locality: UTM
37S 613057,8522594, sheet 1340 Mecufi.
Two samples of granitic gneiss have been analysed by XRF (see Chapter 10). They
have a similar chemistry, with moderate contents of potassium, rather high contents of Ba, Rb,
Th and low contents of Zr and Y, which fits with an evolved arc, within-plate or syn-collision
tectonic setting according to the classification by Pearce et al. (1984). One sample with a
monzonitic composition shows the same characteristics.
243
Figure 6.244: Typical granitic

gneiss with elongated grains of
quartz, K-feldspar with crosshatch twins and weakly sericitised
plagioclase (sample 33243, UTM
37S 502181, 8552008, sheet 1339
Montepuez).
6.15 Ocua Complex

6.15.1 Introduction
The Ocua Complex is a tectonic mlange, mainly comprised of granulitic lithologies. In the
east, on sheet 1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi, it is situated between the Nampula and
Montepuez Complexes. It forms the core, in general, of a 25-30 km wide shear belt called the
Lurio belt, comprising strongly deformed, often mylonitic lithologies. The lithologies are
granulitic gneisses of both felsic and mafic character, orthogneisses of granitic to amphibolitic
compositions, and paragneisses including biotite gneiss, quartz-feldspar gneiss, quartzite and
meta-arenite. The structures most visible on the aeromagnetic and radiometric data over the
Lurio belt are a moderately northwest-dipping, southwest-northeast-trending lithological
banding, and megascopic isoclinal folds with moderately reclined axial surfaces parallel to this
direction.
The high-strain eastern Lurio belt fades progressively away to the southwest, where it
becomes infolded within the Marrupa Complex and, to a lesser extent, the Nampula Complex
(on sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi). Farther to the southwest, on sheets
1535-6 Insaca-Gur and 1636 Milange, the complex contains a series of belt-like bodies,
layers and lenses on all scales, which are concentrated along the northeast-southwest-trending
tectonic zone that separates the Nampula and Unango Complexes. Thus they occur mainly in
the contact shear zone belt itself, but also infolded with the Nampula and Unango Complexes
on either side. The largest of these bodies trends southwest from near the southern edge of
sheet 1535, through the town of Milange to the flanks of Monte Mongue - thus measuring
about 70 km in length and a maximum of 10 km width. It forms a tectonic wedge between the
Unango and Nampula Complexes. Its northern half dips at moderate angles to the northwest, so
that the southeast margin forms a pronounced, low escarpment feature (west of Milange).
Farther to the northeast, the Ocua Complex rocks are restricted to much smaller, lens-shaped
bodies.
The Ocua Complex is very likely a composite unit, containing slices of the adjoining
rock units, deformed, transposed and dismembered during Pan-African tectonic events, and not
originally a separate rock unit (see Chapter 12). Lithologically, the Lurio belt can thus be
244
regarded as containing a tectonic melange including granulites and sheared gneisses and
metasediments. The traditional separation into supracrustal and intrusive gneisses cannot
be confidently made for large parts of the complex. Amphibolite- to granulite-facies
metamorphism and deformation in the Ocua Complex is bracketed between 578 10 and 540
7 Ma.
6.15.2 Biotite gneiss (Unit P3OCbi)
The biotite gneiss, where it is found together with granulites, probably represents retrograded
granulitic gneiss. Whether these gneisses are of sedimentary or igneous origin is difficult to
decide. There are, however, also some extensive layers of biotite gneiss, that are strongly
banded with a variable mineral composition and they are most probably paragneiss. The
banding is on a cm- to dm-scale with alternating quartz-feldspar-dominated and biotite r
hornblende bands (Figure 6.245, Figure 6.246). These bands are usually fine-grained and
probably reflect primary layering, strongly deformed, foliated and folded into an highly
transposed foliation. The rock is also commonly strongly mylonitic to blastomylonitic with
blasts of feldspar and amphibole and aggregates of biotite. It also commonly contains garnet
porphyroblasts up to 1 cm or more in size.
Figure 6.245: Layered and

banded biotite gneiss. Layers are
2-30 cm thick and are internally
banded on a cm scale. The layers
range from amphibole gneiss to
leucocratic quartzofeldspathic
gneiss. Garnet is present as
rounded 3-15 mm porphyroclasts.
The outcrop is interpreted as a
very deformed, mylonitic
paragneiss. Locality UTM 37S,
608605, 8508344, sheet 1339
Montepuez.
Figure 6.246: Layered, banded
biotite gneiss, with very pervasive
straight planar foliation. The
layers are a few cm to ~30 cm
thick, and range from
intermediate, biotite- and
amphibole-bearing to felsic
quartz-feldspar-rich composition.
Garnet is present as rounded
porphyroclasts 5 to 10 mm in
diameter. The outcrop displays a
few 2-3 cm thick quartz layers
parallel to the foliation. Locality
UTM 37S, 608265, 8507878,
245
6.15.3 Marble (Unit P3OCma)

A marble horizon is present ~3 km south of Rio Lurio between UTM 619090, 8506270 and
621040, 8507050. The marble outcrops are separated by highly tectonised, felsic paragneiss.
The southernmost outcrop comprises a medium- to coarse-grained (2-10 mm) relatively pure
dolomite marble (sample 40693, UTM 37S 619085, 8506266) with minor serpentine and mica
aggregates. Farther north there is a horizon >7 m wide, of coarse-grained (4-5 mm) impure
calcite marble with minor diopside, phlogopite, and possibly corundum. A 10-15 m-wide,
banded, partly biotite-rich paragneiss with some amphibolite and marble lenses, is present at
the contact to the marble. The northernmost outcrop is >100 m wide, and contains fine- to
medium-grained (1-4 mm) impure calcite and dolomite marble with minor diopside, phlogopite
and possibly garnet (Figure 6.247).
Figure 6.247: Impure marble

with diopside grains that are
partly carbonatised (Sample
40694, sheet 1340 Mecufi, UTM
37S 620123, 8506770). (Field of
view 5,4x4,4 mm)
6.15.4 Mafic granulites (5767Ma; 587Ma, U-Pb, metamorphic ages) (Unit P3OCpx)
The granulitic gneisses vary from charnockitic to more mafic compositions. They are
commonly interbedded with felsic gneisses that at least in part are paragneisses (e.g. unit
P3OGfg). This could possibly mean that most of the mafic granulites are of supracrustal origin
as well. The more mafic layers contain abundant, up to cm-sized brown orthopyroxene
(hypersthene), amphibole and garnet. The granulitic gneisses also generally have a strongly
developed mylonitic fabric.
The northern part of a well-exposed profile from Odinepa to Rio Lurio on sheet 1340
Mecufi (from UTM 37S, 625830, 8503830 to 631380, 8507300, ~8 km) shows the granulitic
rocks of the Ocua Complex well: At the south end of the profile there is fine-grained, dark
brownish-grey, charnockitic granulite with some garnet that has partly overgrown the foliation.
The next outcrop is retrograded granulite with banded, fine-grained, relatively biotite-rich,
garnet-bearing gneiss with some, more felsic bands at a cm-scale. Extensive parallel pegmatitic
veins with coarse biotite and amphibole aggregates are common. Farther north the profile is
dominated by fine-grained, finely banded, strained, mylonitic granulite. It comprises dark grey
pyroxene-bearing bands and grey plagioclase-rich bands with minor quartz. Garnet, in 2-8 mm
grains, is also enriched in felsic bands (Figure 6.248 and Figure 6.249). The gneiss has a
strongly pronounced lineation. The next outcrop is of dark grey, mafic granulite with equal
amounts of pyroxene and plagioclase. Very coarse-grained garnet has overgrown the weak
foliation in this rock (Figure 6.248).
246
Figure 6.248: Typical granulites

with coarse-grained garnet on the
profile south of Rio Lurio. Finely
banded and strained granulite
(above) (UTM 37S 629006,
8505766) and weakly foliated
mafic granulite (below)(UTM 37S
629847, 8505990). Both localities
are on sheet 1340 Mecufi.
Figure 6.249: Banded granulite

with atoll texture with
clinopyroxene (cpx),
orthopyroxene (opx) and
amphibole around a core of
garnet (grt) and biotite (bt).
(Sample 40690, UTM 37S
629006, 8505766, sheet 1340
Mecufi)
247
Fine- to medium-grained, planar-foliated, banded granulitic gneiss forms a major

outcrop in Rio Lurio. The banding is on a cm- to dm-scale with various proportions of feldspar,
quartz, pyroxene, amphibole and garnet(Figure 6.250). Banded gneiss commonly contains
boudins of mafic granulite (Figure 6.251; Figure 6.252) and locally ultramafic rocks
(hornblendite). Shear zones that are metre-thick are sub-parallel to the general foliation (268296/30-48). The structures are crosscut by up to 1 m thick pegmatites that also contain
pyroxene, and are sheared along the foliation. A gentle, open fold (70/25) was observed in the
riverbed. Sample 33310 was collected in a felsic layer of the banded gneiss, at the Lurio Falls
(UTM 37S, 608709, 8506268, sheet 1340 Mecufi). One zircon core has an age of 880 21 Ma,
implying that the protolith of the rock is Neoproterozoic, probably a metasediment. Zircon rim
and monazite, formed during metamorphism and banding are 557 3 and 540 7 Ma.
Figure 6.250: Banded granulite
showing 10-20 cm scale banding,
around a >10 m large boudin of
mafic garnet granulite (lower
part of photo). Locality UTM 37S,
608709, 8506268, sheet 1340
Mecufi, at the Lurio Falls. The
photo shows the location of the
dated sample 33310, collected in
a felsic layer of the banded gneiss
(below pen).
Figure 6.251: Close-up of the

boudin of mafic granulite shown
on the previous photo (UTM 37S,
608709, 8506268, sheet 1340
Mecufi). The rock contains cm
scale garnet phenoblasts. A ~10
m wide boudin of hornblendite
was found in the same outcrop
248
Figure 6.252: Scapolite-bearing

inter-boudin pegmatite from the
same locality (UTM 37S, 608709,
8506268, sheet 1340 Mecufi). The
pegmatite is situated between two
boudins of mafic granulite.
Sample of this pegmatite yielded
a zircon U-Pb age of 535 15
Ma, and record boudinage of the
outcrop.
Garnet-bearing charnockitic, partly banded gneiss with amphibole-rich bands,

dominates on a profile in this unit on the central part of sheet 1339 Montepuez. These rocks are
more retrograded and locally, strongly sheared than those described above. Minor dextral shear
zones with orientation east-northeast west-southwest (255/80 260/90) cut the foliation
(228/30 234/24; Figure 6.253).
Figure 6.253: Minor east-northeast west-southwest-oriented dextral shear zones in

retrograded, banded granulitic gneiss (UTM 37S, 553588, 8483758, sheet 1339 Montepuez,
both photos).
Two-pyroxene mafic granulites are very distinctive rocks on sheets 1437 Malema and
1438 Ribu-Mecuburi, mostly comprising hard, fresh, well-layered gneisses with a complete
range of interlayered compositions from mafic through intermediate to felsic. Interlayering is
on all scales from the mm- to 5 metre-scale. Thick, dense, compact, mafic layers often form
very hard, bouldery corestone outcrops and give rise to deep red to black fertile soils. The
mafic rocks are usually very dark green to black, medium- to coarse-grained, inequigranular
and strongly foliated, and generally exhibit high degrees of strain (Figure 6.254). Pyroxene and
amphibole are often visible in outcrops, commonly with garnet (often porphyroblastic).
More felsic granulites are pale pink when slightly weathered, greenish grey when fresh
with resinous lustre and charnockitic appearance. In more weathered outcrops, large rusty-
249
weathering hypersthene grains are common, along with mafic pyroxene-amphibole streaks
and boudins. Incipient ribbon quartz textures are locally seen and garnet, while less widespread
than in mafic granulites, sometimes occurs as porphyroblasts up to 5mm in size. Biotite is
usually also present. Intermediate plagioclase + hornblende + pyroxene gneisses are often
interlayered with the end-member compositions. Boundaries between layers can be either sharp
or gradational. Layering is further enhanced by planar grain-size variations. Micro- to metrescale tight to isoclinal folding is common. The granulites are often weakly migmatitic, with
thin straight-sided and/or sheared magnetite-bearing leucosomes common, often cut by
generations of later leucocratic veins, including blebby coarse-grained pyroxene-bearing
pegmatite segregations.
Figure 6.254: Typical outcrop of massive layers of mafic granulite of the Ocua Complex (UTM
37S 411262, 8382754, sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi).
Mafic, two-pyroxene granulites also occur in the southwest part of the mapped area,
near the boundary between sheets 1535 and 1635, around Milange. They occur within the main
Ocua Complex belt and infolded as large lens-shaped outcrops within the Nampula Complex
around, and northeast of Tengua Mission (grid square 79 821). They are very distinctive, dark,
compact and dense rocks. They typically give rise to very hard, fresh, bouldery corestone
outcrops that, upon weathering have produced deep red to black, fertile soils. The rocks are
usually very dark green to black, medium- to coarse-grained, inequigranular, massive,
homogeneous to strongly banded and foliated, and often exhibit a high degrees of strain.
Pyroxene and amphibole are often visible in outcrops, with porphyroblastic garnet common.
Compositions range from mafic, with ~10% plagioclase to intermediate, with over 20%
feldspar. Minor sulphides are often visible in outcrop. The mineralogy tends to be pristine, but
in some localities hydration and retrogression of pyroxene to amphibole and biotite has
occurred. The rocks appear to represent the products of mixed protoliths. Many rocks are
probably mafic, meta-igneous in origin, while interlayered more aluminous rocks with
250
orthopyroxene + K-feldspar + garnet may be more semi-pelitic, paragneisses. Figure 6.255

shows an example of a coarse-grained mafic granulite, with thin, diffuse leucocratic
(plagioclase + pyroxene) layers, which suggest gabbro/leucogabbro protoliths. In other mafic
granulite sequences, pods of dark pyroxene-hornblende rocks occur, which have nearultramafic compositions.
Figure 6.255: Hard, fresh, compact, coarse-grained, foliated mafic granulite, with thin, diffuse
leucocratic (plagioclase + pyroxene) layer. Such rocks may have meta-igneous
(gabbro/leucogabbro) protoliths. Note rounded, bouldery weathering of outcrop (UTM 36S
799366, 8206097, sheet 1635 Milange).
Foliation is variably developed and defined by compositional variations (crude
banding), by mineral grain orientation and by layer-parallel grain-size variation. Locally,
larger-scale (metre-scale) banding involves mafic granulite and coarse-grained massive green
charnockite. Folding of this earliest planar fabric is evident in a few outcrops. The granulites
are generally sparsely migmatitic (<10% leucosome), due to the generally high-grade,
anhydrous conditions of metamorphism that they underwent. But in many rocks, there is local
evidence of anatexis, as blebby, and/or stromatic leucosomes veins. These are interpreted as
the earliest, restricted, phase of melt production and help define the foliation in the rocks. Later
multiple generations of crosscutting hornblende- pyroxene-bearing leucocratic veins are
locally abundant (Figure 6.256).
251
Figure 6.256: Coarse-grained mafic, two-pyroxene granulitic gneiss. Note two generations of
leucocratic veins: thin, early, layer-parallel stromatic leucosomes cut by a second generation
of straight-sided, discordant veins. The latter are displaced sinistrally by renewed, foliationparallel slip shearing (UTM 36S 798906, 8214662, sheet 1635 Milange).
In thin section, the typical pristine mineral paragenesis is orthopyroxene +
clinopyroxene + plagioclase garnet, with accessory opaque mineral and apatite. Textures are
typically granoblastic, with orthopyroxene often forming rims around poikiloblastic grains of
clinopyroxene (up to 5 mm diameter) that contain small inclusions of plagioclase. Garnet is
typically subhedral to anhedral, and is locally also altered. Any banding present occurs on a
cm-scale between plagioclase-rich and more mafic-rich compositional bands. In most sections
brown hornblende occurs as a secondary mineral, formed from the hydration of orthopyroxene.
Other secondary alteration minerals include sericite (from plagioclase) and chlorite (from
garnet).
6.15.5 Felsic to intermediate granulitic gneiss (Unit P3OCfg)
This unit is interbedded and intimately folded together with the mafic granulites (unit
P3OCpx). They probably at least partly represent original paragneisses, as shown from a rather
high content of quartz and white mica (Figure 6.257, Figure 6.258). Garnet, pyroxene,
hornblende are common subordinate to accessory minerals. The rocks are generally leucocratic
and banded on a cm scale (Figure 6.259): they contain mm-thick quartz-ribbons due to strong
shear deformation.
252
Figure 6.257: Field example of granulitic paragneiss from locality UTM 37S, 608426,
8509552, sheet 1339 Montepuez.
Figure 6.258: Deformed granulitic paragneiss from UTM 37S, 608426, 8509552, sheet 1339
Montepuez, sample 33398, same locality as Figure 6.257.
Figure 6.259: Banded, finegrained felsic granulite, with

mylonitic fabric. It contains both
clino- and orthopyroxene.
Locality: UTM 37S 605953,
8517672, sheet 1339 Montepuez
The textures of these gneisses vary depending on the nature of deformation during
metamorphism. Commonly, they contain quartz in a ribbon texture, with grains up to 2-3 mm
long. The other phases have a granoblastic texture in some samples, in others heteroblastic to
253
heterogranular with uneven grain boundaries. The major phases comprise quartz (30-50%),
plagioclase (20-50%) and hornblende (4-10%). Important subordinate phases include
clinopyroxene (4-7%), orthopyroxene (4-7%), biotite (trace to 7%), while garnet and opaque
phases are common accessories.
Interlayered felsic to intermediate granulites form the bulk of the Ocua Complex rocks
on the sheets 1535-6 Insaca-Gur and 1635 Milange, where they occur all the way along the
Nampula-Unango Complex boundary. The felsic granulites are pale pink when slightly
weathered, greenish grey when fresh with resinous lustre and have a charnockitic appearance.
In more weathered outcrops, large rusty-weathering hypersthene grains are common along
with mafic pyroxene-amphibole streaks and boudins. Garnet, while less widespread than in the
mafic granulites, occurs locally as porphyroclasts up to 5mm across. Biotite is usually also
present. Grain size variation is pronounced, from fine- to coarse-grained, and typically, the
rocks are well foliated, granofelsic. Incipient quartz-ribbon textures are locally seen (for
example in the northwestern corner of sheet 1536 Ribu-Mecuburi; grid square 28 823).
Intermediate plagioclase + hornblende + pyroxene-gneisses are often interlayered with
the felsic granulites and small pods of mafic, two-pyroxene granulite are also seen. Boundaries
between layers can be either sharp (e.g. Figure 6.260), or gradational. Layering is further
enhanced by planar grain-size variations. Micro- to metre-scale tight to isoclinal folding is
common.
Figure 6.260: Well-defined compositional banding in felsic (light grey) to intermediate

granulites (dark grey) of the Ocua Complex. The banding is typically sharply defined. Note the
early set of leucocratic veins (left to right) occupy ductile shear zones in the granulites, while a
younger set of veins occupies faults with late, brittle displacements (UTM 37S 260356,
8304548, sheet 1536 Gur).
The granulites are, in many outcrops, weakly migmatitic, with thin straight-sided and/or
sheared magnetite-bearing leucosomes common, cut by generations of later leucocratic veins,
254
including blebby coarse-grained pyroxene-bearing pegmatite segregations. Some outcrops are

strongly veined, with up to four generations of acid veins present (Figure 6.261).
V3
V2
V1
V4
Figure 6.261: Felsic to intermediate granulite with polyphase felsic veins: V1 thin, early
stromatic leucosomes; V2 Crosscutting veins with prominent mafic selvedge; V3 straightsided biotite microgranite veins; V4 irregular pegmatite (UTM 36S 797623, 8217730, sheet
1635 Milange,).
In thin section, the felsic-intermediate granulites are granoblastic, with foliated
polygonal texture and even inter-grain boundaries. The typical mineral assemblage consists of
varying amounts of quartz, plagioclase (some sericitisation), subhedral prisms of both
clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene and green to brown amphibole (locally altered to biotite),
with accessory apatite, opaque minerals and zircon.
6.15.6 Charnockitic gneiss (Unit P3OCch)
The unit is composed of yellowish-grey weathering, coarse- to medium-grained charnockititic
gneiss, with quartz-feldspar-pyroxene-biotite garnet (Figure 6.262). When fresh, the rocks
are greenish, with the typical greasy lustre of charnockites. The rocks are massive to wellfoliated, occasionally slightly banded and heterogeneous, with mafic wisps, schlieren or blocky
boundins. The foliation is usually defined by alignment of mafic minerals. Orthopyroxene is
often visible as macroscopic, euhedral to subhedral rusty-weathering grains, which occur
locally as porphyroblasts more than 1 cm in diameter. In some places the charnockite is
strongly sheared, with augen of hypersthene, hornblende and feldspar.
255
Figure 6.262: Coarse-grained charnockitic gneiss of the Ocua Complex. Note the strong
foliation, mainly defined by coarse aggregates of elongate amphibole (black) and hypersthene
(brown) with grey feldspar (UTM 37S 332641, 8391627, sheet 1437 Malema).
In the southwestern part of the mapped area there are charnockites restricted to a small
number of lensoid bodies, in close spatial association with the Unango-Nampula Complex
boundary. The rocks are yellowish-grey to brownish-weathering, coarse- to medium-grained
and contain quartz-orthopyroxene-biotite garnet. When fresh, the rocks are greenish, with the
typical greasy lustre of charnockites. The rocks in most outcrops are massive, almost
unfoliated. In some zones, however they grade into well foliated orthogneisses, which are
locally slightly banded and heterogeneous, with mafic wisps, schlieren or blocky mafic
boundins. The foliation is usually defined by the alignment of mafic minerals. It is possible, in
some outcrops of rather nebulous charnockite, that the foliation has been partly obliterated by
later charnockitisation processes. In these rocks, orthopyroxene is often visible as
macroscopic, euhedral to subhedral rusty-weathering grains, which occur locally as
porphyroblasts more than 1 cm in diameter (Figure 6.263). In other places, the charnockite is
strongly sheared, with augen of hypersthene, hornblende and feldspar.
256
Figure 6.263: Coarse-grained

felsic charnockite of Ocua
Complex. Note rusty brown
ortho-pyroxene crystals and grey
K-feldspar megacrysts (UTM 37S
226066, 8291417, sheet

1536 Gur).
6.15.7 Mylonitic quartz-feldspar gneiss and quartzite with ribbon quartz (Unit P3OCgr)
Quartz-feldspar gneiss is rather common in the Ocua Complex. Its appearance in the field is
very similar to the more quartzitic gneisses, but it contains more mica (mainly muscovite) and
feldspar, as demonstrated by its more pronounced signal on the radiometric data. It is generally
strongly mylonitic, with flattened quartz in ribbons and is otherwise very finely grained (Figure
6.264). It is also quite similar to the felsic granulites, but these contain orthopyroxene and
garnet as characteristic minerals.
Figure 6.264: Mylonitic quartzfeldspar gneiss with strongly

developed fissility on a mm scale,
defined by white mica. Locality:
UTM 37S 590002, 8514584, sheet
1339 Montepuez.
257
The quartzitic rocks are characterised by very low signals on the airborne radiometric
data, showing that they contain virtually no K, U or Th. Quartz grains are often strongly
flattened, forming ribbons. Accessory to subordinate minerals include biotite, muscovite
(sericite) and hornblende (Figure 6.265).
Figure 6.265: Photomicrograph of strongly deformed quartzite (sample 33389) UTM 37S
585604, 8515740, sheet 1339 Montepuez. Field of view: 4,4x5,4 mm.
The quartz-ribbon mylonitic gneiss is an important unit within sheets 1437 Malema
and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi in that it seems to define the southern margin and sole
discontinuity of the Lurio belt. It forms a series of anastomosing bands, up to 5 km wide, and
narrow lenses, which can be traced in a zone up to 20 km wide from the eastern edge of Sheet
1438, Esoutheast to the southwest corner of Sheet 1437. At this point the belt becomes less
continuous, more obviously folded and has experienced lower degrees of strain. The gneiss is
coincident with an extremely narrow, deep linear aeromagnetic anomaly that defines the
southern margin of the Lurio belt in the east of sheet 1437 and across sheet 1438.
Lithologically, as observed in sheets 1437 and 1438, the unit is a white- to yellowishand pinkish-weathering leucogneiss with characteristic, strongly flattened, ribbon quartz
texture (Figure 6.266), giving an intense planar fabric. The gneiss is light grey when fresh,
though locally greenish, and possibly indicative of a charnockitic character. It is often so felsic
that no mafic minerals, other than minute quantities of magnetite, are visible at all, whereas in
some outcrops there are thin, highly streaked out biotite- and amphibole-bearing mafic
schlieren up to 10 cm thick by several meters in length. Some outcrops have rustyweathering orthopyroxene. In some localities, minute trains of garnet are strung out along the
foliation. The rocks are slightly inequigranular, with layering partly defined by grain-size
differences. Very small concentrations of mafic minerals sometimes impart a diffuse banding.
258
Figure 6.266: Highly strained, very leucocratic quartzofeldspathic mylonitic gneiss with
characteristic ribbon quartz texture (UTM 37S 296886, 8341001, sheet 1437 Malema).
The gneiss, being such a highly strained rock, tends not to show extensive veining, but
some sheets of sheared pegmatite, up to 50 cm thick, with large orthopyroxene and magnetite
crystals and quartz ribbons are recorded. Some sheared, coarse-grained felsic layers with
amphibole and/or orthopyroxene probably represent deformed leucosomes.
6.15.8 Dioritic to amphibolitic gneiss (Unit P3OCda)
Dioritic to amphibolitic gneiss is present in one layer in the Ocua Complex on sheet 1339
Montepuez (centered around UTM 37S 590000, 8507000) and wedges out eastwards on sheet
1340 Mecufi. Some thin horizons are also present together with granodioritic/tonalitic gneiss
close to the western boundary of sheet 1339 Montepuez (UTM 37S 512000, 8472000).
In the main unit on the Montepuez sheet the amphibolitic gneiss is rather massive and
gabbroic. Here it has been used as road material, and a large open pit has been opened, close to
the main road between Metoro and Namapa (UTM 37S 585277, 8506126). In the northern wall
of the water-filled pit there is a minor vein-type sulphide mineralization with pyrrhotite and
lesser chalcopyrite (see Chapter 13). In other areas the mafic gneiss is highly foliated and
banded, with alternating dark amphibole-rich and light plagioclase layers on a scale of 1-5 cm
(Figure 6.267). It may also have a flaggy cleavage.
The amphibolitic gneiss is generally fine- to medium-grained, with a grain size of 1-4
mm. Some of the more fine-grained amphibolitic varieties could represent volcanic rocks.
Major phases include hornblende, plagioclase, biotite and clinopyroxene. Orthopyroxene is
also present locally. Important accessory phases include garnet, titanite and chlorite. In some
areas the rock contains large, red garnets indicating a rather high metamorphic grade (see also
Chapter 7).
259
Figure 6.267: Amphibolitic gneiss. Locality: UTM

37S, 600754, 8511200, sheet 1339 Montepuez.
6.15.9 Granitic and tonalitic gneiss (Unit P3OCgt)

This is a major rock unit in the Ocua Complex, and is common on the sheet 1339 Montepuez.
The granitic and tonalitic gneisses have not been separated on the maps because of their
interbedded character, with interfingering and alternating relatively thin layers of the two
types. They occur together with granitic gneiss, and are separated on the basis of contents of
plagioclase and higher contents of biotite and amphibole. Furthermore, on the radiometric
maps, especially with respect to the K signal, they also have lower values. From the outcrops
visited, it appears that the granitic gneiss is somewhat more common than the tonalitic gneiss.
These rocks are characterised by being banded with alternating quartz-feldspar and
biotite r hornblende-rich bands on a cm- to m-scale. They are locally migmatitic, with coarser
quartz-feldspar neosomes, commonly containing hornblende grains up to 1-3 cm long, biotite
aggregates and locally some garnet. Generally the grain size is 1-2 mm.
At locality UTM 37S 511432, 8470895 there is a strongly sheared gneiss of graniticgranodioritic composition, with alternating lighter and darker bands. Some of the lighter bands
have up to 2 cm crystals of feldspar, which are rounded due to shearing. Under the microscope
the rock is very fine-grained and it is very difficult to separate quartz and feldspar in the
groundmass. Biotite flakes are relatively unoriented, showing that biotite is a late phase relative
to the deformation.
AT UTM 37S 538878, 8510717 there is a relatively fine-grained (1-3 mm grains)
tonalitic gneiss, with cm-thick veins of quartz and feldspar in isoclinal folds along the foliation.
It contains up to 25% biotite. Microscope study shows the biotite as brown to olive green laths,
and blue-green diopside as an accessory phase.
At locality UTM 37S 549415, 8489896 the tonalitic gneiss commonly contains
xenoliths of fine-grained amphibolite up to 1 m long and 2-3 dm thick (Figure 6.268). The
tonalitic host rock is characterised by mm-thick and up to 2 cm long lenses of fine-grained
biotite and scattered, up to 1 cm large porphyroblasts of hornblende. The hornblende blasts
have haloes of fine-grained biotite.
260
Figure 6.268: Tonalitic orthogneiss with abundant lenses of fine-grained

amphibolite. Locality UTM 37S 549415, 8489896, sheet 1339 Montepuez.
6.15.10 Syenitic gneiss (5996 Ma, Mecufi; 50411 Ma, Malema U-Pb) (Unit P3OCsy)
Syenitic gneiss occurs as a rather continuous, several hundred km long horizon, extending from
sheet 1340 Mecufi to sheet 1339 Montepuez, but occurs only as small bodies on sheet 1437
Malema. On the radiometric maps this rock type stands out with a distinct, high signature,
because of its high K content.
The syenitic gneiss is commonly banded on a cm-scale with bands enriched in biotite
and in alkali feldspar (Figure 6.269). There are scattered, up to cm-scale porphyroblasts of
hornblende/clinopyroxene. At other localities hornblende/clinopyroxene are the major "dark"
mineral, while biotite is an accessory to subordinate mineral.
The rock consists of ~70 % K-feldspar, 20 % clinopyroxene and 10% biotite and/or
hornblende. Plagioclase and quartz have not been seen in thin sections. Accessory phases
include apatite, titanite, opaque phases and zircon. The rock is generally crystallized into a
granoblastic texture with grain size 0.2-1 mm. K-feldspar is partly perthitic with very fine
string perthite and clinopyroxene occur in 0.2-2 mm light green crystals.
261
Figure 6.269: Banded syenitic

gneiss, with alternating biotite r
hornblende and K-feldspar bands.
Crosscutting granitic dyke/vein
with drag folds. Locality: UTM
37S 568407, 8490192, sheet 1339
Montepuez.
Geochemical data (Chapter 10) show that the rock has a content of 57-58% SiO2, 7,88,5% K2O, 2,4-2,6 % Na2O and 5,3-5,9 % CaO, classifying it as a syenite. It has also very high
contents of Sr (>3000 ppm) and Ba (6000-7500 ppm). One sample (#33304) was dated using
the U-Pb method on zircons, and yielded an intrusion age of 599r6 Ma, showing it to be of
early Pan-African age, pre-dating the main deformation and metamorphism events (see
Chapters 11 and 12).
On sheet 1437 Malema, this unit is volumetrically insignificant, but petrologically
interesting and, although present only in small outcrops, it provides a link to the Ocua Complex
some 250 km further east in sheet 1340 Mecufi and 1339 Montepuez. On sheet 1437 these
syenitic gneisses crop out in a narrow, 5 km-long belt in the extreme western part of the area,
close to the north bank of the Rio Lurio (UTM 37S 292000, 8382000).
The syenitic gneisses are light bluish-grey, heterogranular, coarse- to very coarsegrained (grain size >1 cm), to pegmatitic rocks, with large grey feldspar grains (+ nepheline?)
up to 10cm in size and dark green amphibole (Figure 6.270). Outcrops are light grey and
weather with a characteristic rubbly, pitted appearance. Pegmatoidal patches and segregations
of light grey feldspar are common. The rocks appear to be quartz-free and are heterogeneous,
with coarse-grained, heterogranular discontinuous mafic layers, blebs, schlieren and irregular
clots. The mafic phases include dark green hornblende, with a black, rusty-weathering mafic
phase which is probably orthopyroxene. Biotite is sparse. The rocks have a strong, but variable,
shallow north- to northwest-dipping foliation and, locally a northwest-plunging lineation
(Figure 6.271).
262
Figure 6.270:
Coarse-grained,
weakly foliated
syenitic gneiss with
light grey feldspar
and dark green
clinopyroxene.
Locality UTM 37S
292614, 8381792,
sheet 1437 Malema.
Figure 6.271:
Strongly foliated
syenitic gneiss (top
right, cut by light
grey, coarse-grained,
weakly foliated
feldspathic
pegmatoid. Locality
UTM 37S 291146,
8381529, sheet 1437
Malema.
6.15.11 Granitic gneiss, locally migmatised (Unit P3OCgg)

Granitic gneiss is found on sheet 1340 Mecufi in outcrops too small to be shown on the map,
but it is common in thicker horizons in the westernmost part of sheet 1339 Montepuez. It is
commonly interbedded and folded together with granodioritic and tonalitic orthogneisses.
The granitic gneiss of the Ocua Complex is characterised by a very penetrative, often
mylonitic foliation. It often displays a weak to discontinuous banding (Figure 6.272). Where it
is more migmatitic, the banding is more pronounced (Figure 6.273). It is typically reddish,
fine- to medium-grained and leucocratic with very low contents of biotite and magnetite.
However, small garnets are not uncommon. The major phases are K-feldspar, quartz and
plagioclase.
263
Figure 6.272: Close-up of typical strongly deformed granitic gneiss. Note asymmetric, pink
lenses of K-feldspar, quartz and plagioclase, separated by thin laminae of biotite, pointing to a
dextral sense of movement (to the west). Locality: UTM 37S 585342, 8515204, sheet 1339
Montepuez.
Figure 6.273: Mylonitised granitic
gneiss. The rock is pervasively
injected by migmatitic leucosomes
that are themselves sheared into
the progressively developing
foliation. Locality UTM 37S,
588132, 8492276, sheet 1339
Montepuez.
264
6.16 Txitonga Group

6.16.1 Introduction
This unit has been renamed the Txitonga Group after a prominent mountain peak quite central
in the group. The unit was earlier known as the Cobu Group (Pinna et al. 1993, Lchelt, 2004)
after the coastal town of Cobu, which is also located outside the Group. The Txitonga Group
is bounded by the Ponta Messuli Complex to the west and the Karoo Supergroup to the east. It
is between 10 and 25 km wide and occupies a rugged, high mountainous area, extending from
the Tanzanian border in the north to south of Cobu, a distance of nearly 100 km.
The Txitonga Group is dominated by metasedimentary rocks, mainly metagreywacke,
metasandstone and quartz-mica schist and chlorite-rich schist. In the northern part of the unit
there are numerous bodies of metagabbroic rock, greenstone and greenschist and minor felsic
metavolcanic rocks.
There are indications that metamorphic conditions have varied along the length of the
Txitonga Group. In the northern areas there is no indication that the metamorphic grade ever
exceeded greenschist facies. In the Cobu area, garnet is found at several localities and also
staurolite at one locality, which indicates that the sequence in this area has been
metamorphosed to amphibolite facies. Pinna et al. (1993) reported the same metamorphic
pattern and also described sillimanite in the Cobu area. A late retrogressive event has,
however, affected both the Txitonga and most of the Ponta Messuli lithologies, leading to
regional sericitisation and local carbonatisation, so that the pattern of the earlier metamorphic
event is difficult to document.
6.16.2 Quartzite (Unit P3TXqz)
Quartzitic layers occur relatively frequently together with the sandstones and schists in unit
P3TXsg, but are only locally large enough to be shown on the map. Northeast of Mandambuzi
a quartzite with a rodded fabric underlies a conical hill with a summit at UTM 36S 692457
8646198. It has a strong linear fabric and almost certainly forms a pod with a long axis parallel
to the plunge of the lineation (56 towards 135). This orthoquartzite is medium-grained and
equigranular despite the intense linear fabric.
A few km south of the above-mentioned quartzite, a sugar-grained quartzite with a
weak foliation occurs. It has a grain size of ~1mm and also contains a few bands of mica
schist. This distinguishes it from the ubiquitous quartz veins that occur everywhere in the mica
schist.
6.16.3 Metasandstone, metagreywacke and quartz-mica schist (Unit P3TXsg)
This unit extends along the whole Txitonga Group from the Tanzanian border to where it
disappears into Lago Niassa south of Cobu. In the northern area it appears mainly along the
contact to the gneisses of the Ponta Messuli Complex. The contact between this unit and the
Ponta Messuli Complex to the west is observed in the extreme south of the unit close to Lago
Niassa. Here a metagreywacke unit is extremely deformed and folded up to 50 m east of the
contact. The contact is clearly tectonic and is interpreted as a thrust (see Chapter 9). In the
southern areas, the eastern boundary is against the Maniamba Graben, and this contact is
normally interpreted as a brittle fault.
Metasandstones and metagreywacke are major components within this unit in addition
to mica schists. It has not been possible to separate the different lithologies on the maps, due to
265
their irregular variations and distribution. The abundance of mica schist gives the unit many
similarities to the quartz-mica schist (unit P3TXsc) described below.
Within the main body of the quartz mica schist a thin body of metagreywacke is located
furthest west in the belt at UTM 36S 723403, 8713800. Here the greywacke is very fine
grained (<0,5 mm) and fissile. Some minor north-south-striking, haematised shear structures
are seen parallel to the bedding but the rock is generally undeformed. The metagreywacke
strikes north-south and is interpreted to extend ~10km across strike. Its southern extension
appears to be tectonically controlled by late, post-Karoo brittle faulting. The greywacke is
poorly exposed, and is best exposed on hilltops. Outcrops are generally small and have a
pronounced fissility. The rock breaks along fissile planes, generally 0,5 mm apart. The rock
has a very light grey colour but is often stained brown in outcrop, probably as a result of its
high iron content.
Figure 6.274: Meta-greywacke.
Sample 31958, UTM 36S 721778,
8689638, sheet 1135 Lupilichi.
In thin section (Figure 6.274) this rock consists mainly of a sericitic matrix, with
irregular shards and laths of chlorite and minor biotite. Scattered quartz grains and granoblastic
clusters are present. There is an irregular partly sheared foliation, wrapping lenticles and grains
of quartz and, locally, sericitised augen. The rock is interpreted to have been a coarse-grained
greywacke. Petrographic examination of samples from this locality reveals recrystallised, lowgrade (greenschist-facies) metasedimentary rocks. The fine-grained, calcareous
metasedimentary rocks comprise equigranular quartz (0,1-0,2 mm) with kink-folded laminae of
muscovite, biotite and chlorite and minor epidote, comprising up to 40 % of the rock volume.
A few augen-shaped lenses consist of quartz (up to 1,2 mm) enveloped by carbonate.
Additionally, carbonate occurs scattered (totally about 5 % of the rock-volume) in the rock,
which can thus be described as calcareous quartz-mica schist (Figure 6.275).
The variations in the metasedimentary rocks in the southwestern part of the supracrustal
belt are clearly demonstrated in an exposure on the north side of the Cobu road (UTM 36S
694001, 8656988) where a metasandstone with larger quartz clasts (1-4 mm 'augen') is
tectonically located on more fine-grained, calcareous metasedimentary rocks. The foliation in
these meta-sandstones strikes east-northeast west-southwest with variable dips to the northnorthwest (247/40-55).
266
Figure 6.275: Photomicrographs of calcareous quartz mica schist (left) and of metasandstone at UTM 36S 694001, 8656988, sheet 1134 Ponta Messuli. (Field of view: 5,4x4,4
mm). Samples 31780 and 31781.
The meta-sandstone consists of lenses (up to 10 mm in diameter) predominantly of Kfeldspar, but with minor quartz and subordinate plagioclase. Micaceous laminae occur between
these assumed clasts. It is therefore classified as a meta-sandstone (Figure 6.275).
Cobu village is located on fine to medium grained, reddish dark grey, unfoliated
granite assumed to intrude the Ponta Messuli Complex (Unit P2gra, see Chapter 6.18).
Immediately east of Cobu, there are strongly foliated and partly schistose chlorite-mica
schists, partly phyllonitic and with lustrous surfaces. Folding of the sequence is indicated by
great variations in dip. Further east there is a sequence dominated by various clastic
metasedimentary rocks, arkosic metasandstone, meta-greywacke and mica schist are observed
(Figure 6.276).
Grey, partly finely laminated and banded arkosic metasandstone is the most common
variety. Lenses of predominately, fine-grained quartz are present, and demonstrate that the
rocks are locally highly deformed. Dextral shearing of the sequence is indicated. The amount
of micas varies and in a few exposures the metasedimentary rocks can be described as mica
schists.
Figure 6.276: Finely banded meta-sandstone (left) and quartz lenses in meta-sandstone (right).
Both from outcrop by the Cobu road (UTM 36S 694327, 8655244, sheet 1234 Metangula).
267
6.16.4 Quartz-mica schist, partly chlorite schist (Unit P3TXsc)

This unit appears in the northern part of the Txitonga Group, from the Tanzanian border to ~
20km southwards where the group has a lot of intrusions of greenstones/metagabbros, and
where there are also many gold occurrences. The unit also occurs farther to the south where it
continues into the sheet 1234 Metangula. In both areas it occupies the eastern part of the group,
towards the Karoo basin.
In the northern part (i.e. on sheet 1135 Lupilichi), the chlorite-quartz-mica schist forms
extended layers and lenses especially in the central part of the group. In the northeast it
alternates with lenses and layers of metasandstone and bodies of metagabbro and amphibolite.
The schist is gradational into metagreywacke, and the two lithologies are not easy to
distinguish, especially due to the late sericitisation affecting the rocks.
Figure 6.277: Chlorite-quartz-muscovite schist with typical weathering colour due to hematite
and Fe-oxyhydroxides. Locality: 2 km east of Monte Txingeia (UTM 36S 734510, 8716370,
sheet 1135 Lupilichi).
In the field the schist is typically red, with a silvery shine due to high contents of
sericite/muscovite (Figure 6.277). The red colour is due to hematite and iron-oxyhydroxides.
Dark green, up to cm-large specks of chlorite are common. In thin section the schist is
generally dominated by very fine-grained sericite, light green chlorite and quartz. Sericite
forms lenses and aggregates, occasionally as pseudomorphs after a more equant shaped
mineral, probably feldspar. Sericite must at least partly be a late-formed mineral, forming
partly small veinlets crosscutting the foliation, and replacing other minerals, e.g. chlorite.
Chlorite also partly forms fine-grained aggregates with a regular shape, probably
pseudomorphs after amphibole. At one locality (UTM 36S 719100, 8679310, sample 31902),
the schist contains up to 1-2 mm blastic grains of green tourmaline. This suggests a high
content of boron, which indicates the influence of seawater.
Geochemically, the schist is characterized by a very high content of Al2O3 (22-29
wt.%), a high content of K2O (2,5-6,3 wt.%) and very low contents of Na2O and CaO (<0,01268
0,2 wt.%). Together with high loss of ignition (4-8 wt.%), the geochemistry confirms the
presence of large amounts of sericite. The content of iron is also rather high (Fe2O3 between
8,6 and 13,1 wt.%), in accordance with the frequent red staining by haematite.
6.16.5 Banded iron formation (Unit P3TXfe)
Several small units of banded iron formation (BIF) are present in the northeastern part of the
Txitonga Group. They are generally associated with the unit of arenitic/arkosic metasandstone
and greenstone. Two units have been visited during this project, while DNG geologists have
visited others.
At UTM 36S 730030, 8708600 (sample 31815) the rock contains magnetite bands at
cm-scale alternating with green metasandstone layers. Analyses (Chapters 10, 13) show some
high chromium and vanadium values, but no elevated values for either gold or base metals are
registered. The other BIF, at UTM 36S 724560, 8679990 (sample 38413), consists of lenses
and layers mainly of magnetite, alternating with quartz layers at mm to cm-scale Figure 6.278).
The oxide grains vary from mm to cm in size.
Figure 6.278: Banded iron formation at UTM 36S 730030, 8708600, sheet 1135 Lupilichi
(sample 38413), showing interlocking quartz grains and anhedral grains and bands/aggregates
of magnetite. Fields of view: 4,4x5,4 mm and 1,2x1,5 mm, respectively.
Geochemical data (XRF) shows large variations between the two samples, perhaps
mainly due to the different hosts of the iron oxides (Chapter 10).
Sample SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 TiO2 MgO CaO Na2O K2O MnO P2O5 LOI Total
25,68 0,00 0,07 0,29 0,11 0,01 0,06 0,07 0,44 98,19
38413 71,24 0,20
31815 17,79 19,04 49,23 2,34 0,73 0,20 <0,01 3,04 0,10 0,07 4,52 97,03
Sample
38413
31815
Nb
n.d.
12
Zr
22
275
Y
5
n.d.
Sr
7
158
Rb
n.d.
113
U
n.d.
n.d.
Th
9
17
Pb
435
n.d.
Cr
23
1261
V
39
1030
As
n.d.
n.d.
Sc
n.d.
47
Sample Hf
Ba
Sb
Ga
Zn
Cu
Ni
Co
Ce
La
Nd
12
149
11
n.d.
289
317
5
52
n.d.
n.d.
12
38413
31
373
n.d.
101
271
n.d.
478
240
143
35
n.d.
31815
Table 6.3: Geochemistry (XRF) of banded iron formations (BIF) in the Txitonga Group. n.d.:
below detection level.
Ta
18
54
269
SEM analyses of sample 38413 reveals the presence of small grains of barite and lots of
minute grains of a complex Pb phosphate-sulphate of the corkite-hinsdalite series:
Pb(Fe,Al)3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6.
6.16.6 Meta-arkosic to meta-arenitic sandstone (Unit P3TXss)
In the northern part of the Txitonga Group (i.e. on sheet 1135 Lupilichi) it is possible to
distinguish metasandstones from schists, especially arenitic, and partly calcareous varieties.
Arenitic sandstones cover a large area between the village Tulo and Rio Lupilichi, although
minor units of schist and metagreywacke occur. Because the metasandstones are rather coarsegrained and contain feldspar grains, they have earlier in some cases been mistaken to be granite
or granitic gneiss. Some parts of the rocks may represent igneous rocks, but because of
extensive alteration and weathering, are hard to separate from arenitic metasandstones.
Metasandstones predominate along a traverse southeastwards from the M'Popo alluvial
gold field. Locally they are banded and calcareous. Generally strong weathering makes it
difficult to define any primary structures. A sample of an epiclastic metasandstone (UTM 36S
731036, 8706226) could be termed lithic metagreywacke on the basis of its petrography. The
rock has a high content of very fine-grained matrix (<< 0,1 mm), predominantly muscovite,
and about 20-30 % of clastic grains comprising mainly of quartz and assumed greenstone and
mica-schist.
At locality UTM 36S 727675, 8702265, the relationship between the meta-sandstones
and the more quartz-poor quartz mica schists is seen. Several metre thick beds of arkosic metasandstone alternate with thicker units of muscovite schists. These beds display up to 30 wt%
Al2O3 (13 wt% Fe2O3), strongly suggesting the presence of sillimanite or kyanite. The metasandstones here are pale grey, slightly schistose rocks retaining no primary bedding. They
contain 71 wt% SiO2, 12 wt% Al2O3, and around 1 wt% of both Na2O and K2O.
Fine- to medium-grained, brownish to greenish grey metasandstones predominate along
a west-east profile south of this locality. Both feldspar and quartz clasts (1-2 mm) occur, and
commonly the rocks are calcareous with brown weathered spots. A weak banding is locally
developed. Hydrothermal quartz is commonly found in minor exposures, cobbles and pebbles
in ridges across the traverse.
6.16.7 Greenstone, greenschist and metagabbro (Unit P3TXgb)

Lenses of greenstone, greenschist and metagabbro are especially frequent in the northern half
of the Txitonga Group (i.e. on sheet 1135 Lupilichi), but are also quite common in the southern
part of the Group. These rocks are especially concentrated in the easternmost part of the group,
toward the boundary with the Karoo sedimentary rocks.
In some cases the greenstones can be recognized as metagabbro, commonly finegrained microgabbro. In other cases they are strongly altered and deformed and should be
termed amphibole-chlorite schist or greenschist. In previous reports and maps the term
amphibolite has been used, but since the rocks do not contain hornblende, but only actinolite,
epidote and chlorite, which are typical of greenschist metamorphism, the correct terms are
greenstone and greenschist. The greenstone is fine- to medium-grained and variably foliated
(Figure 6.279). At places it has been transformed into greenschist, enriched in chlorite and
epidote.
270
Petrographic study of the greenstone shows fine-grained (0,2-0,4 mm) amphibole

needles and plates, probably actinolite. Very fine-grained (<< 0,1 mm) epidote is disseminated
throughout the matrix, while grains up to 0,6 mm comprise epidote aggregates. These may
represent amygdales, indicating a meta-volcanic origin.
Figure 6.279: Photomicrograph of greenstone from UTM 36S 732766, 8705176,

sheet 1135 Lupilichi, sample 31819, showing laths of actinolite, partly replaced by
chlorite (green colour) and muscovite (vivid colours). Fine-grained relics of
plagioclase and quartz (light grey) are interstitial phases. Field of view:
2,4x3,0mm.
271
Figure 6.280: Photomicrograph of microgabbro present in the Caguru gold

field, dominated by laths of actinolite and plagioclase in random orientation.
Small grains of epidote are scattered in the view. UTM 36S 739550, 8714130,
sheet 1135 Luplilichi, sample 31856. Field of view:2,4 x 3,0mm.
The microgabbro around the Caguru gold field (UTM 36S 739550, 8714130) is partly
sheared, mylonitic and altered to quartz-chlorite schist and quartz-sericite schist. The least
deformed and unaltered amphibolite is dominated by green clino-amphibole (~50 %, probably
actinolite), while the other 50 % consists mainly of plagioclase, quartz and epidote. Iron
oxides, chlorite and titanite are present in subordinate and trace amounts. The plagioclase is
present in laths with a random orientation, obviously a relict texture (Figure 6.280).
According to the geochemical data (Chapter 10), the greenstones and gabbros in the
Txitonga Group are sub-alkaline basalt to basaltic andesite in composition. On the basis of the
contents of rather immobile trace elements like TiO2, Zr and Y, they have been formed in a
continental environment (i.e. within plate affinity).
The greenstones and gabbro bodies occur in a rather restricted part of the Txitonga
Group, namely in the lower part toward the eastern side, close to the boundary to the Karoo
Supergroup. This may suggest that they represent dikes and sill-like intrusions into the
sedimentary rocks.
6.16.8 Quartz-feldspar porphyry (715 20 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3TXpq)
A lens of quartz-feldspar porphyry constitutes a minor ridge across the track from M'Popo to
Lupilichi (sample 31818, UTM 36S 732056, 8705434). It comprises angular to rounded
porphyroblasts (0,5-5 mm) of quartz, K-feldspar and plagioclase (totally 40%) in a very fine-
272
grained (< 0,1 mm) quartz-feldspar dominated matrix (60%) that contains minor muscovite,
biotite and calcite (Figure 6.281). The porphyry is interpreted to represent a felsic sub-volcanic
rock metamorphosed in greenschist facies. Analyses of zircons give a magmatic crystallisation
age of 715 20 Ma that probably represents the time of deposition of the Txitonga Group.
Figure 6.281: Quartz-feldspar

porphyry. (UTM 36S 732056,
8705434, sheet 1135 Lupilichi).
Sample 31818, Field of view: 5,4
x 4,4 mm.
6.16.9 Quartz veins (Unit qv)

Quartz veins are too thin to be shown on the 1:250 000 sheets, and are shown only on the
1:50.000 sheets. They are common in the Txitonga Group, but are perhaps more frequent in the
western part, within the chlorite- and quartz-mica schist unit. In outcrop the quartz veins have
commonly been broken up into blocks, cobbles and pebbles forming sometimes extended
ridges. They are usually almost mono-mineralic, with few flakes of muscovite and rusty specks
that may have been sulphides. The quartz veins are important hosts for gold in a number of
places, e.g. in the important gold fields at M'Papa and Caguru in the northern part of the group
(see Chapter 13). The veins intrude all the other lithologies and structures and are therefore
later than the regional foliation in the area, and are perhaps related to the regional sericitisation.
6.17 Geci Group

6.17.1 Introduction
Pinna et al. (1993) described the Geci Group rocks from three separate, though spatially linked,
localities (Rio Messinge, Serra Macuta and Serra Geci) within Unango Complex rocks. At
Serra Macuta and Serra Geci, they reported preserved primary unconformable contacts with the
basement granite. At Serra Geci, the basement rocks are overlain by weakly metamorphosed
boulder to fine-pebble conglomerates, varved sediments with glacial dropstones and metalimestones with intra-formational carbonate breccia (Pinna et al., 1993). Weakly
metamorphosed grey and white limestones with thin sandstones and grey phyllites were
observed at UTM 701088 8573028.
6.17.2 Tectonostratigraphic features
The Geci Group rocks occur in Serra Macuta and Serra Geci as two large, southwest-northeasttrending tectonic lenses 12 km apart, with Unango Complex rocks between them (Figure
6.282). These lenses consist of low-grade metamorphosed carbonate rocks with subordinate
273
chlorite-muscovite schists and conglomerate. The Geci rocks occur as tectonically emplaced
units in rocks, which have experienced granulite-facies metamorphism. Although contacts
between the Geci rocks and the adjacent granulite complexes are not exposed, the sharp
discordance in metamorphic grade implies the presence of tectonic boundaries. The lenses
representing the Geci Group are assumed to be tectonically dissected units with no primary
contact with the basement rocks preserved.
Figure 6.282: Location map and main geological units in the northwestern part of Niassa
Province, showing the location of the Geci Group (in blue)
The largest lense occurs at Serra Geci where it has a tectonostratigraphic thickness of
approximately 2 km and is represented by different lithologies. The true stratigraphic thickness
remains unknown due to intensive, tight, mesoscopic folding. Most of the rocks, particularly
those in marginal parts of the lense, have been affected by intense shearing and mylonitisation.
The mylonitised rocks are fine-grained and show a thin, platy, parallel fabric, well pronounced
stretching lineation and considerable tectonic thinning.
274
6.17.3 Metavolcanite (Unit P3GCvo)

This is a minor lithological unit on the sheet, occurring as a single tectonic lense, juxtaposed
against Unango Complex granulite-facies rocks in a complex strike-slip ductile shear zone
array. However, this appears to be a distinct unit on the aeromagnetic data and its importance
for the tectonic context is outlined below.
The rock type in outcrop consists of a very fine grained, apparently mafic rock, which
is heavily weathered to a dull orange colour on the surface. It contains visible porphyroblasts
of cubic black mineral, possibly magnetite. The rock contains a very weak foliation. In some
patches the rock appears to be silicified and to be more finely grained with no phenocrysts: the
rock has a very weak compositional layering which was not possible to ascertain because of the
fine grain size. This is possibly a metatuff. In one outcrop (thin section described below) thin,
dark-coloured veinlets, which appear to be pseudotachylitic, are observed. These structures are
common in this lithological unit and are often very extensive, so much so that they obscure the
primary volcanic textures: these structures are probably related to the juxtaposition of the
different tectonic units in this area.
In thin section, this unit displays remnants of a porphyritic texture with phenocrysts of
quartz and plagioclase up to 3mm in a finer-grained matrix, predominantly of quartz (Figure
6.283). Although this rock is overprinted by brittle-ductile microshears, it displays limited
metamorphism. The lack of metamorphism and the volcanic nature of this lithology makes it
unlikely that it forms a part of the Unango Complex, although it is tectonically juxtaposed on
all sides with Unango Complex granulites. The affinity of this lithological unit is therefore
uncertain, but it is tentatively assigned to the Geci Group: it is probably a 'far-travelled'
tectonic sliver, not unlike the limestone units and conglomerate units in other arrays of the
same shear zone system. Indeed, there is the possibility that the conglomerate described below
has been derived from such a volcanic unit.
Figure 6.283: Acid
metavolcanic rock seen at
locality UTM 36S: 749391,
8595810, sheet 1235
Macaloge-Chiconono (sample
035210). The rock type
consists of large phenocrysts
of quartz and feldspar in a
fine-grained groundmass,
mostly of quartz with minor
feldspar. The original texture
is only locally preserved due
to the presence of pervasive
brittle ductile micro-shears
cutting the sample. Field of
view: 4 x 3 mm.
6.17.4 Conglomerate with pebbles of fine-grained granite (Unit P3GCco)

A thin, minor conglomerate unit is present in the southwestern part of sheet 1235 MacalogeChiconono. This unit is interpreted as a tectonic lens. Its fine-grained sericite-rich matrix
exhibits a marked foliation whereas the clasts are only moderately deformed, with a steep
275
northwest-dipping foliation trending approximately northeast-southwest: the clasts are

amygdaloidal with calcite-filled vesicles. The conglomerate is apparently monomictic and
matrix-supported, with rounded to subangular meta-volcanic clasts that vary in size from a few
centimetres to 20-30 cm across. The conglomerate is more than 10 m thick but its contacts and
extent are unknown.
The clasts comprise a light greyish rock composed of plagioclase, sericite, calcite,
magnetite and leucoxene, forming a very fine-grained (0.01 to 0.1 mm), allotriomorphic
texture typical of low-grade (lower greenschist facies) mafic and intermediate volcanics.
Amygdules (up to 1mm across) are abundant and are filled with calcite with a thin lining of
fine-grained quartz (Figure 6.284), indicating a shallow-marine or sub-aerial eruption for the
volcanic source rock. The chemical composition is altered, but stable trace element ratios
suggest a fractionated alkali basaltic precursor.
Figure 6.284: Photomicrograph (ordinary
light) of meta-volcanic clast in Geci
conglomerate (sample 31775) (UTM
729567, 8584195, sheet 1235 MacalogeChiconono),. Slightly elongated amygdule
with quartz lining and calcite interior. The
rock shows relics of a primary ophitic/subophitic texture with plagioclase laths in an
altered, sericite-leucoxene rich matrix.
Width of image: 5 mm.
6.17.5 Mica schist (Unit P3GCsc)

Pinna et al. (1993) reported finding schistose rocks of undefined thickness as a basal unit to the
Geci Group. South of Serra Geci (UTM 733892 8572596) a small isolated exposure of mica
schist has been observed about 2 km south of the carbonates. We regard this locality as part of
a tectonic lens, in which the basal units of the Geci Group may crop out. On the map this lens
is separate from the carbonates of the Geci Group but may be part of the same tectonic system.
Further west (UTM 731555 8576358) several small exposures of extremely fine-grained white
muscovite-, quartz-rich schists with possible fibrolite, occur together with a more magnesian
chlorite schist with pyrite. We interpret these to be highly deformed rocks of the western
tectonic border of the Geci Group. It is possible that this tectonic zone may have taken up some
supracrustals rocks from the Geci Group during shear development.
6.17.6 Limestone (Unit P3GCli)
The core of the lense is less deformed, and the rocks preserve primary sedimentary structures
and contacts striking east-northeast at 82q, dipping 70-80q southeastwards. Three main
lithologies have been recognised in the lense: (i) bedded or laminated (Figure 6.285a-b), (ii)
massive or graded with a clastic appearance (Figure 6.285c-e) (iii) sedimentary breccia (Figure
6.285f). The bedded and laminated carbonate rocks are the dominant lithology. The bedding is
very regular, and is mainly due to alternation between 1-30 cm thick, pale grey, medium
crystalline, indistinctly laminated beds and a few millimetre-thick, dark grey, fine-grained, siltrich beds (Figure 6.285a). Some beds show rhythmic lamination (Figure 6.285b).
276
The massive carbonate rocks with clastic fabric occur as 10 - 80 cm-thick bodies, which
commonly grade along strike in to distinctly graded beds (Figure 6.285c). Commonly, only
two units can be recognised in the graded beds. The bed starts with a thick unit of graded
carbonate meta-sandstone (clastic, redeposited carbonates) and ends with a thin, fine-grained,
silt-rich unit (Figure 6.285d). These two units appear to correspond to the Ta and Te units of a
Bouma sequence. A few beds have a cross-bedded unit Tc and massive unit Td (Figure 6.285c).
Several graded beds show syn-sedimentary faulting (Figure 6.285e) and folding (Figure
6.285g). Many beds have an erosional base (Figure 6.285f-h). Erosion channels are filled with
clastic carbonates showing both normal and reverse graded bedding (Figure 6.285h).
Carbonate breccias occur sporadically in several places. However, due to folding it is
not possible to infer whether there are many beds or only a few, which are tectonically
repeated. The breccias have sharp, commonly erosional contacts with the underlying carbonate
beds. The breccias are both matrix- (Figure 6.285f) and clast-supported (Figure 6.285i)
Fragments, pebbles and smaller clasts are mainly of dolomite which appears to be pale grey on
the weathered (Figure 6.285f) and dark grey on a fresh surface. The rocks can be categorised as
dolorudites when the dolostone clasts dominate. In places, the clast composition is more
diverse (Figure 6.285i). The majority of the clasts are angular and platy to poorly-rounded
(Figure 6.285f, i). The matrix is a grey, fine-grained, carbonate material with a rather massive
appearance (Figure 6.285f). Staining by Alizarin-red and microscopic study suggest that the
carbonate rocks are composed of three different components occurring in variable proportions.
The first, dominant, component is fine to medium-crystalline calcite whereas the second and
third components are represented by dolostone and limestone clasts (Figure 6.286). All the
components show variable degrees of tectonic flattening and orientation. The number of
limestone clasts is limited. All of those observed were extremely recrystallised, have diffuse
boundaries and are composed of crystalline calcite (Figure 6.286a). The dolostone clasts range
in size from 0.5 mm to 20 cm. Most of the larger clasts are angular and composed of
dolomicrite, whereas smaller clasts are represented by rounded to sub-angular particles of
dolomicrite (Figure 6.286b), crystalline dolomite and dolomicrite chips (Figure 6.286c). The
latter may represent ripped-off fragments of dolomitised microbial mats. This inference is
supported by the fact that the abundant highly disrupted microbial dolomicritic sheets are
present in many medium- to large-size clasts (Figure 6.286d). Many samples contain numerous
oolites or their partially recrystallised relicts. Some show concentric structures (Figure 6.286e)
and dolospar cores (Figure 6.286f). Others have radial rims and dolospar cores (Figure 6.286g)
or micritic rims and dolospar cores, which exhibit either partial or complete calcitisation.
277
278
Figure 6.285: Sedimentological features of the Geci metamorphosed carbonate rocks from
Serra Geci, sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono. (a) Bedded unit composed of alternating thick,
pale grey meta-limestone beds and dark grey, silt-rich beds. Pencil 12 cm. UTM 736356
8576736; (b) rhythmically bedded meta-limestone unit (B2) sandwiched between two finegrained, meta-limestone beds with massive appearance (B1 and B3). Coin 2cm in diameter.
UTM 736356 8576736; (c) pale grey meta-dolarenite overlying darker, fine-grained metalimestone; the meta-dolarenite shows a Bouma sequence consisting of Ta (graded), Tc (crossbedded) and Td (massive) units. UTM 736587 8576692; (d) three two-unit Bouma sequences
each starting with thick Ta unit of graded dolarenite and ends with thin, fine-grained, silt-rich
Te unit. UTM 736538 8576688; (e) three grey, fine-grained meta-limestone beds (B1 B3)
with vague lamination overlain by graded-bedded meta-dolarenite (B4); white specks in the
meta-dolarenite are dolostone clasts in a darker calcite matrix; B2 shows synsedimentary
faulting with displacement indicated by red arrows; pencil 12 cm. UTM 736535 8576690; (f)
carbonate breccia where fragments (pale grey) emplaced in dark grey, calcite matrix; note the
sharp contact (arrowed in red) with the underlying meta-limestone bed. UTM 736582
8576695; (g) erosion channel (arrowed in red) in the Bouma sequence. The channel is filled
with dolarenite (B3) and overlain by B4 showing wavy bedding plain. Beds B1 and B2 exhibit
synsedimentary folds which was apparently caused by loading of the channel infill. UTM
736587 8576692; (h) sequence of channel infills; deeply eroded bed B1 (erosion surface is
arrowed by red) infilled with meta-dolarenite (B2) showing normal grading whereas the
younger infill (above black arrows) exhibits reverse grading; (i) dolorudite with variable
composition of carbonate clasts showing platy, angular and poorly rounded shapes.
6.17.7 Depositional environment
The Geci carbonate rocks have sedimentary structures, which are typical of those observed in
turbidity current deposits. Many beds show erosional bases suggesting that a high-density,
suspended, clastic material was transported over an eroded soft, non-consolidated lime mud.
Although a high degree of recrystallisation has severely obliterated microstructures in the finegrained meta-limestones, they always contain variable proportions of dolomite clasts.
Moreover, there are abundant carbonate breccias where dolomite clasts are emplaced in a
calcite matrix (Figure 6.285f). Giving the fact that only a very few limestone clasts have been
observed, it is very likely that the Geci carbonate rocks incorporated carbonate material from
two distinctively different provenances. The dolomite clasts were transported over a certain
distance whereas the meta-limestones apparently represent background sediments in which redeposited dolomite clasts were incorporated. This also implies that formation of the dolomite
(either via dolomitisation or via primary dolomite precipitation) had occurred prior to redeposition of sedimentary material by turbidity currents. The presence of oolites, chips and
larger fragments of microbial dolomites suggest that these materials have originally formed in
a shallow-water, agitated marine environment, i.e., a carbonate platform.
Clastic carbonate sequences deposited from turbidity currents are a typical feature of
carbonate platform margins (Bechstdt and Boni, 1989; Grotzinger, 1989; James et al., 1989;
Jiang et al., 2003). Wilson (1975) defined three types of carbonate platform margin
corresponding to (1) energetically quiet, (2) moderate and (3) rough seas. All three types of
environment usually produce talus on the foreslope to the carbonate platform margin.
However, type 3 margins are characterised in particular by the development of widespread
talus blocks, debris flows and turbidites on foreslopes and in deep-shelf settings (Wilson, 1975,
Leeder, 1982). Sedimentological features of the Geci carbonate rocks are most consistent with
a type 3 carbonate platform margin.
279
Figure 6.286: Photomicrographs of polished sections demonstrating petrographic features of

the Geci metamorphosed carbonate rocks from Serra Geci, sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono.
(a) Alizarin-red stained polished section showing dolomicritic clasts (dark grey), recrystallised
limestone clasts (pale pink indicated by arrows) in calcite matrix (pink); (b) polished section
showing rounded dolomicrite clasts in a fine-grained calcite matrix; (c) dolomicrite chips,
oolite and softly-deformed dolomicritic clasts in a fine-grained calcite matrix; (d) Alizarin-red
stained polished section showing desiccated microbial dolomicrite (dark grey) with calcitefilled fenestrae; (e) dolomitic oolite with concentric structure emplaced in medium-grained
calcite; (f) several dolomitic oolites with concentric structure and calcitised cores. Scale bar in
all images 1 mm.
The Geci meta-limestones have been dated using chemostratigraphic methods: the
least-altered 87Sr/86Sr and G13C ratios suggest an apparent depositional age of either 590-585 or
630-625 Ma. This provides a lower age limit for juxtaposition of the low-grade Geci Group
rocks and granulite-facies rocks of the Unango Complex.
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6.18 Neoproterozoic to Palaeozoic intrusions

6.18.1 Introduction
A great variety of igneous rocks that are not an integral part of the Meso- to Neoproterozoic
gneiss complexes have been distinguished in northeastern Mozambique. They range in age
from Neoproterozoic to Jurassic, although syn- to post-tectonic Pan-African intrusions
predominate. Some of these intrusives are clearly related, and comprise intrusive suites that are
described in separate sub-chapters below. Other individual intrusives are described in relation
to the complex in which they occur. Additionally, the kimberlite dykes and pipes are described
in Chapter 6.19.
6.18.2 Syn- to post-tectonic intrusions in the Unango Complex
Monte Naumale syenite (Unit P3NC): Monte Naumale is an extended mountain ridge to the
southeast of Meponda, reaching a maximum altitude of 851 m above sea level (at UTM 36S
704620, 8511800). It comprises a complex of leucocratic alkaline syenitic rocks including
nepheline syenite, alkali-feldspar syenite, and Na-pyroxene-amphibole rocks (Lulin et al.,
1985). The length of the complex is about 9 km, whereas it is 0.5 to 2 km wide. It is fairly
massive in the central part, and more foliated and mylonitic towards the contact to the
surrounding biotite-gneisses. It is often porphyritic with large K-feldspar crystals. An
emplacement age of 755 115Ma (reactivated at about 538 Ma) is quoted for the Monte
Naumale syenite (Lulin et al., 1985).
BRGM investigated this syenite complex in 1981-82 because it gave a radiometric
anomaly that was thought to be possibly due to uranium minerals. This was followed up by
further work by Yugoslav geologists in 1983-85 (see Chapter 13).
Monte Chissindo Nepheline Syenite (799 8 Ma, U-Pb) (P3CH): Monte Chissindo is situated in
the western part of sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono (UTM 36S 731230, 8624610). With a
height of 1581 m.a.s.l., it rises about 800 m above the flat plains of Karoo rocks to the north
and granulitic rocks to the south. The main mountain was not visited for two reasons. Firstly,
the local community regards it as a holy mountain and permission is unlikely to be granted
for any future mining even if an important mineral occurrence were to be found. Secondly, a
great deal of detailed geological work has already been done on the mountain (Drozdov et al.
1983, Mroz 1983, Hunting 1988). However, a traverse was made along the eastern side of the
mountain as a check on the previous mapping. The results of the traverse are summarised, as
follows:
x The flood plain along the Rio Messinge downstream of Monte Chissindo is extremely
fertile. The local communities already recognise this and grow a wide variety of crops
on the floodplain. The floodplain sediment is presumably enriched in phosphates
weathered from Monte Chissindo.
x A north-northwest-trending narrow ridge immediately east of Monte Chissindo is
underlain by mylonites within a major shear zone. A variety of sheared rocks are
preserved in the shear that is locally mineralised according to previous geological
investigations.
x Gabbroic dykes that cut massive enderbites on the eastern side of Monte Chissindo
have exploited the shear zone.
x The immediate country rocks east of Monte Chissindo are massive migmatitic biotitegneiss and plagioclase-amphibolite. These are separated from massive granofelsic rocks
(enderbites) by the north-northwest -trending shear zone.
281
The eastern side of Monte Chissindo consists of syenitic rocks. Thin sections show that the
syenites are deformed with a secondary biotite foliation, straining of the felsic minerals with
common secondary calcite. These effects may be due to the shearing noted along the eastern
margin of the intrusion.
The syenite is composed primarily of biotite, hornblende/alkali amphibole, plagioclase,
K-feldspar and quartz, with minor sericite, calcite, muscovite, zircon, titanite and opaques
(Figure 6.287). Highly strained and altered rock, with strained and embayed quartz and
feldspar grains also occur: these display quartz grains recrystallised into aggregates of tiny
grains. Intergrowths of the various feldspars are common. Subhedral K-feldspar grains have
irregular albitic overgrowths as well as secondary calcite. Quartz is interstitial to the feldspars.
Brown biotite flakes are concentrated in trails or clusters. Calcite is a common replacement
phase. Zircon occurs in trails of relatively large grains up to 1mm in diameter. Dating by laser
ICP-MS on zircons from sample 31997 (UTM 36S 733103, 8625759) gave an age of 799 8
Ma (see Chapter 11).
Figure 6.287: Textures in the Monte Chissindo Syenite. (Top left): Resorbed boundaries
around alkali feldspar grains. Quartz grains are interstitial to feldspar and are strained,
sample 31996(UTM 36S 733213 862557), Field of view: 4,4x5,4 mm. (Top right):
Aggregates of biotite and alkali amphibole, sample 31996, Field of view: 4,4x5,4mm.
(Bottom left): Granulated quartz and alkali feldspar laths with albitic overgrowths. Some
biotite, muscovite and calcite, sample 31997(UTM 36S 733103, 8625759), Field of view:
4,4x5,4 mm. (Bottom right): Fragmented titanite grain with associated alkali-amphibole,
sample 31996, Field of view: 1,2x1,5 mm.
282
Monte Sanga Quartz Porphyry (Unit P3MS): This porphyritic intrusive complex, on sheet 1235
Macaloge-Chiconono, includes quartz-feldspar porphyry, porphyritic granites and microgranites with minor dioritic rocks and a suite of basaltic dykes. The intrusive age of these rocks
is as yet unknown, but it is unlikely that they are the same age as the granites situated further to
the northeast (see Chapter 6.3). The quartz-feldspar porphyry and porphyritic granite form the
bulk of the Monte Sanga mass from the quartz-feldspar porphyry dyke-like ridge at UTM 36S
756852, 8629198 and from the hill at UTM 36S 756891, 8632816 and south to the main crag
below Monte Sanga (UTM 36S 754664, 8630780) and the gully to the northeast (UTM 36S
754484, 8630700; sample 31940).
The quartz-feldspar porphyry is a grey pinkish, feldspar-rich igneous rock in which the
foliation, only locally developed, formed at low, probably epidote-greenschist grade. Sample
31937 (Figure 6.288b) contains some nearly euhedral quartz phenocrysts and some are
embayed within a fine-grained matrix. There are also some perthitic K-feldspar phenocrysts
and minor small hornblende in the matrix which includes fine-grained opaque ores and
plagioclase. The porphyritic granite is pink and locally contains biotite and iron ore minerals. It
also contains a local foliation with some epidote in small fractures. Where the rock is
unfoliated, rounded clear quartz phenocrysts 2-3 mm in diameter can be observed (Figure
6.288a). These rocks are cut by micro-granitic or aplitic dykes and also by basaltic dykes.
Figure 6.288: (A) Photomicrograph of porphyritic granite near Mount Sanga, sample 31944,
UTM 36S 755006, 8627752, sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono, Field of view: 4,4x5,4mm. (B)
Photomicrograph of quartz-feldspar porphyry dyke, sample 31937, UTM 36S 756852,
8629198, Field of view: 4,4 x 5,4mm.
The numerous basaltic dykes in this area are dark greenish grey, usually with small
feldspars and disseminated pyrite. The general trend of the dykes is 12q-30q northeast and they
are near vertical. Some dykes have thin, late epidote veins. Other dykes are more massive with
large, white near-euhedral plagioclase feldspars and generally lack a foliation (e.g. at localities
UTM 36S 757930, 8629198 and UTM 36S 756115, 8629046). At UTM 36S 770147, 8647998
a ridge is composed of a related dioritic rock with fine-grained mafic xenoliths (sample 31938).
Farther north at UTM 36S 754550, 8632004, there is a body of dioritic rock (sample 31941)
associated with basaltic and micro-granite intrusions.
Northwest of the main road to the north, at UTM 36S 763830, 8641476, there is a body
of granitic rock (sample 31942) locally deformed at greenschist grade. It is not certain whether
the micro-granitic rock (sample 31943) is related to this, as it has a more granoblastic texture,
which is only slightly strained.
283
Basic to acid dykes (Units P3gb, do, gd, gr): Numerous dykes varying in composition from
basaltic to granitic occur in various areas in the Unango Complex, but are particularly
concentrated in an area to the east of the Maniamba Graben on sheet 1235 MacalogeChiconono, and along the border with Malawi, from around Meponda in the northwest and
southeastwards on sheets 1334 Meponda, 1335 Lichinga, 1435 Mandimba and 1436 Cuamba.
East of the Maniamba Graben they appear to have a preferred northeast-southwest orientation,
i.e. parallel to the direction of the Karoo basin, but other directions are also common. In the
south, a northwest-southeast trend is common, i.e. parallel to the extension of the Niassa Suite,
although other orientations occur commonly. The thickness of the dykes is from less than a
metre to several tens of metres. The variation in composition, orientation and deformation
clearly indicate they are probably of various ages.
Basic compositions form the majority of these dykes in the area east of the Maniamba
Graben. They are 10-50 m thick, and are variably porphyritic with up to 3 cm-long euhedral
plagioclase crystals. Chemical analysis shows a normal basaltic composition with ~50% SiO2.
Their interior parts are virtually undeformed, but the dykes are clearly affected by greenschist
facies metamorphism. They have an ophitic texture with radiating acicular plagioclase laths in
an altered microcrystalline groundmass of brown biotite, calcite and some opaque grains. In
some dykes the groundmass is altered to chlorite and epidote. The dykes show a well-preserved
ophitic texture under the microscope, with 0.2-0.3mm lath-shaped plagioclase crystals that are
partially or completely included in clinopyroxene crystals (Figure 6.289). Magnetite and
leucoxene are minor phases. The clinopyroxene (probably augite) is partly replaced by chlorite.
Plagioclase laths and phenocrysts are heavily altered to a dense saussuritic assemblage
consisting mostly of epidote, the latter reflecting the calcic nature of the primary feldspar.
Figure 6.289: Photomicrograph
of meta-basaltic dyke (sample
35231). Saussuritic plagioclase
laths (white/clouded) are
included in clinopyroxene (light
pinkish brown) that is partly
altered to chlorite (green).
Width of image 1,5 mm. UTM
36S 731530, 8599388, sheet
Mafic to intermediate dykes are also found at several localities on sheets 1234
Meponda and 1235 Lichinga. In addition, a few ultramafic dykes have been found in the
southern part of the Lichinga sheet. On the basis of their appearance, crosscutting relationships
and degree of metamorphic overprint, the dykes are obviously of different ages. The older
dykes are generally more retrograded, and often contain biotite, muscovite or chlorite, formed
at the expense especially of the mafic phases.
284
Ultramafic dykes were noted in the larger exposures of the banded gneisses and
homogenous migmatites. The dykes are thin (less than 5 m) and could not be traced away from
individual exposures. The larger dykes have variable trends (northwest-southeast, northnorthwest south-southeast, northeast-southwest). The dykes are black, fine-grained rocks
with large (up to 2 cm long) radiating amphibole laths. Small, disseminated grains of sulphide
and magnetite are ubiquitous. Thicker dykes have chilled margins. These dykes are probably of
only one generation.
Doleritic or mafic dykes form at least two generations, but both cut across structural
and textural features in the various gneisses. The older generation of dykes is more common in
the southern part of sheet 1335 Lichinga. They are generally retrograded, fine-grained rocks
with minor (<5%) randomly oriented altered feldspar laths up to about 5mm in length. The
thicker dykes (0.2-5 m) generally have preserved chilled margins (Figure 6.290).
Figure 6.290: Mafic dyke crosscutting migmatitic biotite gneiss.
Note the thin, darker chilled
margin. Thickness of dyke
approximately 25 cm. Location
~3 km south of the village
Naicuanha (UTM 36S 738120,
The dykes generally trend northwest-southeast, which corresponds to the general

direction of a number of faults and fractures, close to Lago Niassa. Thin sections reveal a
magmatic texture defined by radiating plagioclase laths (Figure 6.291). Biotite has completely
replaced the primary mafic mineral(s) as ragged grains interstitial to plagioclase. Muscovite
occurs in minor amounts as a replacement phase and opaques are disseminated as tiny grains
throughout the thin section. The sample shown in Figure 6.291 was dated by the U-Pb method
on zircons by laser ICP-MS. The age of this specific dyke (unit P3do) was determined to be
988 20 Ma (See Chapter 11), a surprisingly old age, considering how well preserved the dyke
is. A number of faults and fractures that are related to the opening of the rift are found,
especially close to Lago Niassa. These typically strike northwest-southeast (i.e. 120), and dip
vertically. Some of these fault structures have been pathways for magma of basaltic to
andesitic composition. The dykes are generally 10-100 cm wide and generally have chilled
margins, 1-3 cm wide (Figure 6.293). They are very fine-grained, almost glassy with mm-sized
laths of plagioclase and scattered phenocrysts of subhedral to euhedral plagioclase and
pyroxene (Figure 6.292). Iron-oxides/-hydroxides form a network of lath- and dendritic-shaped
grains. The matrix consists of a greenish-brown submicroscopic mass of clay minerals and
chlorite, that probably originally was volcanic glass or sub-microscopic mineral grains.
285
Comparing these dykes with the presumed older dykes from further south, and
described above, the former are more fine-grained and glassy, and the matrix and phenocrysts
are better preserved. Therefore they must be much younger, and are probably related to the
rifting along Lago Niassa. An interesting phenomenon that is probably related to one of the
fault zones is a thermal spring that was found close to the Rio Luangua, east of the village
Machele (UTM 36S 710425, 8519735). It is a pool about 10 m wide containing water with a
temperature of about 30 oC. A distinct smell of sulphur was noticed. Five samples of the dykes
have been analysed by XRF. Four samples classify as monzo-gabbros in the Debon & LeFort
diagram (see Chapter 10), while one is a quartz-monzonite. The presumably older dyke that
was dated has the same composition as the younger ones from the Lago Niassa area.
Gabbroic dykes (unit P3gb) on sheet 1436 Cuamba predominantly follow a different
trend, southeast-northwest: some of the dykes can be traced for as much as 20 km, and several
are clearly collinear with major fracture zones. These dykes, unlike many of those described
above, are sufficiently wide for representation as mote than a thin line at 1:250 000 scale.
Dykes of a similar composition, but with different orientations (west-southwest eastnortheast, and north-northwest - south-southeast) are also found.
Figure 6.291: Photomicrograph of mafic dyke with magmatic texture defined by oriented
plagioclase laths. Mafic phases replaced by fine-grained aggregate of phyllosilicates. Scattered
tiny opaque grains. Field of view: 5,4 x 4,4mm. Sample 31259 (UTM 36S 771129, 8481688,
sheet 1335 Lichinga)
The intermediate dykes east of the Maniamba Graben are richer in plagioclase. They
commonly have a porphyritic texture with plagioclase crystals up to 0.5cm in a finer
groundmass. Fine-grained sulphide can be found disseminated in the rocks. These dykes have a
SiO2 content of ~60%.
Microporphyritic trachytic dykes that are too small to be shown at 1:250,000 were
mapped on sheet 1435 Mandimba and 1436 Cuamba. They were found as the youngest phase
in large exposures of Unango Complex gneisses as blue-grey, subvertical dykes trending
northwest-southeast. Feldspar and mafic microphenocrysts occur in a flow-banded
groundmass. In thin section (sample 33506, sheet 1436 Cuamba, UTM 36S 821639, 8425874)
the feldspar phenocrysts can be seen to be altered subhedral orthoclase, microcline and
microperthite grains with a local concentric zoning. They are set in a fine-grained groundmass
of tiny green-brown flakes (probably hornblende), biotite, titanite, opaques, quartz and
feldspar. There are titanite overgrowths on the opaque minerals, suggesting that these are
286
ilmenite.
Figure 6.292: Photomicrographs of mafic dyke, showing phenocrysts of plagioclase (left) and
pyroxene (right) in clay-chlorite matrix with mm-laths of plagioclase. Sample 31326, UTM
711010, 8521060, sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono. Field of view: 4,4x5,4 mm (left) and 2,4x3,0
mm (right).
Figure 6.293: Mafic (basaltic) dykes crosscutting biotite-hornblende gneiss. Note chilled margin
and large phenocrysts of plagioclase in lower figure. Both photos from outcrop in Rio Luangua,
northeast of Machele (UTM 36S 711010, 8521060, sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono).
Several microgranitic dykes can also be found east of the Maniamba Graben. Based on
their location and their preferred direction, parallel to the basin, it is assumed that the dykes
were intruded in relation to the formation of the graben. The dykes are, however, never seen to
intrude the Karoo Supergroup and must therefore be older than the deposition of the sediments.
Micro-granite dykes that trend northwest-southeast occur on sheet 1235 Lichinga and
can be traced for tens of kilometres as ridge features although they are individually less than
100 m in thickness. They are pink-weathering, fine-grained feldspar phyric, homogeneous
rocks with minor biotite disseminated in a felsic groundmass. They are generally quite rich in
magnetite. The matrix consists of quartz and highly altered feldspar (probably plagioclase and
K-feldspar). Opaque minerals are disseminated throughout the rock as tiny grains. Traces of
secondary muscovite are present. Feldspar phenocrysts are highly altered with pale brown
micaceous overgrowths (Figure 6.294).
287
Figure 6.294: Photomicrograph

of microgranitic dyke. Larger
sericite-altered phenocrysts in a
quartz-feldspar matrix. Sample
31257 (UTM 36S 752010,
8483378, sheet 1235 MacalogeChiconono), Field of view:
4,4x5,4 mm.
6.18.3 Syn- to post-tectonic intrusions in the Marrupa Complex

Syn- to post-tectonic intrusions in the Marrupa Complex include several granitic to
granodioritic intrusions, as well as an extensive mafic dyke complex.
Serra Mecula Granodiorite (Unit P3gdi): Serra Mecula is a pronounced mountain on the
boundary between sheets 1137 Macalange and 1237 Mecula, rising more than 1000 metres
above the surrounding plains. It consists generally of massive, medium-grained granodiorite.
Parts of the intrusion are more syenitic in composition, with cumulate textures defined by
aligned feldspar laths. The rocks are locally foliated with a lenticular fabric defined by mafic,
as well as felsic lenses, on a cm-scale. Minor aplite and pegmatitic veins have the same
composition as the host granodiorite, suggesting that they are comagmatic. However, the veins
crosscut the foliation in the host, suggesting that the granodiorite is syntectonic, with the
pegmatitic veins forming at the latest stages of deformation. Another minor intrusion of the
same composition is found to the northwest, at Monte Nheu (UTM 37S 381000, 8702000).
Figure 6.295: The pronounced mountain

massif of Serra Mecula, a massive
granodioritic to syenitic syn-kinematic
intrusion. Terrain model from satellite
data (view from the south). Note the
distinct banded layers to the east of the
mountain, which mainly consist of
quartz-feldspar gneisses.
Thin sections show that the main constituent is anhedral to subhedral alkali-feldspar
(60-65%), which is partly meso-perthite and partly orthoclase with blebs of plagioclase. The
288
feldspar laths are locally oriented parallel to a banding defined by mafic seams. Quartz (510%) and plagioclase (5-10%) grains are interstitial to the alkali feldspar grains. Titanite (25%) is common as rounded, fractured grains in mafic seams of hornblende and clinopyroxene
(combined mode of 10-25%). Clinopyroxene grains have pale green colours and are partly
replaced by hornblende (Figure 6.296). Hornblende also occurs as dark green grains. Biotite
and opaque minerals are rare.
Figure 6.296: Serra Mecula syenite

showing pale green clino-pyroxene
laths partly overgrown by darker
green hornblende. Relatively large
rounded to skeletal, disseminated
grains of titanite and large alkali
feldspar grains occur, with
interstitial quartz. Field of view:
4,4x5,4 mm. Sample 37266, UTM
37S 363075, 8667867.
Granite (Unit P3gra): Small syn-tectonic granitic intrusions are also present within sheets 1237
Mecula and 1137 Macalange. There is apparently one larger body (12 x 7 km in extent) about
30 km northeast of Matondovela (UTM 37S 313000, 8680000). This unit was not visited
during the fieldwork, but is apparent on the geophysical maps. Another unit is found in the
southern part of the Mecula sheet, about 6 km southwest of Nanlicha. This unit consists of
foliated, quartz-porphyric, mm-grained, leucocratic granite. It is seen to cut the foliation in the
surrounding migmatitic, banded granodioritic gneiss (Figure 6.297). This leucocratic granite is
also quite similar to dyke-like granitic intrusions of small extent (so-called "leptites" (Pinna et
al. 1993)), which are present at numerous localities.
Figure 6.297: Granitic dyke crosscutting

banded, migmatitic granodioritic gneiss on
sheet 1237 Mecula. Locality: UTM 37S
361930, 8568860.
Mafic dyke complex (Unit do): A number of late mafic dykes are found on sheets 1337
Marrupa and 1237 Mecula and a few also extend onto sheet 1238 Xixano. The dykes occur in a
5-10 km wide belt and extend for at least 220 km in a north-northeast south-southwest
289
direction. The individual dykes are only a few meters wide. Only a couple of outcrops have
been found, but they are well defined on the high-resolution magnetometry because of their
high magnetic signatures and their crosscutting relationships with the gneisses of the Marrupa
Complex (see Figure 6.298).
Figure 6.298: Aeromagnetic data from the

southwest corner of sheet 1237 Mecula,
showing the distinct magnetic signature of
the mafic dykes (north-northeast southsouthwest) crosscutting the westnorthwest east-southeast-trending
banding in the gneiss complex. The red
scale bar is 10 km long. North is up.
In the field the dykes are very fine-grained, dark and glassy with few laths of feldspar
visible. Thin sections reveal an ophitic texture of 0,2-1 mm-long plagioclase laths, 0,1-0,5 mmlong clinopyroxenes, and a mass of brown vitrified glass with radiating textures (Figure 6.299).
Orthopyroxene is an accessory together with scattered 0,1-0,2 mm grains of magnetite. In
sample 33201, the pyroxenes have been transformed to fibrous amphibole (uralite), and
possible olivine to serpentine. The clinopyroxene is calcic augite with a fairly high Mg/Feratio:
Ca0.69-0.76Mg0.73-0.97Fe0.27-0.45Al0.01-0.04Ti0.01-0.02Mn0.01Na0.00-0.01(Si1.90-1.93Al0.07-0.10)O6.
The orthopyroxene is bronzite:
Ca0.09-0.16Mg1.38-1.46Fe0.41-0.43Al0.01-0.02Ti0.00-0.02Mn0.01Cr0.00-0.01(Si1.96-1.98Al0.02-0.04)O6.
The plagioclase is labradorite-bytownite (An67-An70) with up to 5 mol% Fe3+ replacing Al. The
dykes clearly follow a zone of weakness in the crust: their direction is parallel to several
fracture zones that are especially abundant on sheets 1236 Macalange and 1237 Mecula (see
also Chapters 9 and 12).
290
Figure 6.299: Photomicrographs of fine-grained dyke, showing plagioclase laths, pyroxene

and brown patches that are submicroscopic minerals probably after volcanic glass. Sample
33344, UTM 37S, 351797, 8556316, sheet 1337 Marrupa. Field of view: 2.4x3.0 mm.
The major gabbroic dykes shown on sheet 1436 Cuamba are mostly taken from the
published BRGM map. They occur both in the Marrupa and Unango Complexes. In addition, a
large number of thin microgabbro dykes that are too small to be shown at 1:250,000, have been
found. These are listed in the database of field observations. One of the large north-northeasttrending, subvertical gabbroic dykes was examined in the field. It has a typical ophitic texture
and is overlain by dark brown, loamy, stony soils. One thin section (33495, sheet 1436
Cuamba. UTM 37S 262752, 8450224) of a gabbroic dyke showed a sub-ophitic texture of
plagioclase laths and clinopyroxene grains. Quartz grains form part of the fine-grained
interstitial groundmass and larger opaque grains are disseminated throughout the thin section.
6.18.4 Syn- to post-tectonic intrusions in the Xixano Complex
Monte Messuse Olivine Gabbro (P3og): A prominent mountain massif that is dominated by
charnockitic rocks is located in the north-central part of sheet 1338 Namuno. However, in the
southeastern part of the sheet, at Monte Messuse, a massive, unfoliated, homogeneous, coarseto medium-grained, greenish grey leuco-gabbro with plagioclase grains up to 5-10 mm and
approximately 20-30 % mafic minerals, is found. The body is 10 km long and up to 5 km wide.
Near the top of the mountain, a very coarse-grained, almost pegmatitic gabbro with up to 2-3
cm mafic grains and fragments of the medium-grained gabbro (Figure 6.300) and possible
magmatic flow structures around xenoliths of fine-grained doleritic gabbro are also found.
The gabbro is leucocratic and heterogranular, and contains 60-70 vol% plagioclase, as
coarse-grained unorientated laths, commonly 4-8 mm long. Thin sections show that relatively
fresh olivine constitutes 20-25% of the rock volume. The olivine is partly enveloped by
clinopyroxene or talc. Minor, brown pleochroic amphibole (titanian pargasite) and green spinel
(hercynite) are also found within this rim (Figure 6.301). Cracks in the olivine are usually filled
with talc and minor carbonate, serpentine and magnetite. Mineralogically similar and more
medium-grained (0,5-1,5mm) varieties are also found (UTM 37S 443851, 8547858).
291
Figure 6.300: Fragment of medium-grained gabbro in pegmatitic gabbro (UTM 37S 443679,
8548274, sheet 1338 Namuno)
Figure 6.301: Olivine gabbro showing olivine with rim of talc and green spinel (central left
side). (sample 33225, UTM 37S 444145, 8547158, sheet 1338 Namuno. Field of view
3,0x2,4mm).
Alkaline dyke (lamproite) (Unit la): Two dykes of alkaline character were found on sheet 1238
Xixano at (UTM 37S 419790, 8571053) and (UTM 37S 420282, 8570772). The dykes seem to
be rather thin (<10 m wide) and to trend north-northeast south-southwest. They are dark grey
with a weak greenish colour, and are fine to medium-grained. Some slight foliation parallel to
the direction of intrusion was observed in one of them.
The rock has been studied in some detail in one thin section (sample 38421): it has a
rather unusual mineralogy. It consists of 40% sanidine that is strikingly well zoned in thin
section. Characteristic is an abnormal blue colour especially in the outer parts of the grains.
Interference figures on the centres of several grains were fuzzy, but clearly showed negative
sign, with an optic plane normal to prominent (010) twinning probably of the Carlsbad law.
These properties are consistent with those of low-temperature sanidine, which is characteristic
of rapidly cooled igneous rocks.
292
Seven mineral analyses of the feldspar show K2O contents of 16.4 - 16.9%, Al2O3
values of 12.6 - 15.8% and SiO2 values of ~63%. The most striking feature is, however, FeO
values of 2.4 - 6.2%, which is highly unusual for feldspar. The Na2O is low (0.1% or less),
which means that the zoning seen in thin section is due to variation in the Fe-content. The Fe
is thought to replace Al in the mineral structure. The feldspar can also contain up to 0.4%, BaO
and traces of TiO2.
About 40% of the rock is arfvedsonite, an alkali amphibole. Also this mineral has an
abnormal bluish colour and is characterized by an extinction angle of ~45o. Three analyses of
the arfvedsonite show a composition that has hardly ever been reported in the literature (P
Robinson, pers. comm. 2006). The K2O and Na2O contents are 5 - 6%, FeO 12.7 - 13.3% and
MgO 13.0 - 15.4%. TiO2 is up to 3.5%, and CaO is ~1.5%. The high K2O and FeO contents are
especially unusual for this mineral. Other minerals are quartz (~10%) and rutile (~3-4%),
which would make this rock interesting as a source of titanium if it occurred in larger volumes,
and 2-3% zircon. The colour and lack of radiation damage around the zircon grains indicate
that it has a low U-Th content that would make it difficult to date by U-Pb. Another unusual
mineral in this rock is barite, which occurs as interstitial grains in amounts up to 2-3%.
Haematite is also found in small amounts.
Figure 6.302: Alkaline dyke, sample 38421 at (UTM 37S 420282, 8570772, sheet 1238
Xixano). In the centre, bluish arfvedsonite with some rutile. The white mineral is sanidine.
Field of view: 5x8mm
The optics and EDS of the amphibole are indicative of a fairly magnesian, peralkaline
(agpaitic) rock, hence relatively primitive, but with most of the Fe in the ferric state. The
abundance of rutile also suggests that the rock lacks significant ferrous iron. The abundance of
zircon and quartz suggest a highly siliceous magma. The abundance of barite and associated
haematite suggest post-igneous hydrothermal alteration that is hardly suggested by the textural
relationships of the barite. The unusual pale yellow colour and lack of surrounding pleochroic
293
haloes suggest an unusual rutile composition. The rock belongs to the lamproite family, but
the presence of quartz is unusual for this type of rock.
All this data points to these dykes being part of an unusual magmatic province, as well
as perhaps a younger hydrothermal alteration system. The age is supposed to be Palaeozoic,
because rocks of a similar geochemistry are found in Niassa Province, where rocks of
Palaeozoic age occur. Approximately 100km to the north there is a small rift basin of Karoo
sediments that has the same direction as the dykes. The dyke could also be linked to this
rifting.
6.18.5 Monte Miruei Suite: Granite gneiss (74920 Ma, U-Pb) (5459 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit
P3Mir)
Gneissic leucogranites form aligned pods in the southeastern part of the Unango Complex,
mostly in the Metarica area, and more continuous sheets in the southeastern part of sheet 1436
Cuamba. They underlie impressive inselbergs (Figure 6.303) with shear rock faces up to
several hundred metres in height with a characteristic pinkish-orange, mottled weathered
appearance. They are leucocratic, medium-grained rocks that are generally massive, but locally
flaggy. Internal felsic veins are rare and are parallel to a variably developed cm-scale
gneissosity (Figure 6.304). Subhedral pink-white feldspars and disseminated magnetite are
common, and biotite is locally present with rare garnet. Quartz is present in variable amounts.
Three thin sections were examined (33437, 33453 and 33503). Alkali feldspar
(microperthite with or without microcline) and quartz are ubiquitous with or without
plagioclase, hornblende, clinopyroxene, late biotite and accessory amounts of titanite, apatite,
zircon, myrmekite and possible allanite. Alkali feldspars occur as poikilitic grains as well as
smaller grains with embayed and highly strained quartz grains in the groundmass.
Figure 6.303: Typical sugar loaf scenery (Monte Mirue) composed of foliated granite (UTM
37S 265178, 8407757, sheet 1436 Cuamba).
294
Figure 6.304: Gneissic granite with variably assimilated xenoliths of grey gneiss. The
gneissosity in the host granite is weakly developed here (UTM 37S 257967, 8349173, sheet
1436 Cuamba).
6.18.6 Maco Suite: Porphyritic Granite (57317 Ma, U-Pb) (Unit P3CM)
The Monte Maco Suite consists of several bodies of granitic composition in the central part of
sheet 1338 Namuno. The name is taken from Monte Maco, which is the highest mountain in
the area (UTM 37S 456000, 8506000) at 1219m above sea level. The intrusions are clearly
later than the main, penetrative Pan-African deformation; no deformation can be seen in the
central parts of the biggest intrusions, but the rims are somewhat affected by the Pan-African
event.
Jamal (2005) dated one of the massifs south of the town of Namuno (sample 98JD02,
UTM 37S 466452, 8507328) and obtained an age of 607 6 Ma. A smaller intrusion (not
marked on the map) farther west (UTM 37S 415746, 8508958) was dated in this project and
gave an age of 577 18 Ma (see Chapter 11) and also by Jamal (2005), (sample 99DJ39, UTM
37S 416014, 8508875) who obtained an age of 564 4 Ma. This small body is within the
mylonite zone between the Marrupa and Xixano Complexes and is affected by a tectonic event
at 39719 Ma, which is thought to represent reactivation of this long-lived shear zone. The
ages from the Maco Suite are somewhat older than the ages from the Malema and Murrupula
Suites to the southeast where the ages are in the range 508-546 Ma (Chapter 11).
In addition to the bodies shown on the map, rocks similar to the Maco Suite are
observed in many small outcrops in the central part of sheet 1338 Namuno, (e.g. UTM 37S
472830, 8501664 and UTM 37S 415746, 8508958). All the bodies of the Maco Suite shown on
the map have a positive magnetic signature.
The rocks in the Maco Suite are most commonly porphyritic granite with phenocrysts
of K-feldspar generally in the size range 1-3cm (Figure 6.305). The phenocrysts can make up
to 50% of the rock, but this amount can vary. In the westernmost body (UTM 37S 422000,
8511000) the porphyritic texture is hardly developed at all. At UTM 37S 422085, 8514004
there are abundant mafic fragments floating in the granite (Figure 6.305). The granite is white
295
to grey, sometimes with a reddish tint. In addition to K-feldspar in amounts up to 50%, quartz
and plagioclase are the main constituents. Biotite generally occurs in amounts up to 5% but in a
few areas up to 15% can be found. Under the microscope the biotite is seen to be green to
brown and to appear in clusters or aggregates. Hornblende can also be found in small amounts.
Titanite can be found in amounts up to 2-3%, often with a well-developed crystal habit. Other
minerals are epidote and allanite, the latter with a metamict texture. Opaque minerals, mostly
magnetite, commonly occur in amounts up to 2 %, and there are also small amounts of sericite
and chlorite in addition to common accessories such as apatite and zircon.
The chemical analyses (two samples, 33222 and 33266) show a normal granitic
composition. The Na2O content is rather high (approximately 5%) which indicates that the
plagioclase in the Maco Suite has an albitic composition.
Figure 6.305: (Left) Porphyritic granite from the Maco Suite (UTM 37S 415746, 8508958):
sample 33266 is dated to 57718 Ma. (Right) Granite with mafic inclusions (UTM 37S
422085, 8514004). The pencil (in the middle of the pictures) is ~12cm long. Both localities are
on sheet 1338 Namuno.
6.18.7 Murrupula Suite (Units CaR)
The term, Murrupula Suite, was introduced by the Council for Geoscience (Grantham, pers.
comm.) in the area south of sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi. The name is
derived from the small town of Murrupula in Nampula Province. Two age subdivisions are
recognised; older sheet-like syntectonic bodies of foliated biotite granite orthogneiss, and
younger intrusions of undeformed to weakly marginally deformed (foliated) granite. Of the
younger intrusions, most are polyphase in nature, with two or more crosscutting phases of
biotite granite present in many outcrops. A number of granite dykes (unit CaRgr, as lines) and
pegmatites (unit CaRpg, as points) were also mapped: many of the latter are also recorded as
mineral deposits (see Chapter 13).
In the Malema-Ribu area, the suite is represented by syntectonic, gneissose granite
sheets with a pervasive foliation. It is important to note that the multitude of plutons, large and
small, of unfoliated to weakly foliated granite appear to be restricted to the Nampula Complex
and are absent from the Marrupa and Ocua Complexes, at least on sheets 1437 and 1438
(though they are present in the Unango Complex further west), on sheets 1535/6 and 1635 to
the south-west. The Pan-African granite dykes and pegmatites, which are present throughout
the area, have been included within the Murrupula Suite, though the link between them and the
plutons is not always clear.
296
Granite gneiss. medium- to coarse-grained (5083Ma, U-Pb) (Unit CaRNbg): Strongly

foliated, sheet-like bodies of medium- to coarse-grained, non- to weakly-migmatitic,
leucocratic biotite granitic gneiss tend to be concentrated in a north-northeast-trending belt
which runs across the area. This is broadly coincident with the Lurio Belt, though some bodies
have also been identified further north within the Marrupa Complex, most notably southwest of
Nipepe. In addition, the sheets themselves are invariably elongated north-northeast southsouthwest, as they are interlayered with the older country-rock gneisses. The largest areas
underlain by this rock-type are found in the southwest corner of sheet 1437 Malema where
individual bodies can be traced for up to 30 km along strike. One body, centred on grid-square
30-837, appears to have been emplaced within a large mass of Ocua Complex granulites.
Leucogranitic gneisses are very common in the Mesoproterozoic complexes, but the
syntectonic Murrupula granites can be distinguished from the older gneisses by the lack of
pervasive migmatisation.
The unit is made up of pinkish grey, medium to coarse-grained biotite orthogneiss with
5-15% biotite and a variably developed foliation. These gneisses are variably migmatitic with
magnetite-bearing felsic leucosomes on a 1-10 cm scale, mainly parallel to the fabric. The
leucosomes and the fabric are locally tightly folded: later, conjugate shear bands commonly cut
the foliation associated with these folds. Thin mafic lenses, up to 10 cm thick, and enclaves of
foliated biotitehornblende-rich rocks are common (e.g. Figure 6.306). These locally show
later growth of K-feldspar porphyroblasts. In thin section, typical samples of this unit are
composed of ~40% microcline or orthoclase (with some poikiloblasts), 25% partly
saussuritised plagioclase, 30% quartz, brown biotite hornblende and accessory magnetite,
zircon and titanite. Some secondary muscovite flakes can be present.
Sample (33570) from one of these Murrupula Suite intrusions is a medium- to coarsegrained, fairly homogeneous biotite granitic orthogneiss. It contains abundant zircons with
relatively simple morphologies and which exhibit concentric growth zoning. Analysed spots
from these zoned zircon domains gave a U-Pb concordia age of 507,1 3,2 Ma, interpreted as
the crystallisation age of the orthogneiss during Cambrian times.
Figure 6.306: Typical outcrop of medium-grained, leucocratic biotite orthogneiss of the PanAfrican Murrupula Suite, showing foliation defined by biotite flakes and flattened, granular
hornblende-biotite enclave. (UTM 37S 302715, 836564, sheet 1437 Malema).
297
Granite (5169 Ma, U-Pb, Montepuez) (Unit CaRgr): The younger phases of the Murrupula
Suite occur throughout the Nampula Complex, but all the largest bodies tend to be
concentrated along, and broadly parallel to, the northern edge of the complex, where they form
impressive mountain massifs, which reach over 2,000m a.s.l. In the south, on sheets 1635 and
1636 there are numerous small bodies (<100km2 extent), whereas in the Guru to Ribu area,
close to the northern margin, plutons are less numerous but larger, typically with surface areas
of over 200km2. The largest intrusion, known informally as the Ribu pluton, forms an
impressive mountain massif north and west of Ribu and covers over 1,000 km2. The true size
of this intrusion is much larger, as it extends southwards, beyond the area mapped. Numerous
isolated exposures of the suite occur in the southern part of the area and it is often difficult to
judge the size, shape and form of the bodies of which they form a part, as they commonly have
no other surface expression. In some cases the radiometric and aeromagnetic data can help to
resolve this problem.
Figure 6.307:
Undeformed, coarsegrained pink K-feldspar
porphyritic Pan African
granite of the Ribu
pluton, Murrupula Suite.
Locality UTM 37S
411531, 8352518), sheet
1438 Ribu-Mecuburi.
Granite sensu stricto is by far the most abundant rock and makes up virtually all of the
plutons, both large and small. While the simple plutons do not show regular concentric
compositional zoning (cf. the Malema Suite), they do show considerable lithological variation
and usually show evidence of multiple granite intrusive phases. Most plutons are made up of
two main intrusive phases: pink, K-feldspar porphyritic granite (in which igneous flowalignment of K-feldspar phenocrysts is common) and a later grey biotite granite-microgranitic
phase. These are commonly cut by multiple pegmatite phases. The porphyritic granite phase
has microcline microperthite phenocrysts up to 2 cm in size (average 1 cm), set in a matrix of
quartz, subordinate, variably saussuritised plagioclase (with myrmekite), brown biotite (locally
with exsolved rutile, needles and partially chloritised), and accessory opaque minerals, apatite
and zircon (Figure 6.307). Igneous flow-alignment of K-feldspar phenocrysts is common. The
biotite microgranite phase is richer in biotite and plagioclase and is non-porphyritic. The
plutons are essentially undeformed and unfoliated in their cores, but many become foliated to
varying degrees at the margins. For example, a strong foliation is apparent in the marginal
facies of the coarse-grained granite Ribu pluton at the mountain resort northeast of the town.
Pluton shapes tend to be irregular, but often weakly aligned parallel to the fabric of the older
rocks, suggesting that older fabrics have, to some extent, controlled their geometry.
298
6.18.8 Malema Suite (Unit CaM)

The Malema Suite comprises Pan-African monzonitic, syenitic and granitic bodies as well as
charnockitic rocks occurring in the southeast part of sheet 1436 Cuamba and the northeast part
of sheet 1536 Gur. On sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi the suite includes
seven sub-circular to ellipsoidal plutons, including three zoned, granitoid ring complexes along
a north-northeast-oriented line parallel to the Lurio Belt, where they intrude rocks of the
Marrupa and Ocua Complexes. They appear to be particularly associated with the western
extension of the Lurio belt, west of the zone of most intense flattening, in a tectonic regime
where the flattening strain has given way to folding. Grouped within the suite are also a
number of smaller plutons and irregularly shaped bodies of granite that have an identical
geophysical signature and similar topographic expression to the ring complexes.
Ring complexes of the Malema Suite (Serra Romulu, Serra Nampatiua and Monte Lalua):
Three of the sub-circular to ellipsoidal plutons on sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 RibuMecuburi are compositionally zoned, and are named from west to east: Serra Romulo pluton
(grid square 31 838); Serra Nampatua pluton (grid square 34 839); Lalaua pluton (grid square
41 841). Two others are sub-circular in plan form, but appear to be composed only of granite:
Serra Mancuni pluton (grid square 30 835) and the Monte Sirapi pluton (grid square 36 839).
The Malema charnockite body is ellipsoidal, while a granite body, the Chihulo pluton, is
irregular in shape.
The three zoned ring complexes are made up of a total of seven mapped compositional
phases and facies, not all of which occur in all plutons. The compositional variants on granite
sensu stricto are defined on the basis of K-feldspar-plagioclase-quartz ratios and colour index,
or, in the case of charnockite, on the presence of hypersthene. These plutons were mapped in
some detail in the 1970s and are shown on older 1:250,000 compilations (BRGM, 1984).
Without detailed petrographic analysis it is not always possible in the field to identify these
mineralogical differences. Consequently, while spot checks were carried out on all plutons it
was possible to visit, detailed re-mapping and/or re-sampling of these interesting bodies was
beyond the scope of the current work.
The ring complexes form impressive inselbergs, clearly visible on Landsat and DTM
images (Figure 6.308). The westernmost pluton, Serra Romulo, is circular in outcrop, with a
diameter of about 10km. It is flanked by impressive cliffs which rise to 1500m a.s.l., over
1,000m above the surrounding plains. It comprises a circular core of coarse-grained pink
unfoliated monzogranite (unit CaMRgr) some 5 km across, surrounded by a 1-2 km wide
annulus of granite (unit CaMgr), which is foliated at its margins. Thin, discontinuous, satellite
cone sheets of granite and monzonite intrude the country-rock gneisses in a narrow zone
surrounding the pluton. A small body of pink, quartz-free syenite, the Monte Elecha Syenite
(unit CaMsy) occurs to the west of, and possibly forms a satellite body to the Serra Romulo
pluton (in grid square 31 838, Figure 6.309).
30 km to the east-northeast (at grid intersection 35 838), the elliptical Serra Nampatiua
pluton is composed of a core of coarse-grained, unfoliated gabbro (unit CaMTgb) surrounded
asymmetrically by monzonite (unit CaMTmz), which makes up most of the pluton, and a
partial collar of granite in the west (unit CaMgr). The overall asymmetry of the pluton, with the
circular core situated in the east of the pluton is clearly evident on DTM images (as an area of
low relief, see Figure 6.308), with the western highlands composed of monzonite and granite,
forming a west-facing elliptical massif. The two plutons to the immediate east and west of the
299
Serra Nampatiua pluton (Monte Sirapi and Chihulo plutons respectively) appear morphologically similar to the zoned plutons, but are composed entirely of granite.
Serra
Nampatiua
pluton
Serra
Romulo
pluton
Chihulo
pluton
Malema charnockite
Malema
Figure 6.308: Part of DEM image of the area north of Malema (sheet 1437), showing the
strong topographic expression of the Malema Suite plutons. The Lurio belt is seen in the area
of strong north-northeast-trending fabric, diminishing westwards. The thick dark line shows
the approximate position of the southern margin of the Lurio belt. The Nampula Complex lies
to the southeast and the Marrupa-Ocua Complexes to the northwest of this line. The scene is
45 km across, north to top.
300
Figure 6.309: Undeformed, coarse-grained, pink K-feldspar-rich, quartz-free syenite from the
Serra Romula pluton, Malema Suite. (UTM 37S 313813 8375188, sheet 1437 Malema).
Fifty kilometres to the east-northeast, the Lalaua pluton (at grid intersection 41 841) is a
third ring complex with a strongly elliptical outcrop form. It appears to have two cores, one of
dark-green, coarse-grained charnockite (unit CaMch) in the west and another of gabbro (unit
CaMgb) to the east, though the latter could not be accessed during the current study and is
reproduced from old mapping. The Lalaua pluton is unique in that it appears to be composed
entirely of quartz-poor rocks, with the only granite forming a partial cone sheet to the south. In
this pluton, the dual cores are thus surrounded by successive rings of monzogranite (unit
CaMRgr) and porphyritic monzonite (unit CaMLgr). North of the contiguous central complex
of the Lalaua pluton, extensive sheets of monzogranite form elongate satellite bodies, the
largest of which is over 20 km long and forms a significant mountain range.
To the south of the Serra Romulo pluton, northwest of Malema town (grid intersection
32 835) an interesting elongate Malema Suite intrusion, has a similar DEM and Landsat
signature as the zoned plutons, but was found to be composed entirely of coarse-grained,
weakly foliated charnockite (Figure 6.310). It is also interesting to note that the southern
margin of this body appears to be truncated by the main structure associated with the Lurio
Belt (see Figure 6.308).
Granite (Unit CaMgr) and syenite (Unit CaMsy): The huge massif (Monte Mutucu)
immediately east of Cuamba is underlain by massive granite (unit CaMgr) comprising several
intrusive phases including a syenitic phase (unit CaMsy). For example, cuttings in the
motorable track up to the dam on the summit plateau expose green syenitic rock intruded by
veins of pinkish granite. Granite becomes more dominant towards the dam where there are
exposures of fine- to medium-grained equigranular granite. White feldspar, quartz, mafic
(amphibole) and minor biotite are present in the granites. The dominant lithology is a 2-phase
granite containing large subhedral pink feldspar laths set in a finer grained biotite-rich
groundmass (Figure 6.312). The granite is sheared along its northern and southern margins
(Figure 6.311), forming zones of mylonitised intrusive rocks up to several hundred metres
thick ((unit CaMmy). There are huge bodies (probably roof-pendants) of partially melted
301
charnockitic gneisses in this granite east of Beira-Ro village, suggesting that the present
erosion level is close to the original top of the intrusion.
Figure 6.310: Texture of charnockite of Malema Suite. Note coarse-grained rusty brown
orthopyroxene crystals set in grey quartz-feldspar matrix. Locality RT685 (UTM 37S 314817,
8348574, sheet 1437 Malema).
A large syenitic body (unit CaMsy) underlies rugged country east of the Monte
Mutucu granite. The syenite is a dark, grey, granofelsic feldspathic rock with minor content of
mafic minerals, accessory magnetite and no visible quartz. It has a charnockitic appearance and
some boulders are weakly foliated. The main ridge has a concentric shape that appears to cut
into the Monte Mutucu Granite, although its granulitic appearance suggests that it is an older
intrusion. Similar rock types occur on sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi.
Serra Messolua Charnockite (53252Ma, U-Pb) (Unit CaMch): This major ring complex
underlies the mountain belt in the southeast corner of sheet 1436 Cuamba (Figure 6.314) and
extends southwestwards into sheet 1536 Gur. It comprises massive, coarse-grained
charnockite cut by granite sheets that define the ring structure. A granite vein complex (unit
CaMgv), Figure 6.315) underlies the flat central ground of a natural amphitheatre and is
surrounded by charnockitic hills in the northern part of the complex. The veins are granitic,
locally pegmatitic and form a rectilinear network with individual veins, mostly up to 1 m in
thickness. They are offset by brittle microshears. Several larger pegmatites have been cut by
trenches up to 10 m in length and several metres in width and depth in the search for
gemstones. Minor amounts of aquamarine and rose quartz have been found with books of
muscovite as well as biotite (e.g. at UTM 37S 281034, 8358250). Variably mafic gneisses host
the veins.
302
Figure 6.311: Xenolithic granite

phase of the Monte Mutucu
massif deformed in the CuambaMuitetere Shear Zone with an
intense ductile shear fabric in the
lower part of the photo and
rootless folds defined by mafic
xenoliths in the upper part of the
photo (UTM 37S 249119,
8373600, sheet 1436 Cuamba).
Figure 6.312: Three phases of the

Monte Mutucu granite with a
host grey granite containing
xenoliths of a pale pink granite
and cut by leucocratic granitic
vein (UTM 37S 253040, 8371411,
sheet 1436 Cuamba).
The charnockites are coarse-grained, relatively massive and homogeneous rocks. They
tend to weather light grey to brown but fresh samples are dark green, with a resinous lustre. A
weak fabric is sometimes present, especially near intrusion margins. The texture is locally
porphyritic, with green feldspar phenocrysts up to 1.5cm in length. Mafic granulitic xenoliths
are sometimes seen. The intrusions are relatively free of later veins, but hypersthene-bearing
pegmatites up to 30cm thick were observed. In thin section, the mineralogy was determined as
quartz, perthitic K-feldspar, variably saussuritised plagioclase, ortho- and clinopyroxene and
hornblende biotite, with accessory magnetite, apatite, titanite and zircon (Figure 6.313).
A thin section (sample 33509, UTM 37S 277501, 8359213) of the massive charnockite
from the southeastern ring complex on sheet 1436 Cuamba has a granofelsic texture with
roughly equal amounts of microperthite and plagioclase (locally with antiperthitic textures) and
less common quartz. Relict hypersthene grains are replaced by clinopyroxene, in turn partly
replaced by hornblende. Zircon, apatite and opaques are present as accessory phases.
303
Figure 6.313: Coarse-grained charnockite of the Malema Suite showing mafic aggregate with
large orthopyroxenes grain partly altered to green hornblende (sample 33595, UTM 37S
219462 8288506, sheet 1536 Gur.).
Major shear zones bound the ring complex, as found around the syeno-granitic massif
of Monte Mutucu, also in this case forming mylonitic zones up to several hundred metres
thick (unit CaMmy). Two large granites shown along the northern margin of sheet 1436
Cuamba define strong magnetic lows but were not examined in the field.
Figure 6.314: Photo
looking south from UTM
37S 260743, 8348435
showing the outer margin
of the major ring complex
in the southeast corner of
sheet 1436 Cuamba. The
western pinnacle is
composed of gneissic
granite with massive
charnockite forming the
rounded mountain to the
east.
304
Figure 6.315: Granitic

vein complex in
metagabbroic gneisses in
the southeast corner of
sheet 1436 Cuamba. The
veins are pegmatitic and
locally contain minor
amounts of aquamarine
and rose quartz (UTM 37S
278797, 8357757).
Ten thin sections of granitic lithologies on sheet 1436 Cuamba were examined (33458,
33459, 33470, 33471, 33473, 33480, 33497, 33500, 33501 and 33511). These had a uniform
mineral assemblage although the proportions of each mineral phase are highly variable.
Microperthitic alkali feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, biotite and amphibole are ubiquitous with
accessory amounts of titanite, zircon, apatite and opaques. Feldspars locally define a rapakivi
texture with plagioclase cores to microperthitic rims (Figure 6.316). Antiperthitic textures were
noted but are not as common as mesoperthitic textures in the alkali feldspars. The alkali
feldspars form poikilitic grains as well as smaller grains in a felsic groundmass. Quartz grains
are embayed and highly strained. Hornblende laths have intense green pleochroic colours and
locally grade into aegerine. Pyroxene cores are present in some hornblende grains (Figure
6.317). Biotite flakes overprint the amphiboles. Titanite forms large skeletal grains. Sericite
replacement of feldspars is only locally present. One thin section (33474) of a rock identified
as syenite in the field revealed a monzonitic composition with roughly equal amounts of
interlocking plagioclase and alkali feldspar grains with minor amounts of biotite and a highly
altered phase (possibly pyroxene) and euhedral apatite crystals (Figure 6.317). SEM analysis of
the alkali feldspar indicates that they are antiperthitic with andesine hosts to exsolved
orthoclase needles.
305
Figure 6.316: Sample 33501 showing a rapakivi texture with an untwinned, concentrically
zoned core (plagioclase) rimmed by microperthite. Plagioclase, microperthite, hornblende,
quartz and biotite grains surround the central feldspar grain (UTM 37S 251609, 8369522,
sheet 1436 Cuamba). (Field of view: 5,4x4,4mm)
Figure 6.317: Sample 33501 showing a highly altered pyroxene core to an intensely green
hornblende grain that is partly overgrown by biotite. Location as for previous figure. (Field of
view: 5,4x4,4 mm).
306
6.18.9 Niassa Suite (Unit CaN)

The Niassa Intrusive Suite consists of several granitic to syenitic Pan-African intrusions that
form prominent mountains from Meponda in the north, and continue southeastwards along the
border with Malawi, to south of Mandimba. Two reliable age determinations have been
performed and give intrusion ages of 507 4 and 514 35 Ma (see Chapter 11). There are four
major ring complexes on sheets 1334 Meponda and 1335 Lichinga, namely Monte Metonia,
Monte Livigire, Monte Nicucule and Monte Chande. Except for Monte Chande, they are all
mainly syenitic in composition. Monte Chande consists of alkali-syenite surrounding a core of
alkali-granite. The highest and most impressive mountains/inselbergs, Monte Lissiete and
Serra Lipane on sheet 1435 Mandimba are underlain by late granites (units CaNSgr and
CaNPgr) and associated syenites (unit CaNSsy). Several bodies of slightly more deformed
gneissic granite found on this sheet are also assumed to belong to this suite.
Gneissic granite (Unit CaNgr): A number of large, concordant lenses of gneissic granite are
present on sheet 1435 Mandimba. The granites are medium-grained, brown weathering,
generally leucocratic, equigranular rocks. There are localised pegmatite segregations as well as
variably assimilated mafic xenoliths (Figure 6.318). They are variably deformed, although
whether this reflects spatial changes in deformation or is due to different ages of deformed
granite is not clear. Weakly foliated and unfoliated granites occur along the extreme
northwestern margin of sheet 1435 Mandimba. These are pale grey-white rocks rich in quartz.
Most of the feldspar is white, but pink K-feldspar also occurs. Hornblende is the main mafic
mineral locally overgrown by biotite flakes. Pegmatite veins and mafic dykes cut across larger
exposures.
Three thin sections were examined (33463, 33465 and 33504) and show variable
plagioclase to alkali feldspar ratios with common quartz in a felsic groundmass. Plagioclase
laths locally show concentric zoning. Microcline is the main alkali feldspar with less common
microperthite. Other phases include biotite, hornblende and titanite (locally as euhedral grains)
with accessory opaques, apatite and zircon and minor secondary chlorite and epidote.
Monte Lissiete granite (Unit CaNSgr): A distinctive granitic intrusion forms the prominent
mountain of Lissiete together with a number of large kopjes to the east and north of the
mountain, in the northwest part of sheet 1435 Mandimba. This is a very homogeneous
intrusion, which shows no foliation whatsoever. The rock is coarse-grained and equigranular,
whitish in colour, and is composed mainly of white feldspar, quartz, amphibole and abundant
books of biotite reaching more than a centimetre in size. Some pale pink K-feldspar is evident.
A fine-grained, interstitial, transparent honey-coloured mineral occurs as an accessory and is
probably titanite. The precise composition of this intrusion is uncertain. The presence of some
K-feldspar and abundant biotite suggest a potassic composition, but the proportion of quartz
does not appear to be high (perhaps less than 10%).
307
Figure 6.318: Xenolithic gneissic granite exposed at UTM 36S 795921, 8435803, sheet 1435
Mandimba.
Monte Lissiete Syenite (Unit CaNSsy): South of Monte Lissiete on northwest part of sheet 1435
Mandimba there is a northwest-southeast-elongated small, late intrusion, probably of syenitic
composition (Figure 6.319). It is correlated with the other late intrusive bodies present in the
Mandimba and Cuamba sheets. These intrusions are probably contemporaneous with the dated
Cambrian granite in sheet 1336 Lichinga to the north.
A thin section of the sample (sample 33496, UTM 36S 771524, 8429229) confirmed its
syenitic composition with microcline and microperthite as the main mineral phases with minor
plagioclase and quartz. Hornblende grains are partly replaced by biotite and opaques are
disseminated throughout the thin section. An analysis of a sample (33505, UTM 36S 771238,
8434430) shows that it is an alkali syenite (Chapter 10).
Serra Lipane granite (Unit CaNPgr): The eastern part of a major circular granitic body
(Dawson, 1970) extends from Malawi into Mozambique south of Mandimba in the southwest
part of sheet 1435 Mandimba. The gross shape of the intrusion is clearly defined on satellite
imagery. This imagery also shows northeast-southwest-trending faulting with lateral offsets of
several kilometres west of Monte Samba and east of Napulo village. There is a strong magnetic
anomaly over the granite although this anomaly may in part be due to the presence of highly
magnetic gneissic country rocks. It was difficult in the field to differentiate between granitic
rocks associated with the late pluton and enderbitic granofels in the country rock.
308
Figure 6.319: Syenite blocks on the southern slope of Monte Lissiete at 36S 771054, 8429776.
sheet 1435 Mandimba.
Two thin sections (33488 and 33505, UTM 36S 802977, 8392084 and 771238,
8434430, respectively) consist of interlocking microperthite grains with coarse mesoperthitic
textures (tweeds) and zoned plagioclase grains with interstitial quartz. Intergrown
hornblende, biotite, titanite and opaques occur in clusters as well as interstitially to felsic
grains. Secondary alteration involves chlorite replacing biotite, and sericite replacing feldspar.
Monte Muelelo Granite (51435 Ma, U-Pb)(Unit CaNLgr): Monte Muelelo, (UTM 36S
768000, 8483000), is made up of a homogeneous, pink-weathering, coarse-grained biotitegranite. Marginal parts of the granite are foliated (parallel to the gneissosity in the country
rock). Quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase and biotite grains are visible to the naked eye. Textures
vary from equigranular to feldspar-phyric with subhedral K-feldspar laths up to about 2 cm in
length. Biotite locally forms aggregates up to approximately 1 cm in diameter. Geochemical
data on one sample (sample 31260, UTM 36S 768529, 8482664) classify it as a quartzmonzonite (see Chapter 10). The age of the intrusion is 514 r35 Ma, according to zircon dating
(see Chapter 11), showing that it is Pan-African.
Monte Nicucute Syenite (CaNNsy): At Monte Nicucute a syenitic ring dyke with a diameter of
6.5 km is centred around UTM 36S 778000, 8611500. This intrusion is situated in line with the
other late intrusions in the area in a northwest-southeast trend. Its spatial arrangement within a
slightly deformed dextral imbrication lens is evident. The rock is a medium- to coarse-grained
syenite with some K-feldspars standing out as euhedral crystals. The foliation defined by
parallel crystals is very weak and concordant with the western border, however, this foliation is
not followed around the ring dyke and it is also concordant with the foliation outside the
intrusion. Within the banded mafic granulitic gneiss, unfoliated syenite is observed around
UTM 36S 765900, 8470000. These exposures do not define any circular structure, but they are
also in line with the other syenitic and alkali-granitic rocks.
Monte Livigire Syenite (Unit CaNLsy): A large horseshoe-shaped intrusive complex, with a
gap in the west, is situated northeast of Lussanga village, ~80 km south of Lichinga. The
309
horseshoe-shaped form is clearly seen in the radiometric data. The complex has elevated
magnetic susceptibility values, but only the northern arc has a pronounced positive magnetic
signature. It is comprised of texturally heterogranular, medium- to coarse-grained alkali-granite
to alkali-syenite. The rock is not foliated and commonly contains 5-15 % biotite. Finer-grained
varieties occur in the outer rim (Figure 6.320). A typical variety from the southern part of the
complex mainly comprises microcline perthite (> 60 %) and minor plagioclase, quartz, biotite,
titanite, magnetite and zircon (Figure 6.321). Two samples have been analysed (see Chapter
10), and are classified as granite and syenite, respectively.
Figure 6.320: Fine-grained alkali granite

from the outer part of the Monte Livigire
complex (sample 31218, UTM 36S 757796,
8475808, sheet 1335 Lichinga). Field of
view: 5,4x4,4 mm.
Figure 6.321: Medium- grained alkali syenite

from the Monte Livigire complex (sample
31219, UTM 36S 761314, 84474878, sheet
1335 Lichinga). Field of view: 5,4x4,4 mm.
Monte Metonia syenite (Unit CaNTsy): The largest of the syenitic ring dykes is found 40 km
south-southwest of Lichinga. It includes Monte Metonia, Monte Lipamba and Monte Maniauli,
all of which have peaks in excess of 1500 m a.s.l.. This complex is made up of homogeneous,
pink-weathering quartz-biotite-syenite. It is a medium to coarse-grained, equigranular rock
with euhedral feldspar laths and disseminated biotite flakes randomly oriented at felsic grain
boundaries. Magnetite grains are only locally present. Rafts of the country rock gneisses are
found in the main syenite, and offshoots of syenite intrude into the surrounding gneisses.
The ring intrusion is emplaced into biotite- and hornblende-biotite gneisses and near the
outer margin (UTM 36S 746421, 8502300) the syenitic rock is homogeneous, blocky jointed
and medium-grained with mainly pale pink K-feldspars, some of which are porphyritic. Quartz,
biotite and magnetite are minor constituents. Towards the centre of the ring, the pink quartzsyenite is coarse-grained (sample 31246) with large pink microcline perthite (some more than 5
mm in length), minor (< 10%) plagioclase and quartz, biotite clots with poikilitic hornblende
and magnetite. As well as the magnetite there are accessory titanite, apatite and epidote/zoisite
associated with the feldspar (Figure 6.322 and Figure 6.323). The rock appears to be fairly
homogeneous to the centre with an offshoot at UTM 36S 749231, 8500896 into gneisses at the
centre. The syenitic ring complexes clearly post-date the main tectonothermal history of the
mapped area. However, they have been altered during a greenschist facies event with
ubiquitous partial replacement of amphibole by biotite. Geochemical data on two samples
support the conclusion that this is a syenitic intrusion (see Chapter 10).
310
Figure 6.322: Syenite from UTM 37S 753045, 8494484, sheet 1335 Lichinga. Microcline in
upper part is about 5 mm across (sample 31258, crossed nicols (left), plain light (right)).
Figure 6.323: Biotite replacing green
hornblende. Image taken from the centre of
the above photomicrograph.
Monte Massangulo granite (5074 Ma, U-Pb (Unit CaNM): This is a circular granitic plug in
the southern part of sheet 1335 Lichinga, approximately 4 km across. Chemical data indicate a
granitic composition, with a low content of CaO and a rather high content of LREE. The
textures display blocky subhedral grains of around 2 mm size. A few crystals of biotite and
quartz are slightly deformed but no sub-grain growth on grain borders is observed. The biotite
is very different from the black-brown yellow variety in the surrounding granodioritic gneisses;
it is pleochroic between light and somewhat darker grass green (Figure 6.324). The age of the
intrusion is 507 r 4Ma, according to zircon dating (sample 31225, UTM 36S 763225,
8462871, see Chapter 11), showing that it is Pan-African, and within error, the same age as the
Muelelo Granite.
311
Figure 6.324: Undeformed, unretrograded

texture in the Monte Massangulo granite.
Partly crossed nicols, height of picture: 6 mm.
(sample 31225, UTM 36S 763225, 8462871,
sheet 1335 Lichinga).
Figure 6.325: Alkali syenite, with large

grains of patchy perthite and smaller
interstitial grains of plagioclase and quartz.
Also minor biotite and muscovite is present.
(sample 31323, UTM 36S 710492, 8519070,
sheet 1334 Meponda).Field of view:4,4x5,4
mm
Monte Chande Syenite (Unit CaNCsy): Monte Chande is a conspicuous ring-shaped mountain
to the south of the village Machele on sheet 1334 Meponda. The mountain consists of undeformed alkali-syenite, making a ring structure around the central peak that is made up of
alkali-granite. (See unit CaNCgr, below). The alkali-syenite at Monte Chande is dominated by
red K-feldspar, while quartz, biotite and magnetite are subordinate. The grain size of the
syenite is on a mm-scale at the periphery, but becomes gradually coarser towards the contact to
the granite.
One sample (31323) consists of >80 % perthitic K-feldspar, 5 % plagioclase, 5 %
quartz, 3 % biotite, 2 % magnetite and 1 % titanite, muscovite, sericite, zircon and apatite
(Figure 6.325). Texturally it is heterogranular, generally medium-grained (1-5 mm) and with a
random orientation of mineral grains. Geochemically it is a quartz syenite (see Chapter 10).
Monte Chande Alkali Granite (Unit CaNCgr): Alkali granite occupies the central zone of the
ring complex at Monte Chande. The granite is coarser than the surrounding syenitic ring dyke,
with red K-feldspar grains up to 1 cm, in a more fine-grained matrix of plagioclase, biotite and
some quartz (Figure 6.326). Generally the content of plagioclase increases towards the centre
of the granite, while the quartz content is variable. The two samples investigated under the
microscope consist of 35-45 % plagioclase, 30-42 % perthitic K-feldspar, 5-30 % quartz, 5 %
biotite, <1-2 % magnetite and smaller amounts of titanite, apatite and zircon. Texturally it is
heterogranular, medium to coarse-grained (1-10 mm). Except for limited sericitization of
feldspar, the mineral grains have not been subject to any retrogression. Geochemically it ranges
from quartz monzonitic to granitic, according to XRF analysis of two samples (samples 31323
and 31325, Chapter 10).
312
Figure 6.326: Left: Close-up photo of the granite at Monte Chande. UTM 36S
710585, 8518325, sheet 1334 Meponda. Right: The largest digging in the granite in
the northern hills of Monte Chande (UTM 36S 710470, 8517920).
There are diggings in several places close to the contact between the granite and the
syenite. This was probably done in order to delineate the potential of the granite as a building
stone (Figure 6.326, see also Section 13.11.4).
6.18.10Tundo Suite: Jurassic syenite plutons and syenite and dolerite dykes (Units Jrsy,
sy and do)
The southwest Unango-Ocua Complexes have been intruded by a number of alkaline, syenitic
to nepheline syenite plutons and dykes on sheets 1535 Insaca and 1635 Milange. The larger
bodies are sub-circular in form and are named, from north to south, Mauzo, Tundo and
Tumbine. They form prominent mountain massifs rising to over 1.500 m a.s.l., and lie on a
north-south line, suggesting that their emplacement has been controlled by deep-seated
fractures associated with rifting, tapping mantle sources. The dykes are represented by lines,
coded sy and do on the 1:250 000 sheets. The syenites have some potential economic
significance, so they have been well documented and mapped in detail in the past and assessed
for possible economic exploitation (feldspar, nepheline) (Cilek, 1987 and references therein).
The plutonic bodies are composed of coarse-grained to very coarse-grained, pink- to grey
weathering, rocks, with grey K-feldspar the major component. The bodies are polyphase, with
coarse syenite cut by microsyenite veins, in turn cut by coarse-grained syenite pegmatite with
feldspars up to 8 cm in size. Sometimes a strong igneous foliation is present (e.g. Figure
6.327). In some outcrops, medium-grained, cream to grey syenitic igneous rocks (with some
quartz?) contain irregular layer-like bodies of finer-grained grey slightly porphyritic
microsyenite. The former contains small angular xenoliths of basement biotite gneiss. The
rocks are generally quartz-free and the main mafic mineral is green hornblende (locally
associated with a little brown biotite) minor clinopyroxene. Minor plagioclase is present in
some rocks, with accessory titanite and opaque minerals (which locally weather to pinkish
brown spots). Undersaturated rocks contain nepheline. The associated syenitic dyke rocks
mainly have a northeast-southwest trend, similar to the Karoo dolerites. They have similar
mineralogy to the plutons, but are fine- to medium-grained and K-feldspar glomeroporphyritic
(Figure 6.328). Some porphyritic microsyenite dykes are pinkish-weathered, but grey when
313
fresh, and contain small (2-3 mm) pinkish K-feldspar blebs surrounding mm-sized sulphide
(pyrrhotite?) grains.
Figure 6.327: Coarse Jurassic nepheline

syenite with grey tabular nepheline, showing
strong igneous flow-alignment and interstitial
pink K-feldspar. (UTM 36S 808868, 8241109,
sheet 1535 Insaca,).
Figure 6.328: Porphyritic syenite dyke,

showing typical K-feldspar phenocrysts and
composite glomeroporphyritic feldsar
aggregates in fine-grained matrix. (UTM 36S
761344, 819559, sheet 1635 Milange,).
Numerous sub-outcrops of dolerite were encountered, particularly in the western part of

sheet 1635 Milange, close to the Rift. In most cases, the sub-outcrops are represented by small
piles of rounded, exfoliated boulders and the form of the intrusion is not always obvious, nor
the trend, in the case of dykes. The dolerites are medium-grained dark grey rocks with ophitic
to sub-ophitic texture, composed of saussuritised plagioclase, augite (variably altered to olivegreen hornblende), opaque minerals and apatite. A few porphyritic and amygdaloidal examples
were observed, with laths of plagioclase and small vesicles filled with epidote. Coarse-grained
ophitic gabbros are composed of plagioclase laths, with interstitial augite (altering to brown
hornblende), opaque minerals and apatite (Figure 6.329). These rocks may represent larger,
parental bodies to the dolerite dykes.
Figure 6.329: Sub-ophitic
texture, with laths of
plagioclase in interstitial augite
in Karoo-age gabbro body
(Sheet 1635, UTM 36S 763838,
8199831).
314
6.19 Karoo Supergroup

6.19.1 Introduction
The Phanerozoic sedimentary cover to the Precambrian basement of Niassa Province is largely
restricted to the Karoo Supergroup, which is widespread over southern Africa and can be
correlated across the former Gondwanaland (including Madagascar, India, South America and
Australia). The Karoo was originally established in South Africa where the type sequence was
described (South African Committee for Stratigraphy, 1980) within the main Karoo basin,
which has the most complete sequence including the Ecca and Beaufort groups. The Karoo
Supergroup in Mozambique can be defined as the strata unconformably overlying the
Precambrian basement and unconformably overlain by Middle Jurassic or younger strata. It has
enough unifying characteristics to be considered as one lithostratigraphic supergroup. Although
widespread over the Gondwana continent, the Karoo sequence was laid down in various,
mainly continental, basins, now preserved, in Mozambique, in faulted rifts and half-grabens.
The lithostratigraphy of the supergroup that has been applied to this area (Figure 6.330)
is applicable because a similar pattern of palaeoclimatic and rift depositional facies developed
across southern Africa from late Carboniferous to early Jurassic times (about 300 160 Ma).
The sequences are mainly continental and as a result the biostratigraphical evidence within the
Karoo Supergroup is sparse although it can be useful tool in correlating between basins. This is
particularly true of the reptile zones and also the Glossopteris flora (Verniers et al. 1989).
Some biostratigraphic zones, such as the palynological ones, are still not well established. The
reliance on lithostratigraphy means that some similar facies may have different depositional
ages, but in a general way the sequences change from glaciogenic or temperate and deltaic at
the base into fluvial/lacustrine clastic sediments which become more arid and continental
upwards. In the main Karoo basin in South Africa the Upper Karoo Group contains significant
aeolian beds overlain by Lower Jurassic basaltic lavas, but these are not seen in Niassa
Province.
Verniers et al. (1989 and references therein) reviewed much of the previous work on
the Karoo Supergroup in Niassa province. The first general description of the stratigraphy in
the area of the Rio Rovuma was by Thomson (1882). Little more detail was added until
extensive fieldwork was carried out from the late 1940s onwards (e.g. Borges et al., 1950;
Borges et al. 1952). This work included pitting and drilling boreholes in the search for coal and
a stratigraphy was drawn up by Nunes (1965). However, this lithostratigraphy was
subsequently revised by Verniers et al. (1989) in the light of more extensive work in the
Maniamba graben and the small Tiambila basin to the northeast. The fossils collected during
the earlier campaign included a Glossopteris flora identified by Teixiera (1952) and Teixiera
and Goncalves (1959). The reptile fossils were studied in detail by Antunes (1975) and several
mandibular and cranial bones of Endothiodon cf. bathystoma and one Gorgonopsian sp. were
identified. According to the zonation of Keyser and Smith (1979) these indicated either the
Tropidostoma-Endothiodon or the Aulacephalodon-Cistecephalus assemblage zone of the
lower Beaufort.
Within the extension of this graben system into Tanzania, where it is called the Selous
basin, a coal-bearing succession of possible Ecca age was found in the Mhukuru Coalfield
(Harkin, 1953) and the stratigraphy has been studied locally (Wofpner and Kaaya, 1991;
Dypvik et al., 2001; Nilsen et al., 2001). Interest in the coalfields of Mozambique and Tanzania
waned later in the 1950s but picked up again from 1977-1980 when the National Institute of
315
Geology reinvestigated the coalfields of the Maniamba Graben. This period of remote sensing,
fieldwork, pitting and drilling was summarised in Verniers et al. (1989): these workers
produced detailed lithostratigraphical descriptions of the Ecca and Beaufort groups that had
been drilled and logged. The more extensive cover of Upper Karoo was divided on lithological
and structural grounds but exposure is poor and the mapping is tentative.
Karoo Supergroup strata are preserved in the Maniamba Graben (Afonso, 1978;
Verniers et al. 1989), which extends northwards from the Metangula area to the Rio Rovuma
(Figure 6.331). While the overall structure is now a graben system, the Karoo Supergroup
originally extended more widely across the Precambrian basement. The graben system
developed by rifting at various times from the beginning of the Karoo deposition but mainly in
Upper Karoo and later times. There is no evidence of widespread volcanism within the Upper
Karoo Group, only small kimberlites and kimberlitic dykes intruded in Lower Cretaceous times
(see Chapter 6.20). Although it is possible that any lavas have been eroded away no Karoo-age
basic dykes, which could have acted as feeders have been recorded within the graben. The
main graben structure developed during Karoo times influencing contemporaneous deposition
and it is estimated to be up to 7 km deep in its center (see Chapter 8). A major fault, the Rio
Moola Fault, trending northwest across the graben divides two successions, which had a
different infill history. In the southwest part of the graben, in the Lunho Valley, the overall dip
of bedding is to the northwest and the graben here is mainly downthrown on the western flank.
The final configuration of the graben has been affected by development of the East African
Rift system and major northerly trending faults in the Metangula area are probably related to
that system, cutting out Karoo strata to the west and creating a small horst of Precambrian
gneiss around Messumba. In the Metangula-Macaloge area Karoo deposition began slightly
before the large-scale half-graben opening to the west developed. Farther north, in the
Lupilichi area, northeast of the Rio Moola Fault (Figure 6.331), the graben appears to be
faulted on its southeast boundary and also includes the Precambrian inlier at Matchedje. There
is also evidence for a very broad anticline within the Karoo beds of this block with a northnortheast-trending axial trace passing 6 km east of Matchedje. This arching may be the result
of Precambrian basement control and later slight inversion of the block.
The supergroup is poorly exposed, the best sections occuring in the lower part of the
sequence. A large part of the graben is occupied by the Upper Karoo Group; outcrop of the
Ecca and Beaufort groups is restricted to the southern part of the graben. Because exposure is
incomplete and due to the lithostratigraphic similarities with the type Karoo basin in S. Africa,
reference to the Ecca and Beaufort Groups is continued here. Verniers et al. (1989) reported on
the Glossopteris fossil flora and confirmed the lower Permian age of the Ecca Group.
Palynological study of the Ecca Group also indicates an early Permian age.
The biostratigraphical age of the Beaufort Group is based on the presence of reptilian
fossils (Verniers et al., 1989) referred to the Tropidostoma-Endothiodon or AulacephalodonCistecephalus assemblage-zones (Middle Permian) of the Lower Beaufort Group in South
Africa. Palynological studies of the Karoo in the Maniamba Valley (Verniers et al. 1989)
distinguished three spore assemblage biozones:- the oldest zone dominated by trilete spores
Acanthotriletes and Apiculatisporis, the middle zone with Vesicaspora dominant in the lower
part, and the youngest zone dominated by striate bisaccates. These zones are correlated with
those elsewhere in south-east Africa; the lowest assemblage with the lower Ecca, the middle
assemblage with the upper Ecca and the youngest zone with the lower Beaufort reptile zones
and extending to the base of the Upper Karoo Group in the Maniamba graben. Verniers et al.
316
(1989) considered that the base of the Upper Karoo lies about the Permian Triassic boundary
and that its
Figure 6.330: Generalised stratigraphic section of the Karoo Group in Niassa Province
uppermost part is Lower Jurassic in age. Samples taken for palynological analysis during the
fieldwork were examined in Norway and the Ecca Group was indicated to be Lower Permian
in age and the Monte Lilonga/Fubue division near the base of the Upper Karoo Group was
assigned an Upper Permian age. There is no direct evidence of Triassic or Lower Jurassic ages
for the succeeding strata; these ages are inferred by comparison with Karoo successions in
South Africa (Johnson et al., 1996) and Zambia (Banks et al., 1995). The subdivision of the
Karoo succession is mainly based on the extensive work done by earlier surveys (Verniers et
al. 1989, and on the BRGM compilation available from DNG). The Karoo strata range from
basal Ecca Group through the Beaufort Group up into the Upper Karoo Group. No evidence
was found for significant disconformities between the groups.
6.19.2 Ecca Group (Unit PeE)
Ecca Group strata are exposed in the southern part of the Lunho Valley and locally appear to
be unconformable on the Precambrian basement with no evidence of glaciogenic beds, which
could equate to the Dwyka Group. The base of the Ecca is locally faulted out (e.g. northeast of
Metangula) probably by reactivation on Precambrian shear and fault zones. Farther east the
Ecca Group is faulted against the Precambrian on northwest- and northeast-trending faults,
which are late or post-Karoo in age. The Ecca Group strata in the Metangula area have a total
thickness of up to 343 m and were divided into three formations (K4, K3 and K2) on the basis
of borehole records (Verniers et al., 1989). Because the formations are relatively thin and
sporadically exposed they could not be mapped separately in the field.
317
Figure 6.331: Sketch map of the setting of the Maniamba Graben

The oldest unit K2 has a local basal conglomerate with pebbles up to 8 cm long in a
coarse-grained gritty sandstone which has calcareous cement in places (Figure 6.332). The
upper part of the unit comprises fine- and medium-grained sandstones, siltstones and
mudstones, some of which are carbonaceous and include thin coal lenses. The overlying K3
formation is an overall fining-up sequence of pale sandstones interbedded with red and grey
siltstones and mudstones. Again the sandstones locally have calcite cement.
The uppermost formation, K4, contains sandstones, siltstones and mudstones, which are
commonly greenish grey and interbedded with carbonaceous beds and coal seams (unit PeEc).
The sandstones vary from coarse-grained and conglomeratic to fine-grained with calcareous
cement. The coal seams up to 0.8 m thick generally increased in number and thickness towards
the northeast and also near the Precambrian basement (Verniers et al, 1989). A Glossopteris
flora including G. ampla, G. browniana and G. indica was found in this formation and
indicates an Ecca age. Silicified fossil wood with annual growth rings (Dadoxylon sp.) was
also reported.
Near Mbamba (UTM 36S 690930, 8611042) the Ecca Group comprises multi-storey
cross-bedded, medium and coarse-grained buff weathered sandstones with pebbly beds
including mainly quartz vein and intrabasinal mudstone clasts up to 4 cm in length. Some of
the cross-bedded units fine up into micaceous sandstones and siltstones. These are in turn
erosively overlain by pebbly sandstone beds over 1 m thick dipping up to 14q to the northwest.
On a low hill near Ntumbati (UTM 36S 709308, 8611022) Ecca Group exposures
comprise buff to brown-weathered pebbly sandstone, coarse-grained sandstone and small
pebble conglomerate. The rounded pebbles, up to 5 cm in length, are mainly of white quartz,
318
rose/red quartz, felsic rocks and gneiss. Cross-bedded units up to 0,3 m thick contain weakly
imbricated pebbles. Vitrified remnants of plant material have been found in sand to siltstone
graded-bedded units (Figure 6.336a) located beneath conglomerates at UTM 36S 714167,
8607117.
In the section along the Rio Lifutiche starting at UTM 36S 712066, 8610976 there is a
cliff exposing coarse-grained to granular and medium to coarse-grained sandstones. These
generally occur as fining-up units about 2 m thick with interbedded grey-brown and red-brown
mudstones. Some of the coarser sandstones contain pebbles of quartz and gneissic fragments
up to 4 cm in length. The sandstones are commonly cross-bedded with sharp erosive bases.
At UTM 36S 712151, 8611116 on the Rio Lifutiche there are thickly bedded and crossbedded pebble conglomerates 1-2 m thick in units fining up into medium to coarse-grained
greenish grey sandstones and locally thin mid-grey micaceous silty mudstones with
carbonaceous flakes and coaly rootlets. The pebbles are rounded, up to 10 cm long, and
composed mainly of quartz, granite and gneiss. Palaeoflows were to the northeast and east as
indicated by the cross-bed foresets and imbricated pebbles.
Farther southeast along the river (UTM 36S 712338, 8610656), dark greenish grey finegrained sandstones are interbedded with pale grey medium-grained sandstones and grey, thin
bedded siltstones with fine micas and carbonaceous fragments. The sandstones are commonly
trough cross-bedded in sets 0.4-1 m thick, and locally planar and wavy bedded. In the bed of
the river at UTM 36S 713349, 8610202, a coal seam about 0.4 m thick composed of
interlaminated vitrinite and inertinite, overlies >0,2 m of mid-grey mudstone. Spores of early
Permian age were found in the coal. The coal is sharply overlain by a medium-grained
sandstone fining up into fine-grained rippled sandstone and micaceous siltstone. The beds in
the river generally dip up to 10q NW but locally dip 10q ESE.
Farther east, most of the exposures are in greyish sandstones and conglomerates and at
one locality silicified fossil wood was found. The remains of core from an exploration borehole
indicated that carbonaceous mudstones and coals typical of the Ecca Group were interbedded
with the sandstones. The contact with the Precambrian basement was not seen and may be
faulted, but the crystalline rocks are always strongly sheared near the contact. Verniers et al.
(1989) observed that, in places, a few metres of basal conglomerate lie discordantly above the
Precambrian rocks. The source of the clastic material appears to be the Precambrian basement
and the rounded pebbles indicate a fair degree of transport or reworking of river gravels.
Although the rivers were fairly active, peat several metres thick accumulated in interfluvial
swamps and mires. This was subsequently buried and developed into bituminous coal.
6.19.3 Beaufort Group (Unit PeB)
This group is mainly composed of greyish siltstones and mudstones, which contain local
calcareous nodules and sparse fossil horizons. In the Metangula area Verniers et al. (1989)
established formations K5 and K6 from detailed borehole logs. However, the group is
generally poorly exposed, and since both units are predominantly siltstone successions they
have been combined into the Beaufort Group on the 1:250 000 sheets.
The upper K6 unit, which ranges between 280-325 m thick, was subdivided into four
members (Verniers et al. 1989). The uppermost member, consisting of reddish grey and grey
siltstones, contains three horizons with fossil reptile bones, which may indicate a lower
Beaufort age for the unit by comparison with South Africa. The underlying member consists of
319
Figure 6.332: Sedimentological features of the Karoo sedimentary rocks. (A) Cross-section view of polished slab
showing graded beds occurring above the K2 conglomerate of the Ecca Group at UTM 36S 714167, 8607117.
The lower, coarsening up, then fining up bed (B1) is erosively overlain by a fining-up sand- to siltstone bed (B2).
The lower bed (B1, see enlargement) contains abundant remnants of vitrified plant material (black films). (B)
Cross-section view of concretionary unit of the Beaufort Group (K5 and K6). Siltstone (B1, B3)-sandwiched, finegrained, sandstone bed (B2) contains large spherical carbonate concretions. (C) Cross-section view of the
Beaufort Group (K5 and K6) siltstone containing small spherical carbonate concretions. Coin 2 cm in diameter.
(D) Cross-section of the Beaufort Group (K5 and K6) siltstone containing cylindrical, spherical and club-like
carbonate concretions. (E) Bedding-parallel section through cylindrical concretion showing septarian cracks
(white) and vague zoning. (F) Vertical section through cylindrical concretion showing septarian cracks (white)
and zoning. B-F: Exposures on the west bank of the Rio Tulo near the main road to Cobu at UTM 36S 712515,
8615165.
320
grey, greenish grey and dark grey siltstones and mudstones. The siltstones are locally coarse,
micaceous and laminated. Beds of dark greenish grey conglomeratic siltstone are present as are
some carbonaceous beds with a few very thin coal beds also reported. Silicified fossil wood is
recorded from these beds and some black reptile bones. A few pale greenish-grey, fine- or
medium-grained beds occur 1-5 m thick containing parallel laminated and low angle crossbeds. The lowermost two members contain reddish and greyish siltstones with some calcilutites
and one reptile bone layer. The reptile bones and Glossopteris fossil leaves were considered to
correlate with the Beaufort Group of South Africa (Verniers et al., 1989).
The lower K5 unit is mainly composed of reddish or grey siltstone divided into three
members (Verniers et al, 1989). The upper member is a reddish grey siltstone and claystone
with two horizons of hard calcareous septarian nodules. The middle member contains fine- to
coarse-grained siltstones, dark or greenish grey in colour, and some rare carbonaceous layers.
The lower member contains mostly reddish grey siltstones with a layer of small calcareous
nodules near the top and some sandstone beds towards the base. The calcareous septaria from
the lower member yielded reptile bones in the area between the Rio Lunho and Rio Lundo
(Rocha, 1961). These fossils were assigned to the Endothiodon Zone (Antunes, 1975), which
according to the zonation of Keyser and Smith (1979), would either belong to the
Tropidostoma-Endothiodon or Aulacephalodon-Cistecephalus zones as established in the
Beaufort of S. Africa. The thickness of the K5 formation was between 250-260m as measured
in boreholes (Verniers et al., 1989) and the base of the formation was defined at the top of the
first significant light grey, coarse-grained sandstone belonging to the underlying Lower Karoo
Ecca Group.
In the field, undivided Beaufort Group (K5 and K6) was mapped and the main locality
(UTM 36S 712845, 8615384) examined lies on the west bank of the Rio Tulo near the main
road to Cobu. The section, up to 3 m high, consists of reddish brown and some pale greenish
grey mottled silty mudstones and siltstones. At the base there is a grey sandy siltstone bed
containing small calcareous concretions followed by 1 m of red brown silty mudstone, which
includes numerous large, commonly round or knobbly, pale grey micritic septarian concretions
up to 0.3 m in diameter (Figure 6.332b-c). Some concretions form vertical columns over 0.5 m
tall (Figure 6.332d) and some have concentric structures (Figure 6.332e-f). Weakly developed
bedding at 232/20 partly wraps around the concretions indicating differential diagenetic
compaction. Samples of the concretions were taken in order to determine U/Pb ages (see
following section). In the overlying one metre, less well-bedded grey brown siltstone contains
only a few irregular calcareous concretions with some siderite (but no pyrite). The overlying
pale green and grey-brown mudstone contains some calcareous concretions and is over a metre
thick. Farther north (UTM 36S 713275, 8615758) grey-brown silty mudstones also contain
grey micritic concretions but bedding cannot be measured. In a road cut at (UTM 36S 714109,
8617410) a bluish green weathered kimberlitic dyke trending 54qNE, 0.2-0.8 m wide, bakes
the adjacent pale grey mudstones and fine-grained carbonate cemented sandstones (Figure
6.333). At (UTM 36S 715180, 8620774) on a slight ridge by the Cobu road, medium- to
coarse-grained sandstone crops out with fairly massive disturbed bedding in the order of 1 m
thick. This sandstone appears to lie within the Beaufort Group as farther north at (UTM 36S
715699, 8621366) pale grey shaly mudstones are again exposed.
Along the dirt road northeast towards Chissando (at UTM 36S 716692, 8618264) pale
greyish green and red-brown mottled mudstones contain micritic calcareous concretions 0.10.5 m in diameter, some of which have septarian structures, and could be at the same horizon
as the mudstones with the large calcareous concretions exposed by the Rio Tulo.
321
Figure 6.333: Fine-grained

carbonate cemented
sandstone at UTM 36S
714109, 8617410, sheet 1235
Macaloge-Chiconono, sample
31932.
In the west, the group appears to be less thick, for instance in the valley northeast of
Mbamba (at UTM 36S 692170, 8612170) where pale to mid grey mudstone typical of the
Beaufort Group is exposed, being patchily reddened, subfissile and slightly calcareous. Most of
the mudstones are structureless or poorly bedded, but some are very finely laminated and were
probably deposited in a lacustrine environment. However, where the septarian calcareous
nodules and reptile fossils occur the beds were probably emergent and subject to evaporation
and pedogenesis.
6.19.4 Direct U-Pb dating of calcite concretions in the Beaufort Group
During the last decade carbonate Pb-Pb and U-Pb geochronology (reviewed by Jahn and
Cvellier, 1994) has made a significant contribution to the dating of primary deposition/early
diagenesis of both Precambrian (Moorbath et al., 1987; Jahn et al., 1990; Ovchinnikova et al.
1998, 2001; Babinski et al., 1995, 1999; Jahn and Simonson, 1995; Jones et al., 1995;
Whitehouse and Russell, 1997; Bau et al., 1999; Zachariah et al., 1999; Flling et al., 2000;
Semikhatov et al., 2000; Bolhar et al., 2002) and Phanerozoic sedimentary sequences (Smith,
Farquhar, 1989; Smith et al., 1991; Winter, Johnson, 1995). Most of the attempts to date
carbonate rocks with the Pb-Pb and U-Pb methods have focused on sedimentary limestones,
diagenetic carbonates and marbles. Only very few studies have been performed on carbonate
concretions. Israelson et al. (1996) reported a precise U-Pb age obtained from high P
(238U/204Pb) concretions hosted by uranium-rich 'black schists'. Here we demonstrate that
diagenetic carbonate concretions from Permian, common, lacustrine shales with moderate P
values provide a high precision U-Pb date, which can set useful constraints on the Phanerozoic
time scale.
Concretionary unit: Concretions have been studied and sampled from the undivided Beaufort
Group from the locality) which lies on the west bank of the Rio Tulo near the main road to
Cobu (K5 and K6 units, Figure 6.334, UTM 36S 712845, 8615384). The section, up to 3 m
high, consists of reddish brown and some pale greenish grey mottled silty mudstones and
siltstones.
At the base there is a grey sandy siltstone bed containing small calcareous concretions
(Figure 6.334a) followed by 1m of red brown silty mudstone which includes numerous large,
322
commonly round or knobbly, pale grey micritic concretions up to 0.3 m in diameter (Figure
6.334b). Some concretions form vertical columns over 0.5 m tall (Figure 6.334b) and some
have concentric structures (Figure 6.334c). Numerous concretions exhibit septarian cracks
(Figure 6.334c,d). The latter, in general, are evidence for concretional growth during very early
diagenesis from a gel-like substance (Timofeeva, 1957; p. 542 of Strakhov, 1962). Weakly
developed bedding partly wraps around the concretions indicating differential compaction
during burial and suggesting their early diagenetic genesis. In the overlying one metre, less
well-bedded grey brown siltstone contains only a few irregular calcareous concretions. This is
followed by over a metre thick, pale green and grey-brown mudstone containing some
calcareous concretions.
Figure 6.334: Sedimentological features of the undivided Beaufort Group (K5 and K6 units)
containing calcite concretions. (a) Cross-section view of siltstone containing small spherical
concretions; coin 2 cm in diameter; (b) cross-section of siltstone with cylindrical, spherical
and club-like concretions; (c) bedding-parallel section through cylindrical concretion showing
concentric zoning and septarian cracks (white); (d) vertical section through cylindrical
concretion showing septarian cracks (white) and zoning. (UTM 36S 712845, 8615384)
Material studied and geochemical data: One 15 cm long, 7 cm diameter, zoned, septarian
concretion was sampled from red brown silty mudstone for the isotopic studies. The concretion
323
incorporated over 20% of clastic material, mainly quartz and feldspar with minor mica. The
concretion was broken into 6 sub-samples along margin-core traverses (Figure 6.334d). One
whole-rock sample was analysed by XRF and ICP-AES for major and trace elements, and six
sub-samples for C, O, Rb, Sr, Pb and U isotopes. The analytical methods employed for all
aspects of the dating of the concretion are described in Appendix 1. The analytical data are
presented in Tables 1-3.
Method
XRF*
ACP-AES**
SiO2
%
19.10
Al2O3
%
4.32
Fe
ppm
550
590
Mg
%
0.61
0.29
Ca
%
28.0
27.2
Na2O
%
0.40
K2 O
%
0.90
Method
Mn
P
Sr
Ba
S
Mn/Sr Mg/Ca
ppm
%
ppm
ppm
%
XRF*
1600 750 197
203
<0.1
8.1
0.022
ACP-AES** 1340 745 169
79.6
7.9
0.011
Table 4: Chemical composition of the carbonate concretion. *Whole-rock analysis.
**Acid-soluble constituents.
Sample ## G13C, G18O, Rb, ppm Sr, ppm
87
Rb/86Sr
87
Sr/86Sr
-5.7
16.6
4.65
240
0.0567
0.71069
-5.0
16.2
2.06
200
0.0302
0.71082
-4.5
16.6
7.36
190
0.1134
0.71108
-4.4
16.3
4.18
330
0.0371
0.71063
-4.9
15.9
7.15
315
0.0665
0.71081
-6.0
17.7
2.81
345
0.0239
0.71078
Table 5: C, O and Sr isotopic composition of concretionary calcite.
238
U/204Pb
206
Pb/204Pb
207
Pb/204Pb
208
Pb/204Pb
Sample
##
1
Mineral
Calcite
Pb,
ppm
4.65
U,
ppm
3.79
53.96 0.34
20.791
15.771
39.064
Calcite
3.95
2.03
33.7 0.95
19.945
15.717
39.141
Calcite
4.24
2.80
43.50 0.33
20.378
15.740
39.201
Calcite
4.31
4.03
62.3 0.34
21.117
15.783
39.262
Calcite
4.80
4.00
55.3 0.34
20.834
15.767
39.193
Calcite
3.89
2.73
46.4 0.34
20.475
15.745
39.277
Table 6: U-Pb data from concretionary calcite.
324
Major and trace elements: The concretion is composed of low-Mg calcite with a Mg/Ca ratio
of 0.01. It has low Sr and Fe concentrations and a high Mn content resulting in a Mn/Sr ratio of
8. Most of the Ca, Fe, P and Sr are bound to acid-soluble constituents whereas 50% of the Mg
and 60% of the Ba are incorporated in clastic particles. The concretion is devoid of sulphur.
The high Mn/Sr ratio and the lack of sulphides suggest fresh-water diagenesis and involvement
of a significant volume of meteoric waters.
Carbon, oxygen and strontium isotopes: The concretionary calcite shows low G13C and G18O
values ranging from -6.0 to -4.4 (-5.1 on average) and 15.9 to 17.7 (16.6 on average),
respectively. Neither isotopic ratios shows any significant trend with respect to core-rim
zoning. The low G13C ratios can be interpreted as if the carbon was derived from two sources,
namely from recycled organic matter (G13C -25) mixed with ambient water bicarbonate. The
proportion of these two carbon sources is difficult to calculate because the exact isotopic
composition of the ambient water bicarbonate is unknown. It commonly fluctuates at around
0 if the water was in isotopic equilibrium with atmospheric CO2 (-7). However, depending
on the water temperature, biological productivity and the rate of recycling of the organic
matter, the bicarbonate in a lacustrine system might be significantly enriched or depleted in
13
C. The lower oxygen isotope composition can be interpreted in terms of both the composition
of a fluid and the burial temperature. This again cannot be resolved because the fluid
composition is unknown.
Six samples analysed for strontium isotope composition show homogeneous values
ranging between 0.71063 and 0.71108 which are all well above the seawater composition at
any given time, thus reflecting a continental source. This is in agreement with a source in a riftbound lacustrine depositional system.
Lead and uranium isotopes: Relative to other Phanerozoic carbonates (Smith and Farquhar,
1989; Smith et al., 1991; Jahn and Cuvellier, 1994; Winter and Johnson, 1995) the analysed
concretionary calcite has high U (2.73-3.79 ppm) and Pb contents (3.89-4.65 ppm), and
moderate P (238U/204Pb) values (33-54). The 206Pb/204Pb (19.9-21.1) ratios exhibit a low spread.
The 208Pb/204Pb ratios, however, are comparatively low and show a limited variability (39.039.3), indicating only minor production of thorogenic Pb. All calcite fractions from the
concretion define a 238U 206Pb isochron that corresponds to an age of 258 r10 Ma (Figure
6.335). Considering 0.3% 2 errors for 206Pb/204Pb and 238U/204Pb ratios and an error
correlation of 0.9, the mean square of the weighted deviates (MsouthwestD) for this isochron is
equal to 2.2, which indicates that the scatter does not exceeds that predicted by analytical
precision alone.
Discussion: Sedimentological data suggest that the studied carbonate concretion initially
precipitated as a gel, thus in unconsolidated sediments during a very early diagenetic stage.
Consequently, the time lag between the sedimentation and the formation of the concretion can
be considered as insignificant. Therefore the 258 r10 Ma isochron date approximates to the
time of sedimentation within the analytical errors.
325
Figure 6.335: 206Pb/204Pb vs. 238U/204Pb plot for concretionary calcite.
The concretion was sampled from the undivided K5 - K6 units of the Beaufort Group.
Based on the presence of reptilian fossils of the Endothiodon-zone in septarian concretions, the
biostratigraphic age of the K5 unit of the Beaufort Group was tentatively assigned to the
Middle Permian, similar to the Lower Beaufort Group in S. Africa (Verniers et al., 1989).
Strictly speaking, the U-Pb isochron age of 258 r10 Ma obtained from the septarian concretion
is consistent with the Late Permian. However, it compares very favourably within analytical
error (268 248 Ma) with the Middle Permian age inferred for this straton. The slight
discrepancy between the biostratigraphic and geochronological ages can be accounted for by
the broad time constraint of the Endothiodon-zone. Alternatively, the slightly younger age of
the septarian concretion with respect to the biostratigraphic ages can be interpreted as due to
the time lag between sedimentation and diagenesis. The latter alternative is less likely due to
the formation of the concretion in unconsolidated sediments, close to the time of depositional.
6.19.5 Upper Karoo Group
The Upper Karoo Group can be correlated in a general way to the Stormberg Group in South
Africa, but biostratigraphical evidence is lacking and there is no equivalent aeolian sandstone
or cap of Lower Jurassic basaltic lavas. Here the facies found in the Upper Karoo Group signal
a change to active fluvial deposition in a semi-arid climate and a general infilling of the main
graben after a period of uplift in the surrounding Precambrian. There may be a disconformity at
the base of the group but this could not be confirmed. The group presently infills the major part
of the Maniamba Graben and has been subdivided into formations based on the work of
Verniers et al. (1989) with a revised correlation.
West of the Rio Txiune Fault (Figure 6.331), the Upper Karoo strata dip generally
north-northwest, whereas the beds between the Rio Txiune and Rio Moola faults are nearly
horizontal and there can be only a very gentle overall north-westerly dip. From this block
Upper Karoo beds probably overstepped onto the Precambrian basement to the northwest and
326
southeast of the present graben margins. The Upper Karoo successions to the northwest of the
Rio Moola Fault are described separately below because of their different setting and character.
All the Upper Karoo formations are considered to be fluvial or fluvio-lacustrine beds
deposited in cycles with an increasing amount of argillaceous sediment within younger
formations, particularly towards the centre of the graben, and therefore the younger formations
may constitute more distal facies and/or reflect the end of active uplift in the Precambrian
basement towards the end of Karoo deposition. The bulk of these rocks are considered to be
Triassic in age and without fossil or radiometric dates it is not certain if deposition in this
graben continued into the Lower Jurassic.
Monte Lilonga Siltstone and Fubue Sandstone Formations (Unit JrFb): These formations lie
towards the base of the Upper Karoo Group and are only exposed southeast of the Rio Txiune
Fault. They were distinguished in borehole logs (Verniers et al., 1989) but cannot be
confidently distinguished in the field due to poor exposure. Therefore the lower part of the
Upper Karoo Group comprises a combined unit of the Monte Lilonga Siltstone and the
overlying Fubue Sandstone Formations on the 1:250,000 sheets. The base of the Upper Karoo
succession is taken at the sharp change from the greyish siltstone and mudstone sequence of
the Beaufort Group below.
The Monte Lilonga Siltstone Formation contains mainly greenish grey siltstones
together with sandstones forming 10-50% of the succession. Some of the sandstones are
coarse-grained and pebbly particularly towards the Precambrian basement. The formation is
51-141 m thick according to Verniers et al. (1989).
The Fubue Formation typically comprises pale coloured massive, multi-storied,
medium- and coarse-grained to conglomeratic sandstones. The thickness of the formation
varies from 200 to 35 m from west to east (Verniers et al. (1989). Outcrops considered to
belong the Fubue Sandstone Formation occur on the main road to Cobu at UTM 36S 715887
8624356 and extend northwards to the road cut at 716718 8626074, where medium and coarsegrained sandstones with scattered rounded to subangular quartz pebbles and local intraclasts of
mudstone are exposed on a low ridge. The sandstones are poorly to moderately sorted in crossbedded units up to 0.4 m thick. Foresets indicate that palaeocurrents flowed to the northwest.
Further north, at (UTM 36S 716408, 8626602) by the road, fine- to medium-grained buff
coloured sandstone dips gently northwest below ~0.4 m of pale grey shaly mudstone.
A gorge (at UTM 36S 711500, 8626000), about 1 km south of the main road to Cobu,
made by tributaries of the Rio Tulo cuts 50-100 m down into sandstones thought to belong to
the Fubue Sandstone Formation. This Upper Karoo section exposes an upper sequence, 10-20
m thick, of medium bedded gritty sandstone. This passes down into medium-grained sandstone
with scattered quartz clasts and pebbles about 1 cm in length. Cross-bedded units are common
and some foresets lie at oversteepened angles and are marked by dark mineral layers. Thin
interbeds are rich in detrital biotite and muscovite (Figure 6.336A-B). The lowest 10-15 m of
the sequence is composed of fine- to medium-grained sandstone with abundant cross-beds.
Farther south on the Cobu road there are road cuts considered to expose the Monte
Lilonga Siltstone Formation. At UTM 36S 715436, 8622568, apparently the lowest beds
exposed are interbedded small-scale fining up units comprising medium to coarse-grained
sandstones, fine-grained micaceous laminated sandstones and thin pale grey silty mudstones
with small desiccation cracks. The thicker sandstones (~0.5 m thick) have sharp, slightly
327
erosive bases. Cross bed foresets indicate a range of palaeocurrents flowing to the northeast
round to the southwest. This may be interpreted as due to sand bars developed in meandering
rivers flowing overall to the northwest.
Two traverses in the combined Monte Lilonga Siltstone and Fubue Sandstone
Formations were made within the western part of sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono. In one
section, north of Monte Chissindo at UTM 36S 724294, 8627606, yellow-brown weathered
loosely cemented coarse-grained sandstone is arkosic and contains scattered small quartz
pebbles. In the same vicinity silicified tree trunks up to 0.7m in diameter were weathered out.
From UTM 36S 724195, 8627760 to 724269, 8627992, along a dry meandering riverbed, pale
to mid-grey mudstone with shaly partings dips at a shallow angle to the southwest. There are
some interbedded laminated siltstones with iron and manganese dendrites in places. Fine white
micas and minor carbonaceous flakes are also present and the mudstones have a weak
spheroidal weathering. A palynological study of the mudstones produced spores identified as
late Permian in age. The sequence is over 2 m thick and was probably deposited in a lacustrine
or overbank environment. The lithologies described are typical of the Monte Lilonga Siltstone
Formation, however, a low ridge of sandstone farther north, at UTM 36S 724244, 8628116,
may belong to the overlying Fubue Sandstone Formation or form a channel deposit within the
mudstones referred to above. These sandstones are buff weathered, medium-grained and
quartz-rich with minor feldspars white micas and lithic clasts. They are moderately well sorted
with rounded to subrounded grains and scattered coarse clasts occur in the upper beds.
A better match for the Fubue Sandstone Formation is exposed in the ravine starting at
UTM 36S 720037 and ending at 722751, 8625340. In this section coarse-grained to pebbly
arkosic sandstones are white to yellow-brown weathered but greyish when fresh. They form
multi-storeyed channel deposits commonly fining up from pebble-lagged bases to fine- or
medium-grained parallel laminated or rippled sandstone tops. The pebbles are subrounded or
rounded. The bedding units were approximately horizontal. Trough cross-bedding is common
in sets 0.4-2.0 m thick (Figure 6.336C), some with low-angled foresets indicating deposition
from high energy flows. Synsedimentary deformation and overturned cross bed foresets are
common (Figure 6.336D). Most of the foresets measured indicate palaeoflows to the northnorthwest to north-northeast with only a few to the east and southwest. Thin interbeds of better
sorted, fine- and medium-grained sandstone commonly rich in detrital mica tend to be cut out
laterally by coarse-grained channel sandstones. The upper beds in the sequence lack greyish
mudstone intraclasts, which suggests increased reworking of the detritus or a lack of overbank
mudstone to be eroded. In either case the Fubue Sandstone Formation seems to represent an
increasingly active braided river deposit formed as a response to uplift in the source region. A
rare unit of fine-grained sandstone fining up over 0.5 m into a micaceous silty mudstone was
observed at UTM 36S 720047, 8630110. In this vicinity some of the mudstone intraclasts also
contain calcareous concretions indicating that the penecontemporaneous overbank sedimentary
rocks were subject to the first stages of caliche development.
328
Figure 6.336: Sedimentological features of the Karoo sedimentary rocks. (A) General cross-section view of crossbedded sandstones of the Fubue Sandstone Formation at 698273 8611906. Lower trough cross-bedded pebbly
sandstone (b1) comprises a coset in which some of the trough sets are fine sandstone-filled. The cross-bedded
sandstone (b2) was deposited on reactivation surface (arrowed in red). This, in turn, overlain by trough crossbedded sandstone (b3) comprising a coset with numerous low-angle trough sets with large fragments of mudstones
(m). Hammer head 15 cm. (B) Detailed cross-section view of the previous outcrop showing irregularly scattered
quartz pebbles in sandy matrix and concentration of clastic biotite (dark) in cross beds and interbeds. Pencil 15
cm. (C) Poorly-sorted, cross-bedded, pebbly sandstone of the Fubue Sandstone Formation at 694031 8614877.
The sandstone comprises five large trough sets apparently representing a stream channel deposit. (D) Crosssection view of synsedimentary overturned forests in cross-bedded, poorly-sorted, pebbly sandstone of the Fubue
Sandstone Formation at UTM 36S 694031, 8614877. (E) Cross-section view of the Mecondece Sandstone
Formation on the southern bank of the Rio Rovuma at UTM 36S 77693, 68720477. Lower cross-bedded coarse
sandstones (b1) comprise cosets in which some of the trough sets are conglomerate-filled. This is overlain by unit
(b2) of horizontally bedded, pale grey, fine-grained sandstone alternating with brown siltstone. (F) Trough crossbedded, medium-grained sandstone comprises near horizontal cosets. The Mecondece Sandstone Formation, the
southern bank of the Rio Rovuma at UTM 36S 776936, 8720477.
329
Farther south at UTM 36S 721580, 8627368, similar sandstones are pale buff and
pinkish grey mottled and include small red-brown mudstone intraclasts. These beds appear not
to have been so thoroughly reduced during diagenesis as the bulk of the succession. Sample
31959 of the better-sorted medium-grained sandstone at UTM 36S 722548, 8625890, shows a
relatively compact rock (Figure 6.337), with some new quartz cement and lacking voids. It is
poor to moderately sorted with grains up to 1 mm in diameter set in a finer grained matrix of
grains 0.1-0.2 mm in length. Quartz clasts form about 40% of the rock including
monocrystalline, strained polycrystalline and recrystallised mylonitic types. Alkali feldspar
including microcline perthite, microcline and orthoclase also constitute about 40% of the clast
content. Plagioclase, muscovite, biotite and opaques are minor detrital components and epidote
and titanite are accessory. Lithic clasts such as silty mudstone are also a minor component.
Most grains are subrounded to subangular and rarely angular. They were probably derived
from proximal Precambrian basement that included gneisses, granites and sheared rocks.
Figure 6.337: Thin section 31959 shows
a medium-grained sandstone contains
mainly clasts of quartz and feldspar.
Evidence of compaction is seen in the
bent detrital white mica and the embayed
mudstone clast (upper right corner). The
cement is a very fine-grained new quartz
growth. (UTM 36S 722548, 8625890,
sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono).
The depositional environment seems to change from the basal Monte Lilonga Siltstone
Formation in which meandering rivers were prevalent, to the Fubue Sandstone Formation in
which increasingly active braided river systems operated, perhaps as a result of uplift in the
clastic source region.
Mecondece Sandstone Formation (Unit JrMe): This formation comprises mainly (70-90%)
sandstone with interbedded argillaceous sandstones, siltstones and mudstones. These
lithologies occur in fluvial cycles that fine up overall, although coarsening up occurs locally in
channels. The sandstones are typically white, medium- to coarse-grained with scattered quartzpebble rich horizons and red-brown silty mudstone intraclasts up to 0.25 m long, commonly
occur near the bases of cross-bedded channel sandstones. Some of the trough cross-sets are
filled with conglomerate (Figure 6.336E) and elsewhere cross-bed cosets dip at low angles
indicating a high-energy flow regime (Figure 6.336F). Sandstones are more common towards
the base of the formation and the base is taken where massive sandstones predominate. The
siltstones and mudstones are reddish, light grey or brown in colour with occasional calcareous
concretions. Verniers et al. (1989) measured the thickness of the formation at 1800 m in the
Rio Mecondece area.
At one locality (UTM 36S 710210, 8638586), off-white to pale grey, medium to
coarse-grained sandstones contain scattered pebbles of quartz, quartzite and some feldspar. The
pebbles are commonly sub-rounded to rounded and up to 2cm in length. Conglomeratic beds
and lenses up to 10cm thick and granule-size beds are present. These sandstones are medium to
330
thickly bedded and in places contain red-brown mudstone clasts but at the base of the section
there is a greyish mudstone bed.
In the fault block between the Rio Moola and the Rio Txiune faults, Verniers et al.
(1989) described the Moola Formation, which they considered to be a lateral equivalent to the
Mecondece Sandstone Formation (the Moola Formation is therefore considered a redundant
term) although sandstones appear to form a slightly lower proportion (~70%) of the total
succession. This could be the result of facies change to more distal sediments to the north in
the centre of the graben. These are fluvial deposits of predominantly active braided streams and
channels, which commonly reworked or eroded most argillaceous overbank facies. This is
exemplified in the road section through the Mecondece Sandstone Formation from Nova
Madeira to Matchedje, by Rio Rovuma on the Tanzanian border, which has few exposures but
gives a reasonably representative profile of the Mecondece Sandstone Formation. This section
of the Upper Karoo can be divided into two different parts; approximately one to the north and
one south of the Rio Moola Fault.
Figure 6.338: (A) Laminated fine-grained sandstone with cross-bedding (UTM 36S 769695,
8698632). (C): Same outcrop: Sub-horizontal section through trough cross-bedded sandstone.
Direction of current is to the right. (eastwards) (UTM 36S 769695, 8698632). (B) Graded beds
in relatively coarse sandstone (UTM 36S 767366, 8686639). Note scattered pebbles of quartz.
Both localities are on sheet 1135 Lupilichi.
In the southern part, from about the junction where the Lupilichi road takes off and
about 25 km northwards, sandstone is exposed with well-developed layering of graded beds at
a scale of a few dm. Scattered rounded pebbles of quartz are common in the matrix that
consists of quartz and feldspar (Figure 6.338B).
The northern 35-37 km of the section to the border also consist of sandstone, but is
more homogeneously layered on a cm-scale and show typically cross-bedding (Figure 6.338A
and C). It also is more quartz-rich and more fine-grained. Also, there are no pebbles similar to
those seen in the southern part of the section and the sandstone could be interpreted as a finer
grained more distal facies occurring north of the Rio Moola Fault.
331
Good sandstone exposures belonging to the Mecondece Sandstone Formation were

seen east of Matchedje along the Rio Rovuma. For example, at UTM 775509 8719282) nearhorizontal trough cross-bedded medium-coarse sandstones (Figure 6.336E-F) contain scattered
granules and pebbles and conglomeratic lenses. The clasts are mainly of vein quartz, quartzite
and feldspar, but no mudstone clasts were observed. The sets are 0.3 1m thick. They fine
upwards and are typical of deposits in channels of braided rivers. The exposures at UTM 36S
778190, 8719796 are similar in lithology but besides quartz pebbles there are pale green
mudstone intraclasts, which are reworked overbank deposits. They dip very gently northwest.
Trough cross-bedding here indicates palaeoflow to the southwest but some of the cross-bed
foresets are convoluted and overturned due to synsedimentary deformation. At UTM 36S
790601, 8722784 medium-grained sandstones include trough cross-beds in sets up to 1 m thick
indicating palaeoflows to the northeast and bedding dips 4q E. Overall, the variation in dip is
suggestive of very open folding but overall dip is to the E here in the Mecondece Sandstone
Formation. The overlying Tende Siltstone Formation was only observed close to the
Precambrian inlier where coarse-grained sandstones were seen dipping northeast. The Tende
Siltstone Formation is predominantly formed of reddish siltstone according to Verniers et al.
(1989). Farther east a small down-faulted outlier (UTM 36S 806142, 8692728) surrounded by
Precambrian rocks contains off-white to very pale purple weathering, laminated, fine-grained
arkosic sandstone dipping 154/9qsouthwest. These beds can also be correlated with the Tende
Siltstone Formation.
Tende Siltstone Formation (Unit JrTe): Typically the Tende Siltstone Formation comprises
sedimentary cycles with up to 90% red or grey siltstone above pale grey or buff weathered
sandstones (Verniers et al., 1989). This formation has now been correlated with their
Matchedje Formation and the Lu-ulicia Formation. Over 1 m of crumbly reddish brown and
pale grey green mottled mudstone was observed including some small hard pale grey
calcareous concretions and rhizoliths at an outcrop on the Rio Messinge (UTM 36S 746838,
869166). In another outcrop visited (UTM 36S 709114, 8646708), medium- to coarse-grained
arkosic sandstone containing mainly quartz and weathered pink and white feldspar clasts was
loosely cemented. It showed a large-scale trough cross-bedded unit with a palaeo-flow trend to
345q. In a small stream section, there is a sharp contact between medium- to coarse-grained
sandstones overlying a pale to mid-grey siltstone with scattered sand grains and local
calcareous concretions including fibrous calcite. Verniers et al. (1989) also describe calcilutite
nodules with black spots from within the siltstones as well as desiccation cracks filled with
calcitic material. Calcified or silicified roots are also recorded. They estimate the thickness of
the formation as between 800 and 1500 m. The base of the formation is taken where sandstones
over 0,5 m thick predominate in the succession below. This formation was probably deposited
in an overbank fluvial or fluvio-lacustrine facies involving local desiccation and minor
pedogenic calcrete growth.
Lipirichi Siltstone Formation (Unit JrIp): This formation comprises fining up cycles of fine- to
medium-grained sandstone, siltstone and mudstone (Verniers et al., 1989). Argillaceous beds
dominate the formation and are described as generally light grey but locally reddish or
greenish. The sandstones constitute about 20% of the total sequence thickness and are rarely
coarse-grained. They are parallel or cross-bedded and commonly yellow to grey in colour.
Pinkish, spherical colourations of the order of 0.5 cm in diameter and calcitic cement were
described as characteristic of these sandstones by Verniers et al. (1989). Quartzitic cement is
also present locally. The formation was differentiated from the underlying Tende Siltstone
Formation because of its more frequent cycles with a higher proportion of sandstone. The
332
formation is poorly exposed in the Metangula-Macaloge area and the limits of the formation
are approximately those of Verniers et al. (1989). They estimated the formation to be 1,500 m
thick. The formation is interpreted as a cyclical fluvial deposit dominated by overbank or
flood-plain deposition.
6.19.6 Upper Karoo Group northwest of the Rio Moola Fault (Unit TrKu)
The Rio Moola Fault (Figure 6.331) is an important structure (Verniers et al. 1989) because to
the northeast of it, the basin appears to have developed as a half graben opening to the east (as
opposed to neutral or to the northwest farther south). The fault appears to have acted as a
scissor fault and between the Rio Moola and Rio Txiune faults dips are almost horizontal and
apart from overall subsidence, there is little evidence from structures to indicate the tectonic
history of the block. There is some support for the easterly opening of the graben north of the
Rio Moola Fault from the easterly and northerly dips observed along the Rio Rovuma. The
indeterminate Karoo or Lu-ulucia Formation of Verniers et al. (1989) to the east of the
Precambrian inlier near Matcheje was separated from the rest of the basin because it was less
well consolidated and difficult to correlate. However, since the eastern margin of the
Precambrian inlier is not faulted and no faults were observed by Verniers et al. (1989 p.141) or
shown on the 1:250, 000 map, the same sedimentary facies appear to have overlapped all
around the inlier. Therefore the indeterminate Karoo formation (Lu-ulicia Formation of
Verniers et al., 1989) can be equated with the Matchedje Formation to the west of the inlier
(Figure 6.339), both of which are equated with the Tende Siltstone Formation in this report as
they are lithologically similar.
Changing dips provide some evidence for an anticline with an axial trace passing
Nnortheast about 5 km east of Matchedje on the Rio Rovuma, where the Mecondece Sandstone
Formation forms the core of a broad asymmetric anticlinorium. The formation in the core was
formerly called the Congresso Formation (Verniers et al., 1989), however, as seen in the
exposures visited along the Rio Rovuma, this formation appears to be predominantly sandstone
similar to the Mecondece Sandstone Formation farther south with which it can now be
correlated (the term Congresso Formation therefore becomes redundant). The Mecondece
Sandstone Formation in the anticlinal core is overlain by the Tende Siltstone Formation on the
western flank and its equivalent Matchedje Formation on the east (Verniers et al. 1989). The
Lipirichi Formation overlies the Tende Formation farther west in the graben but the repetition
of this formation in the east has not been proved and therefore all the Karoo strata east of the
Mecondece Sandstone Formation are included in the Tende Siltstone Formation (Figure 6.339).
Along the Rio Rovuma good sandstone exposures belonging to the Mecondece
Sandstone Formation were seen east of Matchedje. At UTM 36S 775509, 8719282, near
horizontal trough cross-bedded medium- to coarse-grained sandstones contain scattered
granules and pebbles and conglomeratic lenses. The clasts are mainly of vein quartz, quartzite
and feldspar, but no mudstone clasts were observed. The sets are 0.3-1m thick. They fine
upwards and are typical of deposits in channels of braided rivers. The exposures at UTM 36S
778190 8719796 are similar in lithology but in addition to quartz pebbles there are pale green
mudstone intraclasts, which are reworked overbank deposits. They dip very gently northwest.
Trough cross-bedding here indicates palaeoflow to the southwest but some of the cross-bed
foresets are convoluted and overturned due to synsedimentary deformation. At UTM 36S
790601, 8722784 medium-grained sandstones include trough cross-beds in sets up to 1 m thick
indicating palaeoflows to the northeast and bedding dips 4q to the east. Overall, the variation in
dip is suggestive of very open folding but overall dip is to the east here in the Mecondece
Sandstone Formation.
333
Figure 6.339: Sketch map of the different units present in the Karoo and their distribution
The overlying Tende Siltstone Formation (here formerly the Matchedje Formation of
Verniers et al. 1989) was only observed close to the Precambrian inlier where coarse-grained
sandstones dip northeast. The sandstones are thicker close to the Precambrian, which may be
the source of the coarser clastic detritus. Away from the Precambrian inlier the Tende Siltstone
(Matchedje) Formation is predominantly formed of red and grey siltstone with fine-grained
sandstone according to Verniers et al. (1989). No exposures of the Karoo Supergroup (Luulucia Formation of Verniers et al., 1989) to the east of the Precambrian inlier were visited but
correlating across the Precambrian inlier, the strata mapped as the Matchedje Formation, i.e.
Tende Siltstone Formation, are considered equivalent since they comprise grey, brown or red
mudstones and siltstones with fine-grained sandstone. The fine-grained sandstones are yellow
and poorly sorted with conglomeratic intercalations containing some clay or silt pebbles. The
Matchedje Formation of Verniers et al. (1989) contains fine-grained white sandstones as well
as red and grey mudstones, so the Lu-ulucia Formation is well matched with the Tende
Siltstone (Matchedje) Formation. Farther east a small downfaulted outlier (UTM 36S 806142
8692728) contains off-white to very pale purple weathering, laminated, fine-grained arkosic
sandstone dipping 154/9qsouthwest. These beds can also be correlated with the Tende Siltstone
(Matchedje) Formation.
6.19.7 Karoo Supergroup of the Tiambila basin (Unit CbK)
On the eastern margin of sheet 1135 Lupilichi there is a small portion of the Tiambila Karoo
basin which is preserved in a half graben, most of which lies on sheet 1136 Milepa. No
outcrops were visited during the fieldwork. Verniers et al. (1989) recorded a sequence of
interbedded, pale, fine- to medium-grained, cross-bedded sandstones and red silty mudstones,
334
becoming more argillaceous downwards and lying unconformably on the Precambrian

basement. These facies are typical of the Upper Karoo Group but were described by Verniers
et al. (1989) as poorly consolidated. This could well be because the beds are the youngest of
the Karoo Supergroup present (? Early Jurassic) and have not been covered to any great depth
in this small basin. In the deepest part of the half graben the sedimentary fill is estimated to be
a few hundred metres thick. The Tiambila basin succession comprises small fluvial cycles,
which may correlate with the Lipirichi Siltstone Formation in the Maniamba Graben.
6.19.8 Karoo Supergroup basins southeast and east of Lichinga (Unit CbK)
Around the Mancha de Montante (UTM 36S 800000, 8462500) in the southeastern corner of
sheet 1335 Lichinga, exposures of Proterozoic gneisses in the Rio Luchimua can be interpreted
as forming an irregular erosional surface on which coal-bearing Karoo strata were deposited.
These can possibly be correlated with the Ecca Group in other Karoo basins.
The lowest beds exposed are pebbly sandstones, sandstones and shaly mudstones,
which are locally grey or carbonaceous. Some mudstones contain thin, non-persistant coal
interbeds. About 30 m stratigraphically above the base of the succession, the lowest coal seam,
up to 1 m thick, was encountered and another seam occurs about 10 m stratigraphically further
up, within a succession of shaly mudstones and thin sandstone. Towards the top of the
succession the shaly mudstones again contain thin impersistent coals and carbonaceous beds
interbedded with subordinate sandstones. Conglomerate is locally recorded in the northwestern part of the outlier and in the south, along Rio dos Fosseis, which flows north to join
Rio Luchimua, fossils are recorded. Some of the sandstones are ferruginous and laterite was
recorded within the Mancha de Montante. Much of this iron enrichment is considered to be
secondary and developed in post-Karoo times. The whole succession in Mancha de Montante
is up to 200 m thick and may be entirely Ecca Group; although the upper argillaceous beds
(xistos superiors of Nunes 1948) may correlate with the Middle Karoo Beaufort Group.
The smaller outlier, Mancha de Juzante, which lies about 10 km to the north-east, is
less well exposed, on a tight northern meander of Rio Luchimua. However, the Karoo
succession appears to be similar to that in the Mancha de Montante, with interbedded coal
seams up to 0,5 m thick, carbonaceous mudstones, mudstones with some thin coal beds and
lenses, pebbly mudstones, and sandstones, some of which are ferruginous (Nunes 1948). Here
the entire succession, about 100-200 m thick, can be lithostratigraphically correlated with the
Lower Karoo Ecca Group.
Two small structures of Karoo rocks occur on sheet 1336 Majune (Almeida & Nunes
1948). They were not visited during the fieldwork due to difficult logistics and poor exposure.
The smaller structure is located at the confluence of Rio Lugenda and Rio Luambala (UTM
37S 207500, 8515000). The other Karoo structure, which includes coal seams, is exposed
along Rio Lotcheze about 10 km west of its confluence with Rio Lugenda (UTM 37S 222500,
8535000).
6.19.9 Karoo Supergroup in Cabo Delgado (Unit CbK)
Previous mapping by BRGM (Verniers, 1981) identified a single Karoo Basin within the
northern part of sheet 1238 Xixano and the southern part of sheet 1138 Negomano. This basin
is ~60km long and <10km wide and forms a north-south-trending, fault-bounded lense. Its
location is coincident with the complex ductile tectonic contact between the Marrupa Complex
to the west and the Xixano Complex to the east. It is clear that the brittle faulting that created
the space for the Karoo Basin reactivated the intensely mylonitic rocks on the tectonised
335
contact between these two complexes. A second basin has now been identified. This lies
further south on the same tectonic trend, between UTM 36S 8600000 and 8630000 and is
therefore ~30km long: it averages ~3-4 km wide, and has a maximum width of 10km. In both
basins, the sedimentary rocks are defined, by a 'smooth' magnetic low. In both basins the
western margin appears to be fault-bounded whereas the eastern margins are interpreted as
unconformities due to the sinuous nature of the contacts with the underlying Precambrian
rocks, based on interpretation of the geomagnetic data. However, neither the faulted contacts to
the west nor the unconformities to the east were observed in either basin, as outcrop is
extremely poor in the flat-lying, forested landscape of this area. In the following, the
previously mapped basin will be called the 'northern basin', whereas the newly discovered
basin to the south will be called the 'southern basin'.
Conglomerate and arkosic sandstone(Unit CbKl): Conglomeratic sandstone was observed at
four localities, all within the northern basin. In all these localities, the bedding dips at a shallow
angle (10-30) to the east. The grain size in these outcrops is highly variable. At UTM 36S
438514, 8669306 pebbles up to 10mm in size are seen in a finer matrix of 2-5 mm coarse
sandstone. The clasts consist almost exclusively of quartz or quartzite, probably derived from
the Xixano Complex paragneisses. Grains in the more pebbly layers are sub-angular to subrounded. The interlayers of cream-/buff-coloured sandstone are up to 15cm thick, with their
margins poorly defined against the conglomerate. At locality UTM 36S 435843, 8670946
pebbles up to 70mm in diameter are found in a sandstone matrix consisting of angular grains of
quartz and feldspar up to 3-7mm. Clear sedimentary structures are rare. Bedding is poorly
defined but always dips to the east. In one locality (Figure 6.340b) a very poorly defined crossbedding set is seen.
Figure 6.341a shows a low magnification image of a finer grained portion of the
conglomerate. This shows a partially clast-supported, partially matrix-supported texture with a
microcrystalline matrix of white mica and chlorite. Locally there is patchy, microcrystalline
infilling of the matrix by calcite (Figure 6.341b) K-feldspar and plagioclase account for 1015% of the mode, as rounded to angular fragments (Figure 6.341b). The presence of mainly
clear unrecrystallized quartz without undulose extinction as the main groundmass component
suggests a magmatic source for the quartz, probably in the Marrupa Complex to the west.
However, the presence of rare lithic fragments (left part of both Figure 6.341a and Figure
6.341b), which appear to consist of microcrystalline quartz and may be quartzite, suggests
some input from the paragneisses in the Xixano Complex to the east. The angular texture in the
quartz-rich groundmass, the presence of fresh, angular plagioclase fragments within the
conglomerate and the low concentration of lithic fragments (~1% of the groundmass) strongly
suggest rapid deposition, with very limited reworking.
Sandstone (Unit PeE): Sandstone is found in both basins: all outcrops found in the southern
basin were of sandstone. The sandstone generally appears to be massive (Figure 6.342a). Its
texture is variable but it generally displays 1-3mm grains of quartz and a cream-coloured
feldspar (white mica is seen sparsely in outcrop) in a buff- to brown- coloured matrix. The
sandstone generally appears to be clast-supported. It is infrequently well-bedded in beds of up
to 30cm thick. Where the bedding is apparent, it invariably dips, like the conglomerate
lithology, at shallow or moderate angles to the E. At one locality (UTM 36S 438181, 8669594)
well-bedded sandstone dips 60 N, indicating significant tectonic activity during or after
deposition of the Karoo. In some outcrops, an open porosity is observed, probably the result of
weathering out of a soluble matrix cement, possibly calcite. There is limited evidence for
sedimentary structures. Figure 6.342b and d show truncated cross-bedding
336
Figure 6.340: Conglomerate from the northern Karoo basin on sheets 1238 Xixano and 1138
Negomano. A: UTM 37S 438514, 8669306. Conglomerate with very crude bedding (dipping
into the page) with interlayers of coarse sandstone. B: UTM 37S 435843, 8670946.
Conglomerate with poorly defined cross-sets. The bottom set is defined by the white dashed
line.
Figure 6.341: Conglomerate from locality UTM 37S 438514, 8669306 (sample 37201).
at locality UTM 36S 435510, 8668202 in the northern basin. Figure 6.342d shows a rare
example of asymptotic cross-bedding, in which the current direction is towards the E and the
sediments are indeed right-way-up. Limited evidence is seen for syn-sedimentary deformation.
Figure 6.342e shows a synsedimentary open fold at the base of the outcrop: the fold has been
truncated and a new sandstone bed has been laid down on top. Graded bedding is rare but is
seen in one outcrop at locality UTM 36S 433539, 8664001 where an inverse grading pattern is
observed (Figure 6.342f). Here the moderate grain size sandstone grades upwards into a course
sandstone and is then truncated by a fine-grained sandstone layer at the start of the next
grading sequence.
In thin section the Karoo sandstone is dominated by quartz clasts of magmatic origin.
These range from sub-rounded to very angular. K-feldspar and plagioclase vary from 15-20%
of the groundmass. These also display sub-rounded to angular grain shapes. Grain size varies
in thin section from approximately 50m to 2mm. The sandstone generally displays a poorly
sorted texture. White mica makes up approximately 5-20% (in extreme cases) of the matrix
material. Some large white mica grains are seen in the groundmass which are interpreted as
detrital. The matrix consists of a very fine-grained semi-opaque material consisting of a
337
combination of sericite, chlorite. This is interpreted as diagenetic material as it is seen to affect

both the matrix and some of the feldspar grains
Figure 6.342: Examples of outcrop characteristics of Karoo Sandstone from both the southern
basin on sheet 1238 Xixano. (A): Massive sandstone (UTM 37S 437297, 8670394), (B and C)
Cross-bedded sandstone (UTM 37S 435510 8668202), (D) Asymptotic cross-bedding in
sandstone (UTM 37S 435843, 8670946) (E) Syn-sedimentary open fold, truncated by the
overlying sandstone (UTM 37S 433539 8664001) (F) Inversely graded sandstone (UTM 37S
433539 8664001) .
338
6.20 Kimberlites
6.20.1 Introduction
Kimberlites were found in northwestern Mozambique by a group of Russian geologists in the
1970s (Afonso & Marques, 1993, quoted in Lchelt, 2004). The kimberlites intrude Karoo
sedimentary rocks in the southern part of the Maniamba Graben (see Chapter 6.19) This
northeast-southwest tending graben lies immediately east of Lago Niassa, which lies within the
East Africa Rift System. It is not, however, an offshoot of this rift system, but a much older
tectonic structure. The fact that the kimberlites are found in the older rift and not in the East
Africa Rift System itself is a typical feature of the geology of these structures (see Chapter 5 of
Mitchell, 1986). The field relationships of the kimberlites are well documented by the Russian
reports and maps, but the laboratory work has not been published: the petrography,
geochemistry and diamond potential of the kimberlites are thus poorly known. The following
account reviews the original Russian work and summarises the findings of the 2003 fieldwork
and subsequent laboratory investigations.
Oberreuter & Pilale (1998) provide an overview (after Stajilo-Alekseev, 1983) of the
exploration work by Russian geologists in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The team first
discovered a kimberlite in 1979 at Lufutiche in northern Mozambique (Jakovenko et al, 1979).
It was thought that the area with potential for kimberlites covered about 1,100 km2 in the
basins of the rivers Lunho, Fge, Luile and Chissongo, which are underlain by Karoo strata in
a graben immediately east of Lago Niassa. The graben has dimensions in northwest
Mozambique of about 140 km in length by up to 60 km in width (Figure 6.343) and continues
into southern Tanzania.
Forty-three kimberlite dykes, as well as an unknown number of basaltic kimberlites and
four isometric bodies (pipes) are known in the southwest part of the Karoo graben (in the
basins of the Lunho and Fge rivers). No kimberlites were outside the graben in the adjacent
uplifted areas underlain of pre-Karoo rocks of the Mozambique Belt. An investigation of
stream sediments in these areas also failed to find any kimberlite indicator minerals. The Soviet
geologists concluded that there was a direct link between the formation of the graben and the
emplacement of the kimberlites.
Figure 6.344 shows the locations of five zones of kimberlite, which were identified and
the known kimberlites. The three westernmost zones have parallel northwest-southeast trends
succeeded to the east by a short east-northeast west-southwest-trending zone. The fifth,
easternmost and smallest zone also trends northwest-southeast. Kimberlite dykes within each
zone are parallel to the trend of the zones. Brecciated kimberlites were not found as dykes but
are confined to isometric plugs. Lithic as well as crystal (olivine, garnet and picrite-ilmenite)
clasts are set in a matrix of serpentine and carbonate with sodalite, perovskite and chromediopside. The kimberlites are stated to be associated with low (positive and negative) magnetic
anomalies.
339
Figure 6.343: Location of the Karoo Graben with bounding faults and major internal faults
shown in thick lines. R1 and R2 refer to Riedel shear trends associated with the two main
trends of the kimberlite dykes.
86
86
2
1
Ri
oF
86
86
Ri o
TX3
o
nh
Lu
0
0
Metangula
10 kilometres
Lefululutxe-Fge Rivers Zone
Upper course of the Fge

River Zone
Tulo-Namango Rivers Zone
Luimba River Zone
Micuela Zone
ID98000210
Kimberlite dyke
Upper Karoo
Kimberlite pipe
Beaufort Group
Kimberlite zone
Fault
Karoo
Ecca Group
Pree-Karoo basement
Figure 6.344: The location of the kimberlite dykes and pipes as well as the five zones of
kimberlite emplacement recognised by Jakovenko et al. (1979).
340
From west to east the zones are,

x Lefululutxe- Fge Rivers zone
x Upper course of the Rio Fge River zone
x Tulo-Namango Rivers zone
x Luimba River zone
x Micuela zone
The Lefululutxe- Fge Rivers zone is located 4-10 km east of Lago Niassa, is ~28
km long and 5 km wide, and trends northwest-southeast (145). Nine dykes were identified as
well as a kimberlite lode, with the biggest dyke on the left side of the Rio Lefululutxe. The
Upper course of the Fge River zone is narrow (1-2,5 km wide) and was only traced for 12
km but continues to the northwest out of the area studied by the Russian geologists. Eleven
dykes were found but no detailed ground studies were completed. The Tulo-Namango Rivers
zone was traced for 25 km to the northwest from the southern edge of the graben and is ~4 km
in width across the Rio Lunho valley. Nineteen dykes and 4 isometric bodies were discovered.
The 4 isometric bodies were found along the Rio Namango valley in the only area prospected
in any detail. Four very thin subvertical dykes were found in the 500m wide Luimba River
zone, which trends southwest-northeast (065) for c. 2,5 km. The Micuela zone, with a width
of 200 m, was followed by ground magnetic surveys for ~600 m in a northwest-southeast
direction. Basaltic kimberlites were found in this zone, which is thought to be larger than
suggested by the initial surveys.
Most kimberlite dykes are up to 3 m in thickness but can be 15 m thick. The dykes of
the Luimba River' zone are the thinnest (<0,2 m). The TX3 pipe of the Tulo-Namango Rivers
zone is ~60 x 70 m2 in cross section. There is a large block of altered Karoo strata in the centre
of the pipe. Adjacent lode or isometric kimberlites are circular to elongate (cross sections are c.
15 x 60 m2). Kimberlite dykes are locally displaced (up to 50 m) by northeast-trending faults.
The dykes are mostly subvertical although dips as low as 65 were noted.
Jakovenko et al. (1979) suggested that bout 1500 m of erosion has taken place in the
Rio Namango region based on its attenuated (lower) Karoo sequence of only 150 m in total. It
was also suggested that this erosion affected the kimberlites so that only their roots are
preserved. This implies that the kimberlites are of Karoo or immediately post-Karoo age. An
overview map at 1:125 000 prepared by the Russian geologists shows kimberlite dykes cutting
through the entire Karoo sequence (to imply that the dykes post-date all the Karoo
sedimentary rocks). However, Lchelt (2004) records various kimberlitic minerals (pyrope,
Mg-magnetite, Mg-ilmenite as well as fragmented diamonds) in the basal conglomerates (K7
unit) of the Upper Karoo Group, implying that there are pre-upper Karoo kimberlites within
the graben. It is therefore possible that there are several generations of kimberlite dyke.
Olivine, phlogopite, perovskite, serpentine, carbonate, monazite, and traces of pyrope
garnet were the main mineral phases recorded by the Soviet study. Pyrope occurs as pale (low
chrome) to dark (high chrome) violet grains. Brecciated kimberlites are associated with the
largest number of indicator minerals (60% contain pyrope) and porphyritic magnetite-bearing
kimberlites have the lowest number of indicator minerals. The Soviet geologists divided their
exploration area into the following three sub-areas based on the results of panning in the
streams:
341
x The upper courses of Rio Lucumba and Rio Mecondece (characterised by ilmenitezircon-rutile assemblages with minor clinopyroxene, almandine, tourmalines, epidote
and apatite).
x The Rio Fge Basin and the northwest bank of the Rio Lunho (characterised by
pyrope-almandine-ilmenite assemblages with minor rutile, zircon, clinopyroxene,
limonite and hornblende).
x Southeast bank of the Rio Lunho (characterised by ilmenite-limonite-almandine
assemblages with minor clinopyroxene, zircon, hornblende etc.)
Oberreuter & Pilale (1998) noted that the Russian geologists between 1979 and 1983 gave no
results for the analyses of most of the >5.000 pan and geochemical samples taken. Most of the
detailed (1:500) maps from the geophysical survey results were not provided. The title of the
report on their later exploration was Results of the works on diamonds collected from the
Basins of the Lunho and Fge rivers during 1982 and 1983. However, this was translated
into Portuguese as Report on prospecting activities for kimberlites carried out in the basins of
Rio Lunho and Rio Fge'. It is therefore not clear as to whether any diamonds were found.
Karoo strata dip northwest in the southwest part of the graben where the Karoo rocks
are cut by kimberlites. The Karoo strata are also cut by dykes ranging from basic to felsic in
composition, which are thought to be Jurassic (uppermost Karoo) based on the age of
uppermost Karoo volcanics in the main Karoo basins further south in southern Africa.
6.20.2 The present study
An isometric kimberlite (TX3) from the Tulo-Namango Rivers zone was accurately located
between UTM 36S 719537, 8610862 and 719493, 8610891. Four other trenches across minor
kimberlite dykes close to TX3 were also examined (e.g. at UTM 36S 717946, 8613395 and
719490, 8610422). Two near-vertical, khaki green weathered kimberlitic dykes exposed on the
main road to Cbu at 36S 714109, 8617410 are 0,1-0,2 m and 0,8 m in thickness. They are
separated by a thin screen of baked mudstones belonging to the Beaufort Group. The dykes
trend ~54, i.e. normal to the main dyke trend in Tulo-Namango Rivers zone, and it is
possible that the dykes represent a south-westerly continuation of the Luimba River zone
(Figure 6.344).
Several exploration pits with diameters of ~1 m and depths of several metres are still
open over TX3, with spoil heaps of fresh, massive, blue-black (with a faint green tint)
kimberlite with mm-thick weathered rinds varying from dull grey to blue-grey in colour
(Figure 6.345a & b). All the examined kimberlites are weakly magnetic with kappameter
readings of 9 - 12 x 10-3 SI units. Fresh kimberlite is overlain by 1-2 m of pale yellow clayey
soil with an uppermost veneer of impure grey calcrete over TX3 that forms a slightly elevated
mound above surrounding Karoo sandstone outcrop.
Large crystals (macrocrysts) up to ~1 cm long of olivine (common), garnet, phlogopite,
diopside, magnetite, calcite and ilmenite in a fine-grained matrix were noted in the TX3
kimberlites. Olivine and garnet grains have rounded outlines and commonly have very finegrained alteration rims up to ~1 mm thick. Garnets vary in colour from very dark red to orange
to pale purple, all with a glassy aspect. Olivine grains are variably altered to serpentine.
Calcite occurs interstitially in the kimberlite matrix and also as individual large grains or as
clusters of large grains.
342
Figure 6.345: (a) Fresh kimberlite sample taken from UTM 36S 719490, 8610422 with a large
rounded pyrope xenocryst set in a blue-grey massive hypabyssal kimberlite groundmass. (b)
Indurated Karoo sandstone clasts in hypabyssal kimberlite from UTM 36S 719490, 8610422,
sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono. Diameter of coin: ~ 2,5 cm.
The amount of country rock fragments is highly variable although the majority of
examined rocks from the spoil heaps are clast deficient. The most common exotic components
noted in the field are angular clasts of indurated Karoo sedimentary strata up to several
centimetres in length, and angular to rounded quartz grains. The examined kimberlites intrude
into well-exposed Ecca Group (lower Karoo) sandstones that are essentially horizontal. A
borehole drilled by the Russian team into lower Karoo strata at UTM 36S 0717644 8613912
revealed a (fluviatile) sequence of arkosic sandstones, siltstones, quartz-pebble conglomerates
and carbonaceous mudstones. The most southerly kimberlite dykes are emplaced within 100 m
of the scarp feature that marks the contact between the Karoo strata and underlying
metamorphic (granitic) rocks. This contact is inferred to be faulted, although the fault is not
exposed.
White et al (1995) reviewed the structural controls on the emplacement of kimberlites.
They noted an association between kimberlites and extensional faulting in major grabens.
Linear grabens (above deep-seated mobile belts) were highlighted as one of two structural
settings favoured by Mesozoic and younger kimberlites. A detailed study of kimberlites within
the Lucapa Corridor in Angola showed that faults with Riedel geometry within the rift system
controlled their emplacement (De Boorder, 1982). A similar model can be applied to the
kimberlites in the Maniamba graben. Most of the kimberlites (Figure 6.344) form dykes that
trend ~northwest-southeast, and less commonly ~east-northeast west-southwest within the
~northeast-southwest-trending graben. Normal displacements on the boundary faults of the
graben controlled Karoo sedimentation and clearly preceded emplacement of the kimberlites. It
is suggested that post-Karoo stresses caused subsequent dextral offset along these faults and
created the extensional fractures infilled by the kimberlites. The northwest-trending dykes
occupy conjugate R2-fractures to the major bounding faults and the east-northeast-trending
dykes infill R1-shears to the southeast margin of the graben (Ramsay & Huber, 1987). Support
for this model is given by Cloos (1955, Figure 2 of plate 2), who shows extensional fractures
within a dextral shear system that exactly mimic the kimberlite-filled fracture pattern in the
Maniamba graben. Dating (see Chapter 11) of the kimberlites indicates that they were
emplaced at about 138 Ma (see Chapter 11), which would suggest that stresses related to
Lower Cretaceous fragmentation of Gondwana, which effectively isolated Africa as a
continent, caused re-activation of the bounding faults of the graben (Jelsma et al, 2004).
Extensional reactivation of these older fundamental faults provided access into the upper crust
for upper mantle magmas along second order fractures.
343
North-northeast-trending faults of the East African Rift System truncate the western
part of the Maniamba Graben (Figure 6.343) and post-date kimberlite emplacement.
Previously, Mitchell (1986) noted that the rifting post-dated kimberlite emplacement and
dismissed any suggestion that emplacement of kimberlites adjacent to the East African Rift
System in Tanzania was influenced by this Neogene rift system. Vearncombe & Vearncombe
(2002) concluded from a spatial analysis of kimberlite distribution in southern Africa that
kimberlites are intruded in corridors next to, but not along prominent shears and crustal faults.
They noted that kimberlites have to be emplaced into relatively homogeneous, strong crust
capable of maintaining the very high CO2 pressure necessary for the rapid emplacement of
kimberlites. Jelsma et al. (2004), who analysed a much larger data set, confirmed the
Vearncombes statistical analysis of kimberlite distribution. They noted several major
kimberlite corridors, including a northeast-southwest corridor from southern Namibia across
Botswana into central Zimbabwe. The Mozambican kimberlites form a northeastern
continuation of this corridor that is now a trans-continental structure (Figure 6.346).
Figure 6.346: Distribution of kimberlites in southern Africa, highlighting the importance of

trans-continental northeast-southwest kimberlite corridors parallel to the Southern TransAfrica Shear System (STASS). Modified from Jelsma et al. (2004).
New, high-resolution aeromagnetic data is useful in locating additional potential
kimberlites (see Chapters 8 and 13). Interesting anomalies are mainly located north of the
previously mapped kimberlites and the inferred dykes have similar trends, mostly northnorthwest south-southwest. A small circular magnetic anomaly has also been registered in
the northernmost part ot the graben (UTM 36S 772500, 8703000, sheet 1136 Lupilichi). These
indications should be verified on the ground, especially the assumed pipes.
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6.20.3 Petrography and mineralogy

Petrography and mineralogy: Whole rock analyses were undertaken on 4 samples that have the
least amount of inherited country rock clasts (see Appendix 3). Petrographic studies, including
SEM (scanning electron microscope) analyses were undertaken on nine polished thin sections
of the kimberlite samples. Rb-Sr isotopic dating of phlogopites provided more precise
information on the emplacement age of the kimberlites.
The rocks examined are all Group 1 macrocrystic hypabyssal kimberlites with
inequigranular textures. Olivine is the dominant primary macrocrystic phase with isolated Mgilmenite, pyrope and phlogopite macrocrysts. The groundmass comprises intergrown primary
calcite and serpentine with ubiquitous olivine grains and disseminated opaques with common
phlogopite and traces of apatite and clinopyroxene. SEM data shows that the opaques comprise
perovskite, ilmenite (including Mg-ilmenite) and various spinels including chromite and
magnetite. Nickel sulphides (millerite and nickeliferous pyrrhotite) form clusters of (exsolved)
acicular grains as inclusions in the macrocrysts. Enstatite forms rare rounded inclusions in Mgilmenite macrocrysts. Barium and strontium sulphate/carbonate are late replacement minerals
identified by the SEM analyses.
Olivine grains vary from rounded, strongly fractured macrocrysts with embayed
margins to small, unfractured euhedral grains in the groundmass (Figure 6.347a & b).
Serpentine fills cracks in olivine macrocrysts and also forms rims (with calcite and opaques)
around individual grains (Figure 6.348a). Olivine grains remain unaltered away from the
serpentine-filled cracks. The macrocrysts are variably replaced (even in a single thin section)
by both calcite and serpentine with tiny sulphide needles, and in extreme cases are completely
pseudomorphed (Figure 6.348b).
Figure 6.347: (a) Sample 31964 from UTM 36S 719537, 8610862 (sheet 1235 MacalogeChiconono) illustrating the typical inequigranular kimberlite texture with olivine macrocrysts
set in a groundmass of olivine, phlogopite, serpentine and calcite. The olivine macrocrysts are
unaltered but internally fragmented. (b) Sample 31986 showing a euhedral olivine phenocryst
in a groundmass of opaques, calcite and serpentine with the partial development of calcite
haloes around the olivine grains. Extensive internal serpentine replacement of the olivine
phenocrysts is evident.
Modal amounts of phlogopite are highly variable, with corroded macrocrysts (Figure
6.349a) as well as more common small, embayed and corroded flakes in the groundmass.
Rounded, fresh (but internally fractured) pyrope macrocrysts have thin alteration (kelyphitic)
coronas. The garnet macrocrysts are embayed and are clearly not in equilibrium with the
345
enclosing groundmass i.e. they are xenocrysts. Internal cracks are partly infilled by late
mineral phases, including carbonates and sulphates.
Figure 6.348: (a) Sample 31964 ( from UTM 36S 719537, 8610862) illustrating extensive
replacement of an olivine macrocryst by serpentine. (b) Sample 31986 from UTM 36S 719490,
8610422 showing an inequigranular kimberlite texture with resorbed olivine macrocrysts in a
groundmass of olivine phenocrysts with extensive late calcite and serpentine. Common
groundmass opaques include perovskite and spinels. Both samples are from sheet 1235
Macaloge-Chiconono.
Small olivine grains, carbonate (probably calcite), serpentine and disseminated opaques
with variable amounts of tiny phlogopite flakes form a fine-grained groundmass. Euhedral
carbonate rhombs (calcite and/or dolomite) are locally present, as are irregular patches
(potentially amygdales) of calcite in serpentine and calcite veinlets. Some calcitic segregations
in the groundmass are cored by an unidentified yellowish, cryptocrystalline mineral that may
be devitrified glass. Opaques (including spinels, ilmenite and perovskite) are very common as
equant grains with a bimodal grain-size distribution. Perovskite grains in the groundmass are
embayed with thin alteration rims.
Figure 6.349: (a) Sample 31991 (from UTM 36S 719493, 8610891) showing an unstable,
strongly absorbed phlogopite flake and fractured olivine macrocrysts in a matrix of calcite,
opaques and serpentine with randomly oriented tiny phlogopite flakes that are also marginally
absorbed. (b) Sample 31986 showing a rounded pyrope xenocryst that was analysed by the
SEM (Table 5). Decompression cracks in the garnet are partly infilled by secondary phases
that include cryptocrystalline aggregates from the kelyphitic rim. Both samples are from sheet
Lithic (mostly sandstone) clasts are strongly indurated and locally replaced by calcite
and serpentine. A relict trachytic texture was noted in one clast and an oval-shaped clast has a
346
fern-like internal texture defined by radiating olivine grains from a central stem. The texture
may be a fragment of a spinifex-like fabric within a xenolith. Whole rock chemical analysis of
one kimberlite sample (31990) that contains indurated sandstone clasts indicates considerable
contamination probably due to assimilation of country rock material.
Examined garnet macrocrysts (Figure 6.349b) have well-defined outer alteration
(kelyphitic) rims ~200 thick. Internal fractures are partly infilled by barium sulphate. Ovalshaped millerite inclusions are c. 50 long and nickeliferous pyrrhotite forms tiny needles. A
very narrow strip (~5-10 wide) of strontium sulphate and calcite was identified along the edge
of one garnet macrocryst. A similarly narrow strip of barium sulphate was identified between a
garnet xenocryst and its kelyphitic corona. Barium sulphate also occur as tiny grain in the
groundmass.
Spinels and perovskite grains are typically about 50 in diameter. Perovskite grains are
rounded and embayed and replaced by rims of ilmenite with outermost rutile rinds. The
centres of altered perovskite grains are commonly infilled by calcite aggregates with or
without rutile. Chromite forms tiny grains cutting into the margins of altered perovskite grains
as well as embayed (frayed) cubes and embayed elongate laths with strongly fractured rims of
less Cr-rich spinel. All spinels, including Ti-magnetite, occur as tiny cubes that commonly
amalgamate, as well as more ragged grains.
Ilmenite forms embayed, subhedral laths with strongly fractured spinel rims. Mgilmenite forms macrocrysts with very narrow alteration rims with rutile as well as smaller
drop-shaped Cr-bearing grains. A drop-shaped inclusion of enstatite was found in one Mgilmenite xenocryst. Apatite forms embayed subhedral laths, locally with inclusion of Cailmenite.
The examined rocks are all Group 1 macrocrystic hypabyssal kimberlites with
inequigranular textures. Macrocrysts noted in thin sections are mostly olivine with isolated
Mg-ilmenite, pyrope and phlogopite. The garnets are xenocrysts although it is not clear
whether the olivine macrocrysts are early primary (cognate) kimberlitic minerals or xenocrysts.
However, at least some of the groundmass olivine is an early crystallization phase of the
kimberlite magma. Some olivine macrocrysts have angular shapes to suggest that they are
fragments of larger megacrysts (Figure 6.350).
Figure 6.350: Sample 31991 from
UTM 36S 719490, 8610422 (sheet
1235 Macaloge-Chiconono) showing
inequigranular fractured olivine
macrocrysts that at least in part
represent angular fragments of
megacrysts. The olivine grains are
set in a groundmass of calcite,
serpentine, opaques, small olivine
grains and phlogopite.
Opaque minerals appear to have crystallised at different stages with embayed and
altered early perovskite and ilmenite grains and late spinel grains. Alteration rims around
347
perovskite grains formed during resorption in the latest stages of magma crystallization and
typically include rutile (Mitchell, 1986). Nickel sulphides (millerite and nickeliferous
pyrrhotite) form clusters of (exsolved) acicular grains as inclusions in the macrocrysts.
Enstatite forms a rounded inclusion in an Mg-ilmenite macrocryst. Phlogopite also appears to
have crystallised at different stages with embayed early flakes and late poikilitic flakes
with inclusions of other minerals including spinel.
Serpentine and calcite are the youngest primary phases, the former variably replacing
olivine. They are late stage primary kimberlite as opposed to secondary alteration phases.
Barium and strontium sulphate/carbonate are late replacement minerals identified by the
southeastM analyses. This sequence of mineral crystallization accords with the typical
crystallization history for kimberlites recorded by Mitchell (1986).
Pyrope garnets plot in the G9 (lherzolitic) garnet field on the standard Cr2O3 against
CaO diagram (Figure 6.351; Gurney & Zweistra, 1995). The kelyphitic rims seen around
garnet xenocrysts formed at 900-1300 C and 10-12 kbar according to Garvie & Robinson
(1982). An even higher temperature of formation of the garnets is indicated by their NiO
values of up to 0.036% with a mean of 0.014% (110 ppm Ni). The mean value indicates
formation temperatures of ~1350 C using the nickel thermometer in Ryan & Griffin (1996).
However, lower temperatures (~800 and 950C) are indicated by plotting the garnets mean
chrome content (5-6%) on the Ryan & Griffin (1996) chrome v. nickel thermometer, using the
geotherm for Group 1 Kaapvaal Craton kimberlites. This suggests that there was a higher
geothermal gradient during Group 1 kimberlite emplacement in the Mozambique Belt than
below the Kaapvaal Craton. Nyblade and Brazier (2002) show that the thick depleted mantle
underneath the Tanzania Craton does not extend under the Mozambique Belt, strongly
suggesting a different geothermal gradient.
Cr2O3 vs CaO in pyropes
16
14
12
G10 field
G9 field
Cr2O3
10
Melton Wood non-diamondiferous kimberlites
8
6
Orapa garnet field
4
2
0
0
CaO
Figure 6.351: A plot of CaO against Cr2O3 from analysed pyrope garnets. The analysed
garnets (square dots) show a very typical kimberlite trend parallel to the G9/G10 boundary
line.
348
Cr2O3 vs MgO in chromites

80
Diamond inclusion field
70
60
Cr2O3
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
15
20
MgO
Figure 6.352: A plot of Cr2O3 against MgO in chromites from kimberlites in the Maniamba
Graben.
A range of spinels is present in the kimberlites based on the SEM data (Figure 6.353)
although all occur as tiny grains in the groundmass. The chromites plot outside of the field of
chromite inclusions in diamonds, but overlap with the chromites associated with the Argyle
kimberlite field in Australia (Figure 6.352). It is accepted that chromites with >60% Cr2O3 are
associated with diamondiferous kimberlites. The maximum chrome content of the (five)
analysed chromites from the Mozambican kimberlites is 55.62% (Figure 6.352).
Analysed olivine grains are fosteritic with >45% MgO and <14% total iron as FeO
(Figure 6.354 and Table 2; (see Appendix 2. The single analysis of a groundmass
clinopyroxene is typical of the pure diopsides found in kimberlite groundmasses, as recorded
by Mitchell (1986). The very high CaO content distinguishes these clinopyroxene grains from
clinopyroxene megacrysts. Similarly the single orthopyroxene analysis is typical of the Tibronzites found as inclusions in kimberlitic garnet and ilmenite (Mitchell, 1986).
6.20.4 Geochemistry
Whole rock analyses were completed on 4 kimberlite samples (see Appendix 3). Three are
uncontaminated (based on the Contamination Index of Clement, 1982) and the fourth is
strongly contaminated. The whole rock geochemistry from the three uncontaminated samples
confirms the petrographic conclusion that they are Group I kimberlites, and probably part of
Subgroup Ia (Smith & others, 1985). The analyses plot in the field of Group I kimberlites on
plots of TiO2 vs. K2O and Pb vs. SiO2 (Smith et al., 1985), and SiO2 vs. MgO (Skinner, 1989)
with Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, Sr, Rb, Th, Cr, Zn and Cu values comparable to Subgroup Ia
kimberlites. Only the light REE were analysed: these show typical kimberlite patterns when
plotted on the Abundance/chondrite vs. REE (Masuda-Coryell) diagram with enhanced values
for the Rb to La elements and depleted values for the Ce to Y elements (Smith et al., 1985).
349
Figure 6.353: Plots of spinel analyses from the Rio Lunho kimberlites.
350
MgO vs FeO in kimberlite olivines

16
14
12
FeO
10
8
6
4
2
0
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
MgO
Figure 6.354: A plot of MgO against FeO for analysed olivine grains from the Rio Lunho
kimberlites.
K2O contents of up to 1.58% are typical for kimberlites but high for other types of
ultramafic rock (Kirkley et al., 1991; Mitchell, 1986). Conversely the SiO2 values of 27-30%
for the least carbonated samples are very low for ultramafic rocks but typical for
uncontaminated kimberlites (25-35% SiO2). The potassium contents of are enriched relative to
kimberlite analyses shown in Mitchell (1986) but other elements fall within the ranges quoted
by Mitchell (1986). High TiO2, Fe oxide and V2O5 in all the analysed kimberlites reflect the
common presence of opaques (notably ilmenite and perovskite). Similarly high values of SiO2,
K2O, Al2O3, Rb and Sr are all due to the common presence of phlogopite. Nickel values are
also relatively high and nickel-bearing sulphide needles (including exsolved needle clusters)
were detected during southeastM work. High Ba and Sr values can be explained by the
presence of sulphate and carbonate rims around some macrocrysts. Cerium is locally found in
the carbonates. High P values in sample 31991 are due to the presence of tiny apatite laths.
Smith et al., (1985) conclude that the geochemical signature of Group I kimberlites
suggests that they had an asthenospheric-like source in contrast to Group II kimberlites that
are inferred to have originated from sources within ancient stabilized subcontinental
lithosphere (i.e. Archaean cratons). This would agree with the tectonic setting of the northwest
Mozambique kimberlites, which occur within a rift in Proterozoic crust with no clear evidence
for an Archaean component.
351
6.21 Rovuma Basin

6.21.1 Introduction
The Rovuma Basin lies at the southern end of the East African passive margin basin system
that extends from Somalia to Mozambique: its north-south extent is ~400 km from southern
Tanzania to Nacala, immediately south of the Lot 1 area (Figure 6.355). Its maximum eastwest width is ~160 km in northern Mozambique: the onshore area is ~17,000 km2 and the
offshore area ~12,500 km2 (Flores, 1973; Lonropet SARL, 2000). The Basins sedimentary
rocks overlie Precambrian metamorphic and igneous rocks of the Mozambique Belt
unconformably, or are in fault contact with these crystalline rocks.
Hydrocarbon exploration in the Rovuma Basin commenced in 1980 and has continued
intermittently to the present. Esso drilled the only deep borehole (Mocimboa-1, TD at 3468 m)
in 1986 (ECL, 1988). There were gas shows in the borehole but drilling problems led to the
curtailment of the exploration. A major report (Lonropet SARL, 2000) reviews prior
hydrocarbon exploration activity. The Mozambique Second Licensing round (which closed on
31st January 2006) focused on the onshore and offshore Rovuma Basin (Smelror et al., 2006a).
The stratigraphical development of the Rovuma Basin is directly related to the
progressive break-up of southwestern Gondwana and subsequent intra-continental tectonism
associated with the East Africa Rift System (Salman & Abdula, 1995). The following five
tectono-stratigraphical mega-sequences have been recognized (Figure 6.356):
1 Pre-Rift (Late Carboniferous to Triassic): Deposition of Karoo siliciclastic sediments,
mostly in intracratonic rifts such as those preserved in central and western parts of northern
Mozambique and also inferred to be present at the base of the offshore segment of the
Rovuma Basin.
2 Syn-Rift (Triassic to Early Jurassic): Intracratonic rifting produced a series of halfgrabens with up to 2,5 km of mainly continental sediments. Possible marine as well as
continental sediments are preserved in southern Tanzania. Post-Karoo siliciclastic
sedimentary rocks of uncertain Mesozoic age are locally present (north of Mueda and west
of Pemba) immediately west of the Rovuma Basin in the mapped area. These rocks fill
half-grabens rifted in Precambrian crystalline basement and are probably the oldest postKaroo strata in the mapped area: they may have been deposited during this Syn-Rift
period. Alternatively these sediments may be related to half grabens created during the
Early Drift stage described in the following section.
3 Early Drift (Middle Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous/Aptian): The break-up of Gondwana
during Middle Jurassic times (~180 - ~160 Ma) due to active sea-floor spreading (Jelsma &
Smith, 2004) created marginal basins along the eastern side of Africa. Shallow marine
sediments extended onto a platform of newly formed oceanic crust with a possible
maximum thickness of ~3 km. Upper Jurassic sediments also comprise continental red beds
that are mostly confined to grabens or half grabens. The marine sediments were deposited
during a transgression that commenced in the north with Lower Jurassic
(Toarcian)
sedimentation in Somalia and northeastern Kenya, Middle Jurassic (Bajocian)
sedimentation in southern Tanzania and terminating with Aptian sedimentation in northern
Mozambique (Frster, 1975). A Late Jurassic unconformity reflects a change to transformcontrolled passive margin conditions as Madagascar moved southwards relative to
mainland Africa (Raillard, 1990). The coarse basin margin sediments above the
unconformity are referred to as the Macomia Formation and the marine sediments are
referred to as the Pemba Formation (Figure 6.356). A transitional contact from west
(continental) to east (marine) was reported by Pinna (1983).
352
Figure 6.355: Geological map of the onshore part of the Rovuma Basin.
353
Figure 6.356: An overview of the stratigraphy of the Rovuma Basin.showing the development
of the Pre-Rift, Syn.Rift, Early Drift, Late Drift and Deltaic Progradation mega-sequences.
Late Drift (Aptian to Oligocene): Stabilization of the East African continental margin
occurred between 118 and 35 Ma (Salman & Abdula, 1995). The Late Cretaceous was
typified by a widespread transgression in eastern Africa with uniform marls/clays deposited
along the whole continental margin and prograding onto the continental slope. The
Mocimboa-1 well penetrated 1,380 m in the marls. Shallow-water carbonate sediments
were deposited during the Paleocene and Eocene with a reefal facies along the outer edge
of the shelf. There were periods of relatively low sea level throughout this stage, creating
low-stand submarine fans, one of which provided the target for the Mocimboa-1 well.
Deltaic Progradation (Oligocene to present-day): Renewed rifting commenced at about
35 Ma and has continued intermittently to the present, mostly with deposition of marine
and deltaic sediments. Uplift/doming of Africa in the Oligocene that preceded the
formation of the East African Rift initiated the Rio Rovuma delta system associated with a
marine regression. A Miocene transgression led to shallow water marine sedimentation
during progradation of the delta (contemporaneous with rift-related onshore sedimentation
354
in the East African Rift System). Quaternary uplift led to the present day outcrop of the
Miocene sediments on the mainland of northeastern Mozambique.
The maximum thickness of sediments in the Rovuma Basin is ~10 km based on geophysical
surveys. The Mocimboa-1 borehole penetrated approximately 3,490 m into the sequence, and
terminated in Aptian-Albian marls (Figure 6.357; Salman & Abdula, 1995).
Figure 6.357: A summary of the log of the Mocimboa-1 borehole. Yellow denotes silici-clastic
rocks, pale blue-green denotes marls and pale blue with a brick pattern denotes limestones.
A new, formal lithostratigraphic scheme for the onshore Rovuma Basin in northeastern
Mozambique (Key et al., 2006; Smelror et al., 2006b) is applied in the present report (Table
6.7). The revised lithostratigraphy is based on fieldwork carried out in 2005, combined with
published papers and unpublished reports made available to the project. The new stratigraphic
nomenclature uses local place names in northeastern Mozambique as the formal names of the
revised lithostratigraphic units (formations and members).
355
Unit/Formation:
Quaternary deposits
Mikindani Formation
Chinda Formation
Quissanga Formation
Alto Jingone
Formation
Mifume Formation
Pemba Formation
Map unit:
TeK
TeCh
TeQs
Age:
Quaternary
Miocene-Pliocene
Oligocene-Miocene
Eocene- Oligocene
TeAl
Paleocene-Eocene
CrMf
CampanianMaastricthian
Late Jurassic - Middle
(Late?) Cretaceous
Macomia Formation
PMsm,
CrPMss,
CrPMml
CrMo
N'Gapa Formation
JrP
Aptian-Albian
Former unit name:
Sancul / Cogune
Formation
Quissirua / Repa
Formation
Globotruncana Fm.,
Globotruncana marl
Porto Amelia Beds
Maconde Formation,
Makonde Beds
Indeterminate
(?Jurassic)
Rio Mecole Formation Jr
Indeterminate
(?Jurassic)
Table 6.7: Lithostratigraphic units recognized in the Rovuma Basin.
Lonropet SARL (2000) provided a brief review of geological activity in the Rovuma
Basin commencing with the field descriptions of Livingstone (1876). Flores et al. (1987)
provided a geological description of the basin to accompany a 1:1,000,000 geological map,
with Civitelli (1988, 1990) providing more detailed stratigraphical information.
6.21.2 Structural development of the Rovuma Basin
The Rovuma Basin appears to have developed entirely on continental crust according to
Lonropet SARL (2000). Its eastern, offshore margin is formed by a continent-ocean transform
edge referred to as the Davie Ridge (Raillard, 1990). The dominating tectonic trend in the
Rovuma Basin is north-northwest - south-southeast, caused by rift faulting, including the
faulted western margin of the basin (Flores, 1973). A north-northwest-trending fault also marks
the western limit of the Mikindani Formation south of Rio Rovuma. The gross trend of the
present coastline south of Mocimboa da Praia is also north-northwest-south-southeast, with a
strong linear aspect suggesting a major fault control. The north-northwest - south-southeasttrending rifting created a series of east-dipping tilt-blocks (e.g. ECL, 1988) that can be traced
across the entire width of the Basin. Flores (1973) also provides evidence for northeastsouthwest-striking transfer faults that exert local controls on the morphology of the present
coastline. Some of the rifting is considered to be a southerly extension of the East African Rift
System, in part reactivating older (rift and transfer-related) faults (Mougenot et al., 1986).
Initial north-northwest - south-southeast-trending rifting ended in the Middle Jurassic at
the onset of oceanic crust formation (in the Somali Basin) and the formation of a break-up
unconformity. This was followed by a Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous phase of transformrelated fault reactivation along the basin margin (Figure 6.358), including the formation of the
Davie Ridge. Middle Miocene fault reactivation is related to the development of the East
African Rift System and caused the formation of offshore grabens.
Field data obtained in 2005 show that strata in the Mecufi area are either flat-lying or
dip gently to the east, except next to faults where the dips steepen to about 25. A
356
stereographic plot of bedding readings suggests gentle folding with a mean plunge of fold axes
of about 10 due east. In addition to the north-northwest-trending fault control on the entire
western margin of the Rovuma Basin, more localised faults were also observed during the
fieldwork, e.g.:
x Fault trending 120-300 with downthrow to the north at UTM 37S 656092 8466874.
Augen granite gneiss forms a 30 m high hill on the south side of the fault.
x Fault trending 094/66S at UTM 37S 649834 8516743 based on very strong jointing in
sandstones of the Pemba Formation (Figure 6.359).
x Fault trending 336/81E at UTM 37S 64689 8529183 based on small fault scarp in
sandstones with a penetrative foliation (Figure 6.359).
x Fault trending 105/64S at UTM 37S 649692 8518747 based on very strong jointing in
sandstones
The observed movement on these faults clearly post-dates sedimentation. The plethora of softsediment convoluted bedding in Pemba Formation lithologies implies de-watering during rapid
deposition that could imply fault control on basin subsidence. Polygonal jointing is present in
siltstones that are not faulted.
Figure 6.358: Schematic diagram
showing evolution of the western margin
of the Rovuma Basin due to westward
retreat of the bounding fault scarp.
O riginal faulted
Basin m argin
Present Basin
m argin
A
RO VUM A
BASIN
N
PLA N VIEW
A
X
C onglom erate
pockets
C oncea led b ound ing fa ult
X X
Rovum a Basin
X X XX
sedim ents
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X X X
X
X X
X X X X X
SEC TIO N
Pre-Rovum a Basin
crystalline basem ent
6.21.3 Rio Mecole Formation (JrRM)

Moura (1974) described a unit of thickly bedded, carbonate-cemented arkosic sandstones with
a basal conglomerate west of Metuge. This partly faulted outlier was described as Karoo or
Jurassic to Cretaceous strata resting unconformably on the Precambrian basement.
The Rio Mecole Formation is a localised lithostratigraphic unit of early rift strata
comprising continental, reddened coarse siliciclastic sediments. Small exposures occur along
the main road from Mueda to Pemba (on sheet 1340 Mecufi, UTM 37S 6270 8549). The
westernmost strata dip at moderate angles (to the northwest and northeast) and are interpreted
as part of an early rift infilling preserved in a graben lying to the west of the western limit of
357
the Rovuma Basin, bounded by north-northwest - south-southeast-trending faults. Matrixsupported conglomerates are interbedded with coarse-grained to pebbly sandstones and redbrown micaceous siltstones.
Figure 6.359: Localised fault trends observed in the Pemba Formation. Left) Strongly jointed
sandstones of the Pemba Formation adjacent to, and parallel with a major fault trending
094/66S at UTM 37S 649834, 8516743; Right) Fault trending 336/81E at UTM 37S
646890, 8529183. Both localities are on sheet 1340 Mecufi.
The conglomerates comprise angular granitic clasts up to ~15 cm in length supported in
an arkosic (granitic) matrix. These are clearly proximal sediments derived from the
surrounding basement that forms ridges and hills around the small exposures of sedimentary
rocks. The sandstones are cross-bedded with bimodal sets, and they are pebbly in finingupwards sequences (Figure 6.360). The crossbed foresets indicate palaeoflows to the northwest
and northeast in a high-energy fluvial environment.
Excellent exposures of a basal breccia occur along the central part of the western
boundary of the sedimentary rocks (UTM 37S 624224, 8561134). More than 100 m of a coarse
sedimentary breccia is exposed (Figure 6.361). The contact with the basement is not exposed,
but the breccia outcrops <10 m from basement gneisses, without any escarpment. The contact
is therefore interpreted as a primary unconformity. The breccia consists of metre-sized blocks
in a sandy matrix. The blocks are clast-supported. Dominant lithologies are high-grade
gneisses, similar to the banded migmatitic gneisses and amphibolites outcropping nearby.
Poorly defined sandy beds, partly pebbly, occur infrequently (for petrography see Table 6.9).
The sandstones are dark grey to dark brown, poorly to very poorly sorted, with angular to subangular grains. They have an immature mineralogy with equal amounts of quartz and feldspar,
and varying amounts of biotite, muscovite and opaque minerals. The extreme nature of the
deposit, with large angular blocks, indicates that the breccia formed as a scree deposit or
alluvial fan.
The northern part of the outlier, as shown on the geological map of Lonropet SARL
(2000) is difficult to access or poorly exposed. Traverses over the assumed northern end of the
Rio Mecole Formation did not confirm the presence of rift strata. A traverse on foot towards
the northwest part of the basin demonstrated the presence of Pemba Formation sandstones to
the east, confirming earlier interpretations, but not the presence of rift strata. Five localities
visited in the central part of the rift structure were outcrops of various gneisses. Inspection of
the digital elevation model, the aeromagnetic data and the radiometric data, combined with the
358
field observations, suggest that the entire northern part of the previously mapped outlier is part
of the basement, rather than sedimentary strata (Figure 6.362).
Figure 6.360: Fining-upwards sequence of

pebbly sandstone, locally with low-angle
cross-beds (UTM 37S 627766 8548646,
sheet 1340 Mecufi).
Figure 6.361: Basal breccia, with more

than 2 m large block. Geologist for scale.
(UTM 37S 624224, 8561134, sheet 1340
Mecufi).
6.21.4 N'Gapa Formation (JrP)

On the previous geological maps of the Rovuma Basin, the terrestrial clastic beds near NGapa
have been referred to as either Karoo Supergroup or Jurassic in age. The Lonropet report
(2000) interpreted the poorly sorted nature of these strata as due to deposition in alluvial fans
or a scree slope setting. The kaolinisation was taken as a sign of a very humid, warm
environment, which the Lonropet authors argue prevailed prior to earliest Cretaceous times
(when conditions were hot and dry) and therefore the strata predate the early Cretaceous and
could be late Jurassic in age. BRGM (1:1,000,000 national map explanation) noted that the
lowermost sandstones west of NGapa on sheet 1139 Mueda are more strongly fractured than
the overlying sandstones (of the Macomia Formation).
The N'Gapa Formation (?Jurassic-Early Cretaceous) occurs as small outliers and halfgrabens preserving continental conglomerates and sandstones unconformably overlying the
basement rocks on sheet 1139 Mueda. South of NGapa this formation appears to be overlain
by the Macomia Formation (Aptian-Albian in age). No fossils have been found which could
confirm the age of the NGapa Formation. However, the rocks are not lithologically similar to
the Karoo Supergroup rocks exposed in Niassa Province. The strata could be a proximal basal
facies of the Macomia Formation, but they have distinct and different features and are therefore
treated as a separate formation.
The main outcrop is around NGapa, but similar strata are exposed in isolated outliers, e.g. 5
km west of Chomba. A typical buff, purple and red sandstone and conglomerate succession is
well exposed on the hill west of NGapa (at UTM 37S 531864, 8750230) where it appears to
lie unconformably on Precambrian gneisses. The formation includes well-cemented, buff to
purplish, moderately sorted, medium to coarse-grained and pebbly sandstone. The pebbles are
mainly of white vein quartz, 0,5-3 cm long, and the larger clasts tend to be rounded to sub-
359
rounded and concentrated in lags at the bases of channels. Near the top of the hill, the bedded
units are about 1 m thick and include scattered pebbles up to 0,1 m long, in coarsening upwards
units with weak near horizontal bedding near their tops. A pebbly cross-bedded sandstone unit
20 cm thick has foresets dipping 25 to 24NE (Figure 6.363).
Figure 6.362: Revised outline of the Rio Mecole Formation, and major faults. A) Digital
elevation model (shaded relief) with the original outline in dark blue, with the northern part
now interpreted as basement (red crosses). B) Aeromagnetic data (shaded relief) with major
north-northwest south-southeast-trending faults marked (F).
On top of the ridge (UTM 37S 532479, 8749954) similar well-cemented, but poorlysorted, yellow, red and purple mottled, coarse to pebbly sandstone is exposed and contains
mainly quartz grains and some heavy minerals set in an argillaceous matrix. Some beds are
massive and local cross-bedded units have a carious weathering and locally fine up into bright
red kaolinitic-cemented siltstone. Some of these argillaceous interbeds have a pelletoidal
texture.
North of NGapa (at UTM 37S 532760, 8751140) the typical pinkish purple and buffyellow mottled sandstones are well cemented, quartz-rich and coarse-grained to pebbly with a
silicified kaolinitic matrix. Partly sorted, coarse to granular sandstones with pebble lags at
bases of channel infills, fine upwards. The pebbles are mainly of vein quartz, but there are also
some purplish kaolinised patches/mudclasts. Planar bedding 1-25 cm thick is weathered out
and locally cross-bedding palaeocurrents generally flowed to the west.
360
Figure 6.363: A pebbly cross-bedded sandstone of the N'Gapa Formation with foresets
dipping 25 to 24NE (UTM 37S 531864, 8750230, sheet 1139 Mueda).
On the ridge north of the road (UTM 37S 530558, 8755936) numerous, typically wellcemented pebbly sandstone blocks lie almost in situ, together with reddened and pinkish purple
kaolinitic argillaceous blocks. Farther northwest on the road, conglomeratic beds up to ~1 m
thick contain pebbles up to 8 cm long towards their bases. The pebbles are mostly rounded to
subangular, and composed of clear to white vein quartz, kaolinitic mudstone and dark grey
chert set in a kaolinitic matrix. The evidence of fining up in channels among the poorly sorted
reddened sandstones subject to strong kaolinisation suggests that fluvial processes reworked
fans or sheet flow deposits in a semi-arid climate.
6.21.5 Macomia Formation (CrMo)
As early comparisons of the Macomia Formation were made with the Makonde Beds in
Southern Tanzania (Bornhardt 1900; Flores and Noseda 1961), the equivalent Mozambican
sandstones from the Macomia area were described as Maconde Formation (Hancox et al.
2002). Flores and Noseda (1961) found the Makonde Beds to be unfossiliferous, except for
small pieces of silicified gymnosperm type wood. The depositional environment was
considered to be continental to deltaic (Flores and Noseda 1961). In Tanzania the equivalent
formation was observed intercalated with marine limestone beds of Aptian age (lower
Cretaceous). More recently this formation and its sequence stratigraphy was analysed by
Hancox, Brandt and Edwards (2002) (Figure 6.364). Their descriptions were based on the wellexposed sections around Muage village southwest of Macomia, where >150 m of coarse to
very coarse-grained pebbly sandstone and conglomerate were found to overlie micaceous and
carbonaceous argillites. Their overall depositional environment was seen as a fan complex in a
marginal marine lagoonal setting with intercalated marine deposits as a result of two major
transgressive episodes as indicated by bioturbated zones. The clastic source area was to the
west and southwest with fan progradation towards the east in a semi-arid to arid climate
(Hancox et al., 2002).
361
Figure 6.364: Lithostratigraphic log of

the Macomia Formation in the
vincinity of Muages, sheet 1240
Quissinga-Pemba (Hancox et al.
2002). Units with yellow shading are
dominated by silici-clastic lithologies,
and those with blue-green shading
include clays. The sequence
stratigraphic terminology is that of
Catuneanu and Erikkson, 1999).
Because of the good exposures in the area, Macomia is chosen as the appropriate
formational name in this report. The Macomia Formation forms the plateau extending east and
south of Mueda and northwards to the Rio Rovuma. It comprises coarse- to fine-grained
quartzofeldspathic sandstones with local conglomeratic beds resting on Precambrian basement
362
gneiss. The cement varies from calcareous to siliceous or kaolinitic. In Tanzania the equivalent
formation is considered to be ~300 m thick but around Mueda it is estimated to be up to 500 m
thick.
The Macomia Formation, as exposed around the escarpments extending from Mueda
towards Macomia (Figure 6.365), is typically a succession of buff to reddish, coarse-grained to
pebbly sandstones with conglomeratic interbeds. Away from the cliff sections the Macomia
Formation is concealed beneath residual sandy soils and the Mikindani Formation covering the
plateau. At the foot of the escarpment west of Mueda, blocks of Macomia Formation lie in an
alluvial fan spread over the unconformity with the Precambrian basement. However, in places,
e.g. south of NGapa, the Macomia Formation appears to overlie the NGapa Formation.
Figure 6.365: The Macomia Formation exposed around the escarpments extending from
Mueda towards Macomia (UTM 37S 609496, 8647522, sheet 1239 Meluco).
In the southern part of the plateau east of Mueda, in a ravine (UTM 37S 588294,
8700092) near Muatide, a 1m-thick unit of pale cream coloured, medium to coarse-grained
sandstone occurs at the base of a section within the formation. Scattered pebbles and pebble
conglomerate lenses occur at the bases of trough cross-bedded sets 10-40 cm thick (Figure
6.366). The pebbles are rounded to subangular and about 2 cm in length, comprising vein
quartz, coarse-grained quartzose sandstone, rose, yellow and orange quartz, black chert and red
and white kaolinitic silty mudstone. The overlying sandstone unit is about 3 m thick with a
conglomeratic base to coarse-grained white sandstone passing up into moderately sorted pink
medium-grained sandstone. This is overlain by a brick-red to purple, sandy silty mudstone
about 2 m thick with a yellow and white mottled base (Figure 6.366). The top of this mudstone
has a reticular greenish mottle and was probably a palaeosol. It is overlain by a lens of white
sandstone that coarsens up from fine- to medium-grained, with a sharp base and kaolinitic
cement. At the top of this unit there is fine-grained, rippled sandstone succeeded by red-brown
mottled medium-grained sandstones in the ravine.
The Macomia Formation near Muidumbe (UTM 37S 590164, 8692488) includes a
metre-thick, clast-supported microconglomerate, mainly composed of small quartz pebbles. A
similar microconglomerate is exposed near Madava (UTM 37S 590215, 8685444). In the
scarps east of Madava a buff yellow siltstone about 80 cm thick, is interbedded with arkosic
pink speckled medium-coarse and pebbly sandstones.
363
Figure 6.366: The Macomia Formation exposed in the southern part of the plateau east of
Mueda, in a ravine (UTM 37S 588294, 8700092, sheet 1139 Mueda) near Muatide. Left)
Scattered pebbles and pebble conglomerate lenses of the Macomia Formation occuring at the
bases of trough cross-bedded sets 10-40 cm thick; Right) Brick-red to purple, sandy silty
mudstone, about 2 m thick, with a yellow and white mottled base.
In the roadcut sections below the Mikindani Formation, between Mueda and Mocimboa
da Praia (UTM 37S 584677, 8719808 588217, 8719800), the interbedded sandstones and
pebble conglomerates with a medium-coarse-grained sandstone matrix belong to the Macomia
Formation. Sandstones are commonly weathered and friable in mottled red, white, yellow or
purple-brown units fining up into thin silty mudstones. The conglomerates tend to be poorly
sorted, up to 2 m thick and infill channels with a sharp base. Most of the pebbles are of vein
quartz, quartzite and feldspar up to 3 cm long, but exceptionally 6-20 cm long, including
pinkish kaolinitic silty mudstone cobbles. Larger lenses of reddened kaolinitic mudstone,
siltstone and fine-grained sandstone are probably the argillaceous infill of channels. Channel
bars of trough cross-bedded, coarse-grained to pebbly sandstones with pebble lags at bases of
beds are interbedded with medium-grained, well sorted and well cemented purplish grey and
white mottled sandstones. The trough cross-bedding indicates palaeoflow to the northwest and
east. Some medium-grained sandstones have harder pinkish siliceous kaolinitic cement like the
NGapa Formation sandstones. In the roadcut at (UTM 37S 588217, 8719800) the trough
cross-bedded sandstones are interpreted to have palaeoflows to the northeast, east-southeast
and south-southwest as a result of braided channels.
A section in the escarpment ~25 km east of Mueda (UTM 37S 579424, 8725639
580416, 8725438) exposes a fining-upwards sequence of feldspathic sandstones with a clay
matrix supporting angular to sub-rounded quartz, feldspar and opaque grains. Quartz pebbles
up to 4 cm in diameter are scattered within the sandstones. Boulders of brecciated chert are
present in the middle of the section.
Around the northern part of the plateau on sheet 1139 Mueda, good exposures of the
formation are mainly confined to cliff sections on the sides of the larger river valleys cutting
through the plateau. Sections were recorded at the following localities:
x The cliff section about 20 km south of Namatil (UTM 37S 549028, 8746190 549536,
8747060) comprises:
o 15 m of interbedded pink-weathering siltstone and friable, quartz-rich,
poorly cemented, white sandstone with silica cement.
364
x
x
x
x
o 45 m of friable, pink weathering, fine-grained, pale greyish sandstone,

locally cross-bedded and containing rounded quartz pebbles.
o 45 m of thickly bedded, medium-grained, and thinly laminated brownweathering sandstones with bimodal cross-beds. The sandstones are
feldspathic with secondary kaolin replacing the feldspars. Quartz grains are
rounded to sub-rounded and isolated quartz pebbles are up to 5 cm in
diameter.
o This section appears to be fining upwards.
The 30 m high cliffs southwest of Namatil (UTM 37S 545620, 8764896) comprise
trough cross-bedded, fine to medium-grained, pale grey sandstones stained reddishpurple by weathering of ferruginous minerals. Individual beds are between 2 m and 5 m
in thickness and there are minor quartz-pebble lenses up to about 10 cm in thickness as
well as isolated rounded vein quartz pebbles up to 3 cm in diameter and angular
siltstone clasts. The sandstones are quartz-rich with K-feldspar in a kaolin matrix. In
Lonropet SARL (2000) north-easterly palaeocurrents are measured in similar crossbedded sandstones exposed at Namatil below sandstones with a parting lineation
trending 220/40. Lonropet SARL (2000) interpreted the lower sandstones at Namatil as
braided fluviatile deposits overlain by shallow marine sediments.
About 30 km south-southwest of Nangade (UTM 37S 566049, 8749449), downstream
of the same cliff section as seen at Nangade, a section of about 60 m of fine-grained,
pink-white arkosic sandstones with isolated rounded vein quartz pebbles was recorded.
These are sharply overlain by a 4 m thick massive conglomerate that fines upwards and
may be basal Mikindani Formation.
The section about 20 km south of Nangade (UTM 37S 568175, 8759812 568023,
8758243) lies in a valley with well-exposed flanks and rock pavements in the central
streambed. Strongly cross-bedded (planar and trough cross-beds) sandstones with
lenses of rounded quartz pebbles overlie thickly bedded feldspathic sandstones with
cross-beds indicating southeasterly-directed currents. The upper sandstones appear to
coarsen upwards. They are overlain by a ferruginous conglomerate (ferricrete) with a
purplish-yellow weathering matrix of quartz grains coated by ferruginous cement,
locally with a pisolitic texture. This conglomerate is regarded as part of the Mikindani
Formation.
The ~100 m high cliff situated just north of Nangade (UTM 37S 573136, 8775873
573005, 8776102 572024, 8776338), alongside the track that leads from the village
down to the valley bottom, can be considered as a reference section. The section is
dominated by pale brown weathering sandstones and pebbly sandstones unconformably
overlain by about 10 m of quartz-pebble conglomerate that is interpreted as the basal
unit of the Mikindani Formation. Scattered boulders of massive sandstone and pebbly
sandstone obscure the base of the section but in the section above there are over 70 m
of fine to medium-grained, feldspathic sandstones with a clay matrix and rare quartz
pebbles. The upper sandstone sequence is fine-grained, thinly laminated, and trough
cross-bedded with minor heavy mineral seams (Figure 6.367). The upper contact of
these sandstones with the overlying conglomerates is sub-horizontal and gently
undulating with concentrations of quartz pebbles in channels along the unconformity.
Farther south in the Rovuma basin, on sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba, the Macomia
Formation appears to be faulted against the Precambrian basement. In the well-exposed
escarpments near Muage (UTM 37S 623456, 8635734), coarse-grained to pebbly sandstones
tend to have a pale clay matrix partly derived from weathered feldspar. The scattered quartz
granules and pebbles are commonly subrounded to subangular and up to 4 cm in length. Vein
365
Figure 6.367: The upper sandstone

sequence of the Macomia Formation just
north of Nangade on sheet 1139 Mueda
(UTM 37S 573136, 8775873 573005,
8776102 572024, 8776338). It is finegrained, thinly laminated, and trough
cross-bedded with minor heavy mineral
seams.
quartz and quartzite are the commonest pebbles although there are numerous, usually white or
pink feldspars and some lithic clasts from the gneissic basement in addition to sandstone and
kaolinitic mudstone clasts reworked from earlier sedimentary rocks. Some of the sandstone
beds are fairly massive and up to 1 m thick; but channelled and trough cross-bedded units are
common. These occur in multi-storey units >10 m thick and pebble lags lie at the bases of the
channels. The Macomia Formation also forms the hill southwest of Macomia (UTM 37S
622277, 8645266) where buff and pink arkosic sandstones contain reddish to pink detrital
feldspars as well as pinkish fine-grained sandstone clasts. Red-brown, poorly sorted, coarsegrained to pebbly sandstones are interbedded with moderately sorted pebble conglomerates
containing subangular to rounded quartz and lithic clasts up to 5 cm long in outcrop by the road
southwest of Macomia (UTM 37S 621948, 8644780). In a watercourse southeast of the road
(UTM 37S 622040, 8644846), thick bedded, pink speckled arkosic sandstones overlie a pale
grey silty mudstone bed about 50 cm thick and pebbly to conglomeratic sandstones with largescale cross-beds and parallel laminated units indicating upper flow regime fluvial deposition.
In the coarser fluvial facies near to Macomia cross-bedded units about 50 cm thick are roughly
horizontal with foresets indicating palaeoflow to the southeast and west-northwest.
Southeast of Macomia, in a stream bed (UTM 37S 629368, 8634504) east of Nacate
village, dark grey micaceous siltstones and mudstones are locally interlaminated and include
black organic rich layers dipping up to 8SW. This unusual carbonaceous facies is interpreted
as lacustrine to lagoonal in origin and probably part of the Macomia Formation as no evidence
of marine facies was found.
West of Macomia (UTM 37S 611925, 8646710) buff weathered, medium to coarsegrained sandstones are immature and include conglomeratic lenses. The subrounded to
subangular pebbles, up to 6 cm long, include vein quartz, quartzite and mylonitic lithic clasts.
In the escarpment the multi-storey, cross-bedded sandstones include some near horizontal
planar-bedded units over 1,2 m thick, which are bimodal in grainsize. Local thicker sandstone
interbeds contain cobbles and boulders of reddish medium to coarse-grained sandstone up to 2
m long (Figure 6.368). These massive beds may have been deposited by debris flows. In a
nearby cave (UTM 37S 609071 8647724) the multistorey trough cross-bedded sandstone units
0,4-2 m thick (Figure 6.368) are arkosic and contain abundant pink K-feldspars; some large
detrital crystals were derived from pegmatites within the Precambrian basement. The
palaeoflows inferred from the trough cross-bedding here are to the east, northeast and
northwest.
366
Figure 6.368: Left) The Macomia Formation west of Macomia (UTM 37S 611925, 8646710,
sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba). Sandstone interbeds with cobbles and boulders of reddish
medium to coarse-grained sandstone up to 2 m in length; Rigth) The Macomia Formation
exposed in a cave (UTM 37S 609071, 8647724, sheet 1239 Meluco) showing multistory trough
cross-bedded sandstone units 0,4-2 m thick. These are arkosic and contain abundant pink Kfeldspars; some large detrital crystals were derived from pegmatites within the Precambrian
basement.
The Macomia Formation is interpreted as a high energy, proximal fluviatile sequence
deposited in a braided channel system. The overall palaeoflow is eastwards and the detritus
was originally derived from the Precambrian basement although much of the sediment was
penecontemporaneously reworked by the fluvial system. Extensive kaolinisation of the detrital
feldspars and the presence of the kaolinitic mudstone clasts suggest that the palaeoclimate was
hot and humid. The marine influence is minor as indicated by sparse bioturbation and the rare
foraminifera found by Hancox et al. (2002). The formation generally appears to be older than
the Pemba Formation or partly its terrestrial equivalent. Hancox et al. (2002) suggested a Late
Aptian-Early Albian age for the Macomia Formation, based on the terrestrial palynomorph
assemblages found in an outcrop section close to Macomia. Our analyses of a dark siltstone
sample from the distal, marine-influenced, sediments of the formation support this age
determination (Table 6.8). The present age assignments support the interpretation of the Pemba
Formation and the Macomia Formation as being approximately time-equivalent units.
6.21.6 Pemba Formation (CrPMml, CrPmss, PMsm)
This formation, comprising sandstones, marls, limestones and siltstones, was formerly termed
Marine Lower Cretaceous beds (Flores and Noseda 1961). These authors described good
sections north of Pemba (Porto Amelia) Bay where fossiliferous sandstones containing
abundant quartz, feldspar and mica occur in cross-bedded or slumped units (Figure 6.369). The
presence of the bivalve Megatrigonia schwarzi was considered characteristic of the formation:
it was interpreted to be Neocomian in age. A deltaic environment was inferred passing
westwards into the continental Macomia Formation and, to the east, the younger part of the
formation had a more marine influence containing numerous gastropods, bivalves and
brachiopods. They note that there appears to be more abundant fault-controlled sedimentation
south of Pemba towards the Rio Lurio exposures.
The Pemba Formation outcrop on sheet 1340 Mecufi underlies the whole of the western
part of the Rovuma Basin with no evidence for any continental (Macomia Formation)
sediments. Unconformable, as well as faulted, contacts with Precambrian basement are
exposed along the western margin of the basin. The outcrop width of the Pemba Formation
decreases southwards, from ~20 km to ~10 km along the southern edge of the sheet. This
367
formation is generally well exposed, either in numerous stream and river sections, or as low
rock exposures. A pale yellowish-grey silty soil separates sandstone ridges and a pinkish
brown sandy soil overlies the ridges. It is impossible to estimate the thickness of the Pemba
Formation due to the very low dips (eastwards) that vary from horizontal up to about 15
(except next to faults where dips can steepen up to about 25).
Figure 6.369: Lithological section of
the Pemba Formation exposed at the
Pemba Bay (From Flores and Noseda
1961) The section consists of coarsegrained white kaolinitic sandstone,
overlain by finer-grained, bluishbrown, cross-bedded sandstone, with
two marine units interbedded with
sandstone at upper levels.
368
A tripartite internal stratigraphy is recognised north of the Rio Lurio, as follows:

x Basal (western) unit of coarsening-upwards sandstones interbedded with mudstones and
limestones (unit CrPMco)
x Central unit of flaggy, well-bedded sandstones (unit CrPMss)
x Uppermost (eastern) turbiditic unit of interbedded sandstones, mudstones and siltstones
(unit CrPMsm)
The basal unit is made up of proximal sediments sourced from adjacent granitic rocks, but the
sediments were deposited in a marine environment as they contain belemnites. The rest of the
formation is also marine, with rapid shallow water deposition (based on abundance of soft
sediment deformation and preservation of mud cracks, ripple drift and other sedimentary
structures). However, Moura (1974) and Mariani & others (1984) interpreted the sequence of
variably cross-bedded, carbonate-cemented arkosic sandstones with conglomeratic lenses as
fluviodeltaic in origin. The lower unit has previously been mapped as part of the Macomia
Formation. It is now regarded as part of the Pemba Formation, due to its marine fauna.
Figure 6.370: Details of the Pemba Formation. A) Thinly interbedded mudstones and
sandstones with crab burrows preserved in the sandstone (UTM 37S 653930 8547859). B)
Recumbent fold in convoluted siltstones (UTM 37S 647339 8525038), C) Plane view of
convoluted bedding seen in photo B, D) Mud cracks infilled by sandstone (UTM 37S 647505
8530328). All the localities are on sheet 1340 Mecufi.
The basal unit comprises well cemented as well as strongly compacted, buff-coloured,
fine to coarse-grained feldspathic sandstones with detrital mica (biotite and muscovite) flakes
as well as quartz and feldspar. Grey mudstones and fine-grained limestone interbeds are
present in the sandstones with individual beds up to 1,5 m thick. Belemnites as well as worm
and crab burrows are locally preserved (Figure 6.370A). Ripple marks, convoluted bedding
(Figure 6.370B&C), low angle planar cross bedding and trough cross bedding and mud cracks
369
are also preserved (Figure 6.370D). Individual sandstone beds fine upwards, from
conglomeratic bases to cross-bedded sandstone tops. An unconformable contact with
underlying basement is exposed at UTM 37S 646742, 8516670 and at UTM 37S 646452,
8516584 and at several locations to the west of here (e.g. at UTM 37S 646246, 8516647)
according to Lonropet SARL (2000). This would imply an undulating contact with Pemba
Formation sediments deposited in natural hollows in the basement surface that may or may not
be fault controlled. However, the very pronounced linear western margin of the Rovuma Basin
indicates that there must be an overall control by a north-northwest-trending fault. It is possible
that the bounding fault formed a scarp feature that originally lay to the east of the present
margin of the basin. Subsequent erosion of the fault escarpment led to westward retreat of this
escarpment with eroded material covering the trace of the primary fault (Figure 6.358). The
western conglomerates contain rounded vein-quartz pebbles, angular granitic clasts up to
boulder size (Figure 6.371) and angular siltstone clasts in a coarse-grained arkosic matrix with
sandstone interbeds.
Figure 6.371: Basal conglomerate with
rounded gneiss boulders in an arkosic
matrix (UTM 37S 650791 8483891, sheet
1340 Mecufi).
The middle unit is made up of a coarsening-upwards sequence of flaggy feldspathic

sandstones in beds 0,1- 1 m thick (Figure 6.372A). The sandstones are commonly laminated
and locally conglomeratic (Figure 6.372B). Detrital mica and less common garnet occur in the
sandstones. Belemnites, shell fragments (Figure 6.372C) and worm burrows are locally
preserved as well as circular cavities and mounds on weathered surfaces that are up to 1 m in
diameter (Figure 6.372D). This unit appears to disappear south of the Rio Lurio where the
turbiditic sequence directly overlies the basal coarsening-upwards sandstones and
conglomerates.
The upper unit is exposed in small stream sections several metres thick and comprises a
fining-upwards turbiditic sequence of fissile, thinly bedded sandstones, siltstones and
mudstones and less common conglomerates (Figure 6.373A). Individual siltstone beds are
graded (Figure 6.373B) with fine-grained sandstone bases. The sandstones are mostly
feldspathic and contain detrital muscovite flakes, traces of black organic material with clay
370
Figure 6.372: Details from the middle unit of the Pemba Formation (unit CrPMss). A) Flaggy
sandstones containing belemnites, sold as paving stones on the main road to Pemba (UTM 37S
648124 8554715), B) Thickly bedded pebbly sandstones with angular mudstone clasts,
rounded quartz pebbles and rare belemnites, showing typical pale grey mudstone clasts (UTM
37S 657891 8539932), C) Shell fragment in coarse-grained sandstone (UTM 37S 656378
8537259), D) Large circular cavities and similar-sized domes are locally a common
weathering feature of Pemba Formation sandstones (UTM 37S 648169 8528469). All the
localities are on sheet 1340 Mecufi.
and/or carbonate cement. The conglomerates contain basement rock pebbles as well as vein
quartz pebbles and mudstone flakes. Imbricated pebbles indicate currents directed towards 60.
Lonropet SARL (2000) describes carbonate concretions. Pebble beds contain vein-quartz
pebbles, lithic pebbles derived from the granitic basement and also mudstone flakes.
Convoluted bedding, flute casts, mud cracks, ripple-drift structures and cross bedding are
commonly observed. Worm and crab burrows are common and there are isolated belemnite
fossils (Figure 6.373C). Some sandstone beds are composed entirely of quartz (e.g. at UTM
37S 659774, 8497419). Bed forms are typically wavy. An uppermost unit with discrete ridges
of thickly bedded sandstones separated by unexposed flat areas with a dull brown silty soil
occurs south of the Rio Lurio. These sandstones commonly contain detrital muscovite.
In the Mecufi area the formation has a transitional upper contact in which discrete
sandstone beds continue upwards from the Pemba Formation into marls of the overlying
Mifume Formation (seen in the traverse between UTM 37S 659876, 8541325 (Pemba
Formation) and UTM 37S 664476, 8544486 (Mifume Formation).
371
Figure 6.373: Details from the upper

Pemba Formation (PMsm) (UTM 37S
648169 8528469). Top left) Turbidite
deposits, Top right) Fining upwards
siltstone (UTM 37S 654664 8554769), Left)
Belemnites preserved in a pebbly sandstone
(UTM 37S 660429 8466111). All the
Farther north, on sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba, the three-fold division of the formation
has not been established due to lack of exposure. Buff weathered, medium-grained, well sorted
and bioturbated sandstones typical of the Pemba Formation are common. Much of the near
surface exposure is friable, but where the sandstones are calcite cemented the rock is hard.
Figure 6.374: Medium to coarse-grained sandstones of the Pemba Formation with clay-filled
burrows located along the road from Nacate to Bilibiza. (UTM 37S 631406, 8617432, sheet
1240 Quissinga-Pemba).
372
Along the road from Nacate to Bilibiza, the Pemba Formation varies from a sequence
of pale grey to red mottled, medium to coarse-grained sandstones with clay-filled burrows
(Figure 6.374) and rare shell fragments (UTM 37S 631406, 8617432) to yellowish buff,
medium-grained, trough cross-bedded sandstones (UTM 37S 642048, 8612818). The
sandstones contain scattered olive-grey mudclasts and locally quartz granules and pebbles. East
of Bilibiza an interbed of small pebble conglomerate is up to 1.5 m thick (UTM 37S 640027,
8611032). Some of the coarser clastic beds contain quartz, feldspar, kaolinitic mudstone and
lithic clasts of similar provenance to the Macomia Formation. These interbeds may, in part, be
similar in age and facies to the Macomia Formation (e.g. at UTM 37S 633262, 8616754) but
because of the association with the marine facies, these beds are all mapped as Pemba
Formation. Less commonly exposed are the banded and interlaminated mudstones and
siltstones; at one locality (UTM 37S 646352, 8616066) over 70 cm of mudstone including
rippled thin siltstone beds lie below a unit of fine to medium-grained parallel bedded sandstone
up to 20 cm thick.
Near the Bilibiza Agricultural College (UTM 37S 637409, 8611220) buff-grey to offwhite, shelly bioclastic limestone (Figure 6.375) is intercalated within the Pemba Formation.
Coarse-grained and partly sparry calcite cemented limestone beds, up to 50 cm thick, probably
formed bioherms in a shallow marine environment.
On the roadside south of Quissanga (UTM 37S 649663, 8566716) brown weathered
calcareous cemented sandstones typical of the Pemba Formation are exposed. Intercalated
pebbly sandstone and conglomeratic beds (UTM 37S 645686, 8575070) contain rounded to
subrounded pebbles, up to 7 cm long, of mudstone, vein quartz, coarse K-feldspar porphyry,
graphic granite, quartzite, fine-grained quartzo-feldspathic gneiss and mylonite. The
conglomerate is clast-supported, weakly bedded and imbricated.
Figure 6.375: Buff-grey to off-white, shelly bioclastic limestone intercalated within the Pemba
Formation near the Bilibiza Agricultural College (UTM 37S 637409, 8611220, sheet 1240
Quissinga-Pemba)
373
Interbedded fine-grained and medium-coarse-grained pale grey calc-cemented

sandstones by the road south of Quissanga (UTM 37S 652504, 8582008) contain vertical worm
burrows and bivalve shell fragments and shelly lenses. Beside a track to Nagoto village (at
UTM 37S 652430, 8597138) white, fine-grained, calc-cemented and locally shelly sandstones
possess parallel laminae cut by vertical burrows and some straight horizontal tracks. Pale and
dark grey interlaminated mudstone and silty mudstone are exposed in the road south of Mahate
(UTM 37S 654315, 8605248) below thin bedded, hard, iron oxide cemented fine-grained
sandstone. Farther south medium-bedded yellow-brown iron oxide and carbonate bearing fine
and medium-grained sandstones (Figure 6.376) are typically cariously weathered and locally
contain iron-oxide rich rounded concretions (UTM 37S 654338, 8604490). Thin pale buff-grey
silty mudstone and siltstone interbeds dip 10 ENE at UTM 37S 654303, 8604764.
Figure 6.376: Medium-bedded yellow-brown iron oxide and carbonate bearing fine and
medium-grained sandstones which are typically cariously weathered and locally contain ironoxide rich rounded concretions (UTM 37S 654338, 8604490, sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba).
An Aptian-Albian age has previously been assigned to the Pemba Formation based on
megafossils found in outcrops near Pemba (Flores and Noseda, 1961). These include the
bivalve Megatrigonia schwarzi and Entolium orbiculare, and the Aptian ammonites
Desmoceras falcistratum and Parahoplites cornueli. The Pemba Formation contains common
belemnites, including Duvalia grasiana, which according to Civitelli (1988) points to a
Barremian-Aptian age. The samples analysed for palynology in the present study support an
Aptian-Albian age for the upper unit (i.e. map unit CrPMsm) of the Pemba Formation (see
Table 6.8). Reworked older Early Cretaceous (Hauterivian-Barremian) spores are found in
turbidite sandstones of the upper Pemba Formation. Palynological assemblages found in the
lower unit of the Pemba Formation (map unit CrPMco) give a correlation to the Dinogodinium
jurassicum Zone of Helby et al. (1978) of Tithonian age (see Table 6.8). The lower unit has
previously been mapped as part of the Maconde Formation. It is now regarded as a part of the
Pemba Formation because it comprises comparable lithologies to the Pemba Formation and
because it represents a marine depositional environment. The age span of the Pemba Formation
is Tithonian to Albian. On the western margin of the Rovuma Basin the formation appears to
contain several major depositional breaks, but these are presently not well documented.
374
6.21.7 Mifume Formation (CrMf)

This formation was formerly described as the Globotruncana marls (Flores & Noseda, 1961)
and considered to be Late Cretaceous in age due to its content of microfossils. These greyish
marls were described as gypsiferous and as typically containing carbonate concretions. This
formation is ~200 m thick west of Pemba (Flores & Noseda, 1961), but is extensively overlain
by Tertiary sediments south of northing 8535000 (Civitelli & Mariani, 1984). Younger
sediments directly overlie Pemba Formation strata south of this latitude. Calcareous sandstones
and marls are the main lithologies. The marls are strongly bioturbated and preserve worm
burrows (Figure 6.377A). The sandstones occur in beds up to c. 70 cm in thickness and they
coarsen upwards in a section from UTM 37S 664476, 8544486 to 659876, 8541325 (base)
where they are interbedded with marls1. They locally contain mudstone flakes as well as
detrital garnet. Internal laminations define trough cross beds (Figure 6.377B).
Figure 6.377: The Mifume Formation. Left) Abundant worm burrows in marls (UTM 37S
661048 8553172), Right) Trough cross-bedded sandstone (UTM 37S 663939 8544027).Both
A distinctive succession of olive-grey to pale grey calcareous mudstones or marls is
exposed on the west side of the Pemba peninsula (Figure 6.378). At its base near UTM 37S
664869, 8554534, pale grey-brown calcareous mudstones are interbedded with fine-grained
well-cemented and burrowed sandstone beds 1-3 cm thick.
Figure 6.378: Olive-grey to dark grey
calcareous mudstones (marls) of the Mifume
Formation on the west side of the Pemba
peninsula (UTM 37S 664869, 8554534, shet
1340 Mecufi).
There are two possible horizons for the contact between the Mifume Formation and
underlying Pemba Formation along the measured section. The contact can either be placed at
the base of the lowest marl or along the upper surface of the highest sandstone bed. In the
present account it is placed along the lower surface of the lowest marl bed.
375
On the south side of a broad gully in Pemba (at UTM 37S 664509, 8565632) 2-3 m of
marl is weakly bedded horizontally and cut by thin fibrous gypsum veins and fractures coated
with brown iron oxides. Samples were taken for palynological analysis. Eight metres below, in
the gully, the pale grey shaly marl is locally silty and there is an efflorescence of white gypsum
on joint surfaces. Farther north in an eroded cliff face (UTM 37S 663852, 8565328) a more
competent paler grey fine-grained sandy siltstone ~1 m thick is interbedded with grey marl.
Near the top of the cliff (Figure 6.379) the marl succession is unconformably overlain by redbrown and white burrowed pebbly sandstone belonging to the Mikindani Formation.
Figure 6.379: Marls of the Mifume
Formation unconformably over-lain by
red-brown and white burrowed pebbly
sandstone belonging to the Mikindani
Formation in a gully in Pemba (at UTM
37S 664509, 8565632, sheet 1240
Quissinga-Pemba).
At UTM 37S 649648, 8664952 south of the Mucojo road, the exposure of > 1.5 m of
weathered olive-green to yellow-brown mottled silty mudstone with minor fine-grained pale
grey-green sandstone interbeds may belong to this formation as it appears to lie unconformably
below about a metre of poorly sorted pebble conglomerate at the base of pink-brown
sandstones belonging to the Mikindani Formation.
The Mifume Formation contains abundant foraminifera of the genus Globotruncana
(G. arca, G. ventricosa, G. falsostuarti) pointing to Middle Campanian to Middle
Maastrichtian age (Civitelli, 1988). A sample from near Pemba yielded an assemblage of
abundant dinoflagellate cysts of Late Campanian age (Table 6.8).
376
6.21.8 Alto Jingone Formation (TeAj)

The Lower Tertiary buff to light brown sandy limestones, calcarenites and overlying marls and
silty shales exposed southwest of Pemba were described by Flores & Noseda (1961).
Subsequently the formation was termed the Quissirua-Repa Formation by Moura (1974). The
rich fossil content in the limestone suggested a Paloecene to Early Eocene age, while the
fossils in the overlying marls indicated an Early Eocene age.
The Alto Jingone Formation is named after the locality south of Pemba and comprises
bioclastic limestones and sandstones with marls. It is 50 - 100 m thick. On the west side of the
main road into Pemba (UTM 37S 664505, 8565688) a small quarry exposes up to 2 m of offwhite, bioclastic sparry to micritic limestone forming irregular nodules up to 30 cm across in
an olive-green mudstone matrix. Farther west (UTM 37S 663852, 8565328) (Figure 6.381), in
a cliff face, carious weathered limestones, in beds ~15-40 cm thick, dip 14 SW. The beds
comprise scattered calcareous pebbles and bioclasts in a fine-grained sparry calcite matrix.
Coral colonies and clasts are characteristic and small quartz and sparry white limestone clasts
are also present.
Figure 6.380: Lithological section of
the Alto Jingone Formation exposed
west of Pemba on sheet 1240
Quissinga-Pemba. The column on
the left is from a quarry at UTM
664430 8554992 with its base at 31
m a.s.l. The column on the right is
from a quarry at UTM 664539
8554892 with its base at 46 m a.s.l.,
and shows the continuation of the
lithostratigraphy. Blue with a bricklike hatching represents: Bioclastic
sparry limestone with serpulidae
and green represents: Grey
mudstone with gypsum on the
surface, and with brachipods and
shark teeth.
377
Figure 6.381: The Alto Jingone Formation. Left) Exposure in a cliff face west of Pemba (UTM
37S 663852 8565328, Right) Interbedded marl/limestone exposed in a small quarry near
Pemba (UTM 37S 664505, 8565688). Both localities are on sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba)
Marls with gypsiferous limestone interbeds are well exposed in a number of small
quarries close to Pemba (Figure 6.381). The limestones occur in beds up to about 50 cm in
thickness and increase in abundance downwards through the marls. The sandstones are thinly
bedded, strongly bioturbated with abundant worm burrows and cut by calcite veinlets. These
outcrops can be traced for about 20 km south of Pemba onto sheet 1340 Mecufi.
On sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba the formation is also exposed along the road from
Macomia to Mucojo where there are several roadcuts and small quarries. In the Mucojo area
the limestone commonly contained Nummulites, although no separate upper marl unit was
recognised (compare Moura 1974) possibly due to poor exposure. The most south-westerly
indication of the formation is the small mound with blocks of cream coloured, medium-grained
bioclastic limestone and yellow weathered calcareous siltstone at UTM 37S 642257, 8662978.
To the northeast, at UTM 37S 642651, 8663072, there are also blocks of pink and buff,
medium- and coarse-grained, locally bioturbated, calcareous sandstone and cream, mediumgrained, sparry limestone with foraminifera. By the main road (UTM 37S 643569, 8663302)
small quarries on a ridge to the northeast produce off-white to cream coloured, partly sparry,
medium-grained limestone containing Nummulites (Paleocene-Eocene foraminifera). Scattered
yellow-brown mudstone clasts (Figure 6.382) and small broken shell fragments are also
present. Interbedded with the limestones are fairly well sorted, medium-grained, calcareous
sandstones that are locally coarse-grained and fossiliferous. Some of the sandstones contain
numerous detrital red feldspar clasts.
Farther northeast on the Mucojo road, the nearly in situ blocks of cream sandy limestone
include quartz clasts and yellowish mud clasts, about 5 cm long, that aligned and imbricated in
the bedding. At UTM 37S 643612, 8663314 in a road-cut on a north-south-trending ridge,
cream bioclastic sandy limestone, in beds 50-80 cm thick, dip at a low angle to the west,
perhaps due to faulting. At the base of this section a greyish silty mudstone with calcareous
nodules is overlain by the sandy limestones containing olive-green to yellow-brown mudclasts,
slightly rounded and up to 5 cm in length. The uppermost bed is coarse-grained with
conspicuous quartz grains and foraminifera. A road-cut at UTM 37S 644147, 8663468 exposes
3 m of interbedded fine-grained sparry cream limestones and fine-grained calcareous
sandstones 10 to 30 cm thick. The limestones are shelly and bioclastic with some mudclasts
aligned on cross-bed foresets. Numerous Nummilites lie on bedding planes with horizontal
378
Figure 6.382: Off-white to cream coloured, partly sparry, medium-grained limestone of the
Alto Jingone Formation (UTM 37S 643569, 8663302, sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba)
containing Nummulites and scattered yellow-brown mudstone clasts and small broken shell
fragments.
sand-filled worm tubes (Figure 6.383). Other worm tubes are nearly vertical. On the western
side of the section, stratigraphically below the limestones, an olive-green silty mudstone dips
5 SE above a pale buff, fine-grained thin-bedded sandstone. In the road-cut at UTM 37S
644572, 8663584, a section, up to 4 m thick, of massive to rubbly bedded bioclastic limestone,
locally with calcite-lined vugs, is intercalated with pale buff fine-grained calcareous sandstone.
The sandstone beds, between 5-15 cm, thick dip 15NNE.
Figure 6.383: Interbedded fine-grained sparry cream limestones and fine-grained calcareous
sandstones (UTM 37S 644147, 8663468, sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba) with numerous
Nummulites on bedding planes with horizontal sand-filled worm tubes.
On the road south of Quissanga, numerous approximately in situ fragments of off-white
to buff, coarse-grained bioclastic limestone, include clasts of micrite, coarse-grained sandstone
379
and shells. The rock is well cemented and fairly massive. There are also some medium-grained
sandstone fragments and pinkish buff micritic nodular, vuggy limestone. On the southern
outskirts of Quissanga (UTM 37S 661064, 8625054), numerous blocks of coarse pebbly
conglomeratic limestone (Figure 6.384) include several subrounded to subangular vein quartz
and micritic limestone pebbles and shell fragments in a carbonate cement. Over 1 m of rubblybedded buff limestone conglomerate exposed in a small quarry east of Quissanga is mainly
composed of micritic clasts.
Figure 6.384: Numerous blocks of coarse pebbly conglomeratic limestone on the southern
outskirts of Quissanga (UTM 37S 661064, 8625054, sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba)
North of Quissanga (UTM 37S 663100, 8626818), stratigraphically below the outlier of
Quissanga Formation (see below), blocks of buff to cream conglomeratic limestone contain
scattered quartz and shell clasts. To the north, the Alto Jingone Formation is covered by buff
grey loose sands of the coastal plain.
A southern outcrop on sheet 1340 Mecufi can be traced for ~20 km through the village
of Simuco where massive limestones and sandstones are exposed. The limestones are
conglomeratic with clasts of coral, shell fragments and rounded quartz pebbles in calcite
cement (Figure 6.385). There are also coral reefs that locally form coastal cliffs up to 10 m in
height (e.g. at UTM 37S 674273, 8453879). The sandstones are honey-brown weathering, well
sorted rocks with calcite cement. Detrital muscovite flakes are aligned on bedding surfaces
and detrital garnet grains are locally present. Bed thicknesses vary up to about 1 m.
The Alto Jingone Formation was deposited adjacent to reefs in an open marine
environment. The abundant faunas with bivalves, gastropods and nautiloides, including
common Hercoglossa danica suggest a Paleocene age for the formation (Civitelli, 1988).
However, the uppermost part appears extend into the Eocene (as suggested by the incoming of
larger foraminifera).
380
Figure 6.385: Exposures of massive limestone and sandstones near the village of Simuco. Left)
Reef limestone conglomerate (UTM 37S 671299 8471497), Right) Limestone conglomerate
comprising shall and coral fragments as well as rounded quartz pebbles set in calcite cement
(UTM 37S 671338 8463592). Both localities are on sheet 1340 Mecufi.
6.21.9 Quissanga Formation (TeQs)
This carbonate-bearing Lower Miocene succession was identified by Flores & Noseda (1961).
Subsequently on Mozambican geological maps this was shown as the Sancul/Cogune
Formation. The Sancul/Cogune Formation was estimated to be ~30 m thick and was stated to
lie unconformably on the Quissirua/Repa Formation (Civitelli & Mariani, 1984). The
Quissanga Formation comprises a lower sandstone unit overlain by reefoidal to micritic
limestones. The new formation name is taken from the coastal town 60 km north of Pemba. A
distinctive white well-sorted medium-grained sandstone with kaolinitic cement is exposed 250
m north of Quissanga (UTM 37S 661472, 8625208) and is considered to form the lower part of
the formation. The sandstone is fairly massive but appears to have a low dip below
conglomeratic and micritic limestones considered to form the upper part of the Quissanga
Formation.
In the road north of Quissanga (UTM 37S 661677 8625418), fine-grained micritic
limestone clasts are set in a sandstone matrix and there are also beds of more massive shelly
micritic limestone with a karstic weathered surface (Figure 6.386).
Figure 6.386: Outcrop of the
Quissanga Formation north of
Quissanga (UTM 37S 661677,
8625418, sheet 1240 QuissangaPemba), showing fine-grained
micritic limestone clasts set in a
sandstone matrix.
381
Flaggy sandy limestones quarried south of Pemba at UTM 37S 666908 8554347 are
considered part of the formation. Abundant worm burrows (Figure 6.387) are preserved in
flagstones that are up to 50 cm in thickness. The abandoned Pemba Clay Quarry worked siltgrade mottled brown and pale grey clays (cut by calcite veinlets) underlying Mikindani
Formation sand. The clays are about 30 m in total thickness.
Figure 6.387: Abundant worm burrows preserved in sandy limestone of the Qissanga
Formation, quarried south of Pemba (UTM 37S 666908, 8554347, sheet 1340 Mecufi).
Further south, in the south-easternmost part of the project area there is an uppermost
flat-topped rock pavement, up to 2 m high, in and around the village of Simuco, which is
underlain by coral limestone. Thinly bedded limestones (Figure 6.388) locally weather to form
a subdued karstic topography (Figure 6.388). Isolated corals adhere to sandstone exposures
near the village of Namuala. These corals may be part of the Quissanga Formation although
this is not proven. They are found attached to sandstones from the base to the top of the
sandstone hill at UTM 37S 670774, 8465139.
Figure 6.388: Bedded limestone composed of shell and coral fragments in a calcite cement
(both at UTM 37S 671251 8457745, sheet 1340 Mecufi)
The lower part of the formation contains larger foraminifera (Nummulites spp. and
Discocyclina sella of Middle Eocene age. The upper part of the formation comprises coarse-
382
grained calcarenites containing the Nummulites intermedius-Eulepidina assemblage of

Oligocene age.
6.21.10 Chinda Formation (TeQs)
This formation has not been distinguished previously but was shown as part of the
Quissisua/Repa (now Alto Jingone) Formation by Salman & Abdula (1992). This formation
comprises a thick, hard off-white to pale grey kaolinised, mainly medium-grained sandstones
which are commonly burrowed and contain kaolinitic mudstone clasts and infilling of voids is
exposed. This harder succession usually forms an escarpment such as that seen south and east
of Chinda overlying softer fine-grained medium to thin bedded sandstones and siltstones.
These characteristic lithologies have been separated as the Chinda Formation on the Mocimboa
da Praia Sheet and extend westwards on to sheet 1139 Mueda. The base of the formation is not
exposed: it is covered by Pleistocene to Recent sands. The formation appears to be
conformably overlain by the Mikindani Formation and it may be partly equivalent in age to the
Quissinga Formation although there is no direct fossil evidence.
Figure 6.389: Weakly bedded kaolinitic sandstones in the Chinda Formation, road-cut north of
the Rio Nango (UTM 37S 612542, 8724990, sheet 1140 Micmboa da Praia).
At UTM 37S 612542, 8724990 (Figure 6.389) by the main road to Macomia, north of
the Rio Nango, pale grey consolidated kaolinitic sandstone contains paler grey kaolinitic
mudstone patches/clasts. A cutting in the scarp south of Chinda (UTM 37S 614129, 8719206)
exposes pale grey well-cemented medium-grained kaolinitic sandstones with scattered quartz
grains up to 1 mm across. Vugs in the sandstone are partly infilled with white kaolin and some
beds are bioturbated with numerous vertical voids. The kaolinitic sandstones pass down into
fine and medium-grained sandstones and interbedded buff to off-white siltstones (Figure
6.390) (at UTM 37S 614170, 8719130) with burrowed medium-grained white sandstone
below. In the hillside to the west cross-bedded coarse-grained sandstones crop out (Figure
6.391). East of Chinda, south of the road to Mbau, a partly quarried gully (UTM 37S 615478,
8719064) cuts through buff to very pale grey kaolinitic sandstone with pale kaolinitic
mudstone clasts and small vugs. The sandstone is fine- to medium-grained, well cemented and
contains some yellowish iron oxide stained infill between fine-grained sandstone clasts in a
pelletoid texture (Figure 6.392). Narrow burrows are common and there are rare lenses with
383
quartz pebbles up to 1 cm long. Below this hard kaolinitic sandstone there is a mid-grey friable
medium-grained rubbly sandstone.
Figure 6.390: Interbedded fine-grained sandstones and siltstones and silty mudstones towards
the base of the Chinda Formation, road cut at UTM 37S 614170; 8719130, south of Chinda on
sheet 1139 Mueda.
Figure 6.391: Cross-bedded coarse-grained sandstone unit in the Chinda Formation on sheet
1140 Mocmboa da Praia (UTM 37S 613923, 8718602).
384
Figure 6.392: Kaolinitic pale grey sandstone with pelletoid texture and kaolinitic mudstone
clasts. Small quarry east of Chinda. (UTM 37S 615478, 8719064, sheet 1140 Mocmboa da
Praia).
From the road to Mbau, a traverse (UTM 37S 623836, 8711238 6236332, 8709444)
crossed southwards to a major cliff-line, starting in near horizontal carious weathered grey buff
sandstones. These are generally fine- to medium-grained, with scattered coarse grains and
granules in a kaolinitic matrix. The sandstones are locally burrowed and thinly bedded or
cross-bedded (Figure 6.393). Farther south on the traverse red and buff mottled, medium- and
coarse-grained to pebbly sandstones contain mainly subangular quartz clasts. Weathered
feldspars are subordinate and there are brown iron oxide-rich patches. Near the top of the cliff,
hard kaolinised sandstones are burrowed and locally have a pelletoid carious nature. The beds
are up to 80 cm thick and kaolinite may have replaced carbonate judging from their carious
character. Just below the clifftop (at UTM 37S 623632, 8709444) the debris on the slope
suggests that khaki-grey rubbly weathered siltstone is found just below the surface.
Figure 6.393. Buff white fine-grained kaolinitic sandstone with scattered quartz grains and
granules, burrows and locally weathered out cross-bedding. Chinda Formation (UTM 37S
623865 8711194, sheet 1140 Mocmboa da Praia).
385
A reference section for the Chinda Formation occurs down the escarpment that forms
the northern edge of the Rio Messalo floodplain from UTM 37S 638795, 8709305 to 639256,
8708597. There is an approximately 30 m thick sequence of whitish, weakly cemented, poorly
sorted, medium-grained pebbly sandstones with pitted weathered surface due to the removal of
quartz pebbles. Worm casts and burrows are common and the sandstones weather to leave a
honeycombed surface that is locally stained orange-purple by weathering of ferruginous
silicates. The sandstones are matrix supported with subrounded to angular quartz grains in a
clay-rich matrix. Quartz pebbles are concentrated in beds mostly confined to the lower onethird of the section where they increase in size downwards, up to about 15 cm in diameter.
Secondary replacement by kaolin is common.
The Chinda Formation extends northwards from Chinda on the Mocimboa da Praia
sheet into the Rio Sinheu valley where outcrops of burrowed pale grey medium-grained
kaolinitic sandstones (Figure 6.394) lie below pebbly gravel.
Figure 6.394: Kaolinised medium-grained burrowed sandstone Chinda Formation, near the
bridge over Rio Sinheu (UTM 37S 632014 8740148, sheet 1140 Mocmboa da Praia).
6.21.11 Mikindani Formation (TeK)
The Mikindani Beds (Bornhardt 1900) have their type area in Tanzania and equivalent reddish
brown sandstones with subordinate conglomerates in Mozambique were described by Flores &
Noseda (1961). It was noted that the beds were similar to the Makonde Beds (Macomia
Formation) but less consolidated. They were estimated to be 60-90 m thick. No fossils were
found to date the deposits, but in Tanzania they appeared to overlie marine Upper Tertiary
deposits and are considered to be Miocene-Pliocene in age. Bornhardt (1900) interpreted the
Mikindani Formation as marine; Flores & Noseda (1960) as fluviatile to deltaic although
Flores & Noseda (1961) interpreted them as fluviatile in origin. They are about 100m thick
near Mocimboa da Praia where they have been interpreted as marine-littoral (BRGM).
The typical poorly sorted, medium- to coarse-grained, red-brown sandstones are fairly
massive and tend to lack bedding, mainly due to extensive reworking of the sediment by
burrowing organisms (e.g. Thalassinoides), traces of which can be seen in well exposed
sections. For this reason much of the deposit is regarded as shallow marine or estuarine. Small
pebble conglomerates are impersistent and mainly occur near the base of the deposit.
386
Elsewhere sparse quartz pebbles and granules lie in well-dispersed lags. The sandstones
commonly have a fine- to very fine-grained sand component and iron oxides and clay minerals
as weak cement. Pale grey siltstones and silty mudstones occur as rare and impersistent
interbeds. On the published geological maps of the Mueda, Palma and Mocimboa da Praia
areas (BRGM, 1982). a large outcrop area of the Mikindani Formation is shown. However, our
fieldwork indicates that a very large part of this outcrop is covered by residual sand and sandy
soil that is commonly up to several metres thick. From the scattered well-exposed sections,
those with significant conglomerate overlying an unconformity are taken as basal beds and
described below. The thicker, generally sandy sections are described separately.
In key localities such as the quarry north of the Governors house at Nangade (UTM
37S 573136 8775873) and cliffs about 20 km south of Nangade, the base of the Mikindani
Formation is a distinctly pebbly conglomerate, in this case in sharp unconformity overlying the
Macomia Formation (Figure 6.395).
Figure 6.395: Pebbly conglomerate at the base of the Mikandani Formation.(UTM 37S
573136, 8775873, sheet 1139 Mueda)
At (UTM 37S 649648 8664952) on the Pemba-Quissinga sheet, in a deep gully south of
the road to Mucojo, > 3 m of pink-brown, poorly sorted, medium- to coarse-grained sandstone
overlies ~1 m of partly sorted, weakly bedded quartz granule to pebble conglomerate. This
appears to be a basal bed overlying thick silty mudstone (?Mifume Formation). Farther
northeast on the Mucojo road (UTM 37S 650277 8664978), Figure 6.396) there is a well
exposed section in which red-brown sandstones overlie off-white, medium-grained to coarsegrained sandstones, with conglomerate and sandy mudstone interbeds. Several of the beds are
burrowed (Figure 6.397) and infilled with pale grey sandy mudstone. Cross-bedded sandstone
units are also present. In a ravine, about 250 m farther west, channels of pebbly sandstone cut
down into fine- to medium-grained burrowed sandstone (Figure 6.398).
387
Figure 6.396: Prominent pale medium-grained sandstone overlying 0.3 m of sandy silty
mudstone with quartz pebble conglomerate at the base, Mikindani Formation, road to Mucojo,
note low angle cross-bedding in sandstone (UTM 37S 650277, 8664978, sheet 1240 QissingaPemba).
Figure 6.397: Pale grey mudstone filled near horizontal burrows in fine to medium sandstone
in Mikindani Formation, south of Mucojo road (UTM 37S 650277, 8664978, sheet 1240
Qissinga-Pemba).
388
Figure 6.398: Pale, burrowed, fine-grained sandstone below pink-brown conglomeratic

sandstone which infills a groove in the top of the fine-grained sandstone (UTM 37S 650277
8664728, sheet 1240 Qissinga-Pemba).
On a hill to the north-east (UTM 37S 650650, 8664986) a pit shows approximately 2 m
of red to orange-brown, medium- and coarse-grained, poorly sorted sandstone above a better
consolidated red-purple coarse-grained to pebbly sandstone, which is mottled in zones of
burrowing. At UTM 37S 654295, 8604870 on top of a hill on the road south of Mahate, is a
patch of moderately to well sorted, quartz-pebble rich gravel considered to be basal Mikindani
Formation.
On the plateau east of Mueda, the Mikindani Formation unconformably overlies the
Macomia Formation. Mikindani Formation strata are exposed in the roadcuts east of Mueda on
the main road towards Mocimboa da Praia (Figure 6.399), and comprise poorly sorted and
poorly bedded, fairly homogeneous, medium-grained, red-brown to pinkish brown sandstones
with scattered coarse, rounded to subangular quartz clasts.
Figure 6.399: Weakly bedded
red-brown poorly sorted
medium-coarse-grained
Mikindani Formation
sandstones, road cut east of
Mueda (UTM 37S 584624,
8719829, sheet 1139 Mueda).
.
389
The best exposures of Mikindani Formation sandstones and sand on sheet 1140
Mocimboa da Praia occur as scarps along the tops of incised valleys. The sandstones are
variably pebbly with concentrations of rounded vein quartz pebbles locally found infilling
channels. Quartz-pebble conglomerate beds are commonly stratified with beds rich in quartz
pebbles as well as matrix (quartz grains with clay)-supported beds. The sandstones are
commonly bioturbated, locally with preserved worm burrows. They are variably ferruginous
and in extreme cases they have ferruginous cement (to form ferricretes). Elsewhere the
cement is either clay and/or carbonate. Individual beds are up to about 1,50 m in thickness and
commonly wavy.
Reference sections can also be defined in the cliffs on both sides of the Mocimboa da
Praia inlet. The northern cliffs, between UTM 37S 648593, 8747632 and 647561, 8748134, are
made up of well-bedded, channelled sandstones including unidirectional cross-bedded units
(Figure 6.400) and mudstone beds. On cliff tops north of the guesthouse Chez Natalie, redbrown, medium sand with scattered coarse grains and pebbles overlies yellow, orange and
purple mottled sandstones which are locally cross-bedded and burrowed.
Figure 6.400: The Mikindani Formation exposed on both sides of the Mocimboa da Praia
inlet. The northern cliffs, between UTM 37S 648593, 8747632 and 647561, 8748134, both on
sheet 1140 Mocmboa da Praia, are made up of cross-bedded, channelled sandstones
including unidirectional cross-bedded units and mudstone beds.
390
Red sands form a second major facies of the Mikindani Formation. These sands are
strongly bioturbated and in extreme cases become structureless due to the intense reworking. A
reference section for the sands is the large quarry south of Pemba at UTM 37S 664961,
8554723 where the worked faces are over 15 m in height (Figure 6.401). The sands lack any
internal structure (possibly due to complete bioturbation) except in basal beds where worm
burrows are preserved (Figure 6.402). An outlier of red sands up to several metres in thickness
caps a small hill at UTM 37S 664547, 8553707.
Figure 6.401: The Mikandani Formation at the Pemba Sand Quarry (UTM 37S 664961,
8554723, sheet 1340 Mecufi).
Figure 6.402: Base of the Mikindani Formation with worm burrows overlying marls of the
Quissanga Formation. (UTM 37S 664961, 8554723, sheet 1340 Mecufi)
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Exposures of Mikindani Formation strata on sheet 1040 Palma occur along a low
escarpment that defines the southern margin of the floodplain of the Rio Rovuma. Pale grey to
white, medium- to coarse-grained pebbly sandstones are exposed in gullies and as rock
pavements along the escarpment (e.g. at UTM 37S 610448, 8803347). The sandstones are
poorly sorted with angular to sub-rounded quartz grains, up to about 3 mm in diameter,
supported in a clay matrix. Erratically distributed rounded vein-quartz pebbles are up to 4 cm
in diameter.
West of Palma a steep sided ravine (UTM 37S 656568, 8809766) cuts a section thrugh
6-10 m of typically red-brown, poorly sorted, medium- and coarse-grained sandstone, which
generally lacks bedding, into pale buff grey pebbly conglomerate about 1,1 m thick. The
conglomerate has a sharp base overlying 45 cm of red, grey and brown mottled, mediumgrained sandstone with scattered mudstone clasts and quartz pebbles. This overlies a bed up to
1 m thick of grey kaolinitic mudstone, which is weakly bedded and colour laminated pale grey
and off-white. The bedding here dips 4 ESE and the mudstone was sampled for palynological
analysis. This bed overlies about 1 m of yellow and grey mottled friable sandstone with a
pebble conglomerate bed about 70 cm thick below, containing mainly rounded to subrounded
small quartz and quartzite pebbles, but also some sandy kaolinitic mudstone clasts. An olivegreen sandy silty mudstone lies below. These beds are all considered to belong to the
Mikindani Formation as they pass laterally westwards into red, and locally pale grey mottled,
medium to coarse-grained sandstones with lenses of matrix-supported pebble conglomerate.
Elsewhere on sheet 1040 Palma, (e.g. UTM 37S 659309, 8808678) orange-brown to
red-brown sands are usually medium to coarse-grained, with subangular to subrounded grains.
They tend to be uniform and lack bedding. They are considered to be part of the Mikindani
Formation, which has largely been leached of clay matrix. Some of these beds are partly
consolidated e.g. on the hill west of Palma Praia (UTM 37S 661038, 8808438). In road cuts on
the road south of Palma (UTM 37S 655883, 8806470 648056, 8787152) the orange-brown
sand is partly consolidated and mostly medium-grained with scattered subangular to
subrounded coarse grains. In the section at UTM 37S 648032, 8786370, the red-brown, partly
consolidated sand has a zone about 20 m wide containing numerous small, irregular, off-white
calcrete nodules which include sand grains and are considered secondary due to hydrological
processes.
On sheet 1140 Quissanga-Pemba, along the road to Mucojo (UTM 37S 628118,
8644492 eastwards), sections cut into poorly sorted, red-brown to pink-brown, mediumgrained sands with scattered coarse grains and clay minerals expose up to 2 m of the Mikindani
Formation. Locally they show remnants of burrowing and minor irregular nodules of
pedogenic carbonate. Around Mucojo (UTM 37S 660040, 8665446) pink-brown and redbrown, medium and coarse poorly sorted partly consolidated sands are locally burrowed.
On the main road between Chinda and Chai, red-brown, semi-consolidated, poorly
sorted and locally burrowed sands are assigned to the Mikindani Formation (UTM 37S
608569, 8696348). On the northern margin of the Rio Messalo alluvial belt (UTM 37S 617089,
8692082), an exposure of Mikindani Formation > 2 m thick, contains irregular calcrete nodules
in red-brown sandstone towards the top, and towards the base, burrowed zones overlie a
granular to pebbly horizon with angular quartz pebbles up to 2 cm long. In the Litemanda area
(c. UTM 37S 621078, 8683794) bright red-brown, poorly sorted, part-consolidated sand lacks
bedding but has local traces of burrowing. Mikindani Formation was observed on top of hill
south of Chai and in the bed of a river farther south below 3 m of alluvium (UTM 37S 623280,
392
8674456). Farther south, the presence of Mikindani Formation at depth, below medium loose
pink and grey-brown sands is indicated by the red-brown medium and coarse sand that forms
the local termite mounds. Mikindani Formation sandstone weathers to residual reddish-brown
sands with concentrations of white vein-quartz pebbles scattered on present-day land surfaces.
For example, at UTM 37S 631730, 8740356 there is a major quarry (supplying Mocimboa da
Praia town) in reddish-brown sands with major concentrations (mostly of vein quartz) pebbles
that appear to infill channels. The pebbles are up to about 5 cm in diameter and they are locally
imbricated (to the east).
Iluka Resources Limited carried out a programme of shallow drilling into the
Mikindani Formation in the area between Pemba and the mouth of the Rio Lurio River
(Warland, 2002). The drilling on a hill above Murubue Village proved unconsolidated sand
overlying sandstones. The sand coarsens downwards from a fine to medium-grained red sand,
up to 20 m thick, overlying a medium to coarse-grained, orange sand up to 20 m in thickness.
The upper sand unit comprises aeolian sand over beach sand, and the lower sand unit is beach
sand that grades down into micaceous foreshore sands. The underlying sandstone is weathered
with an upper grey-brown clay layer.
The unconsolidated red sands are interpreted as originating as an offshore sand bar
sourced from underlying sandstones. The ancient Rio Rovuma delta is thought to have
deposited much of the Mikindani Formation. Unidirectional crossbedding in the Mocimboa da
Praia area indicates a palaeoflow to the east or east-southeast. Low-angle channels with clay
plugs down-cutting through interdistributary, bioturbated sandstones with rootlet traces, and
locally, with bi-directional cross-bedding suggest a fluctuating fluvial to tidally influenced
delta top environment in the upper part of the formation.
No age-diagnostic fossils have been recovered from the Mikindani Formation, but a
general Miocene-Pliocene age can be assigned since it post-dates the Oligocene deposits of the
uppermost Quissanga Formation. Assuming that the formation is genetically linked to the
development of the Rovuma Deltaic Complex a Miocene age is likely for the bulk of the
formation.
Mikindani Formation in western areas: Irregularly shaped outcrop patches of the Mikindani
Formation occur within a linear northeast-southwest outcrop strip that mostly follows the
southern part of the Maniamba Graben. These are variably consolidated siliciclastic
sedimentary rocks of post-Karoo age. This formation is given a Neogene age, although its
exact age is unknown. Its age would therefore be better referred to more broadly as (postKaroo) Cainozoic.The present drainage system controls the outcrop pattern with gaps in this
pattern caused by on-going erosion along the larger streams and rivers. For the most part the
Mikindani sedimentary rocks directly overlie Karoo sandstones close to the southern faultbounded margin of the Maniamba Graben. However, there are also large outcrop areas that
directly overlie pre-Karoo crystalline rocks, notably towards the northeast, close to the border
with Tanzania.
The formation is restricted to post-Karoo sedimentary rocks that are at least several
metres in thickness. Thin (<1 m thick) quartz gravel veneers locally associated with pale grey
clayey soils that overlie lower Karoo sub-outcrop (e.g. at UTM 36S 717946, 8613395) are
excluded. All of the outcrop areas shown on the accompanying geological maps are easily
identified and accurately delineated from satellite images. They are relatively reflective due to
393
the high content of white quartz in the topmost sand layers. These well-drained sands support a
vigorous open woodland cover.
There are very few vertical sections into the Mikindani Formation sedimentary rocks.
For the most part it is only the topmost layer of unconsolidated sands and sandy soils that are
visible. The best vertical sections are provided in narrow gullies alongside motorable tracks
that have formed by surface runoff of storm rainwater. These uppermost layers comprise pale
greyish-brown to white sands and sandy soils. These resemble the uppermost Kalahari Group
sands and sandy soils of central southern Africa (western Zambia). White to red, variably
consolidated quartz-rich (>70%) conglomeratic sandstones and fine-grained sandstones
underlie the topmost sedimentary rocks. These basal beds are up to about 3 m in thickness
according to BRGM. The conglomerates contain well-rounded clasts, mostly of quartz that are
up to about 6 cm in diameter in a reddish, quartz-rich groundmass.
A gorge section west of Monte Bembe (UTM 36S 712000, 8626500) provides good
exposures of the westernmost sedimentary rocks directly overlying upper Karoo sandstones. In
the general area of this gorge section there are orange-brown loose gravels exposed along the
road to Cobu at UTM 36S 716738 8625318. These gravels are about 1m thick, with rounded
pebbles and overlie near-horizontally laminated orange-red coarse sands. Karoo sandstones
again underlie these sedimentary rocks. Poorly consolidated sediments of the Mikindani
Formation are also exposed between UTM 36S 725808, 8631700 and 725759, 8633604. Poorly
compacted brown, medium to coarse-grained sands are exposed. Fine-grained sands are
preserved between ridges of medium to coarse gravel. These gravels are moderately sorted
with sub-rounded to sub-angular pebbles up to 2-3 cm long, mainly of quartz and quartzite.
To the northeast there is a 3 km-long section through weakly consolidated
conglomerates and sandstones that underlie a low rise centred at UTM 36S 783525, 8665632.
These clastic rocks are well exposed in narrow gullies up to 3m deep alongside a motorable
track (Figure 6.403), UTM 36S 783022, 8664860). The sequence fines downwards with flatlying conglomerates up to 2 m thick overlying more consolidated arkosic sandstones with a
few quartz and feldspar pebbles (Figure 6.403). Rounded quartz pebbles and cobbles that
weather to form the uppermost gravels dominate the conglomerates.
The topmost sands and sandy soils are interpreted as aeolian sediments, probably of
Neogene age, derived by weathering of underlying Karoo sandstones. They therefore probably
have a similar origin to contemporaneous Kalahari Group sandy sediments that mantle large
parts of central southern Africa. These sediments are also derived from Karoo sandstones and
either form residual deposits or are locally transported to form dunes. The underlying
gravels/conglomerates are interpreted as water-lain sediments, possibly associated with flash
flooding across the relatively low-lying Karoo strata within the Maniamba Graben.
There are two possible economic aspects of the Mikindani Formation sediments, firstly
as an aggregate resource for local construction work, and secondly as a potential host for
secondary diamond deposits. The second possibility is dependant on whether the kimberlites
within the Maniamba Graben actually contain diamonds. This has not yet been proved.
Therefore the most likely economic use for the Mikindani Formation sediments is as an easily
worked aggregate resource that could be used for any local upgrading of roads, or for the
construction of modern buildings.
394
Figure 6.403: Weakly consolidated conglomerates overlying more consolidated arkosic

sandstones in a gully section in the Mikindani Formation (UTM 36S 783022, 8664860, sheet
1235 Macaloge-Chiconono)
6.22 Quaternary deposits
BRGM identified two marine transgressions in the youngest deposits of the Rovuma Basin that
probably occurred in the Pleistocene and Holocene. Detailed work by Jaritz et al. (1977) also
identified a number of sea level changes throughout the Quaternary along the coast to the south
of the area described here. Low sea levels (regressions) during relatively cold periods led to
over-deepened river valleys that became flooded during high sea levels (transgressions) when
the climate was warmer.
Coastal sand(-stone)(Costeiro gres)(Qcs): The older Quaternary reefs of costeiro gres, i.e.
shore face to intertidal consolidated medium and coarse-grained sandstone contain some shell
debris and calcareous cement. These reefs may be several metres thick and are usually adjacent
to or surrounded by beach sand such as at Pangane (UTM 37S 663507 8668722). The
sandstones are considered to be Quaternary in age although the fossil content has not been
investigated. The rocks have a carious weathering and are porous. In the intertidal zone near
Pangane (UTM 37S 664767, 8670298), Figure 6.404), crags of costeiro gres are composed of
buff, coarse-grained to granular calc-cemented sandstones mainly including shell debris and
quartz. The sandstone occurs in cross-bedded units about 30 cm thick with foresets dipping
northwest and southwest. Overall bedding dips up to 10 seawards.
Figure 6.404: Planar crossbedded units in the costeiro gres
near Pangane (UTM 37S 664767,
8670298, sheet 1240 QuissingaPemba).
395
On Wimbi beach east of Pemba, well-developed local costeiro gres reefs are now
partly raised above the high-tide level (UTM 37S 666438, 8565944). These include crossbedded units and zones in which heavy mineral layers have been burrowed and subsequently
cemented with carbonate (Figure 6.405).
Figure 6.405:. Burrowed costeiro gres with heavy mineral layers, Wimbi beach, Pemba
(UTM 37S 666438, 8565944, sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba)
Sand sheets with local gravels (Qss): Large spreads of sand with subordinate gravel cover the
interfluves on sheet 1140 Mocimboa da Praia. The well-sorted sands tend to be buff, pink or
orange brown with horizons of scattered round pebbles or gravel lenses. The sand is quartz-rich
and grains range from well rounded to subangular and from very fine to coarse in size.
The distinction on earlier maps of the undifferentiated piedmont deposits of Pleistocene
age and the undifferentiated deposits of Tertiary cannot be maintained in the Mocimboa da
Praia area. Around Mbau for instance, loose pink-brown and buff medium sands are generally
better sorted than the Mikindani Formation and are all considered to be Quaternary deposits.
Scattered coarse grains are common and most grains are subangular to subrounded. In small
hollows and alluvial flats the sands tend to be fine and grey. There is no evidence of marine
deposition and colluvial to alluvial processes are considered to be involved, possibly reworking
weathered Mikindani Formation deposits.
Southwest of Mocimboa da Praia (e.g. UTM 37S 645017, 8744882), up to 3 m of buff,
medium, quartzose sand was excavated in pits. Bedding tends to be lacking but fluctuation in
the water table appears to have created thin irregular iron oxide-rich laminae or ribbing with c.
0.1 m spacing (Figure 6.406).
396
Figure 6.406: Iron oxide-rich laminae in Quaternary sand near Mocimboa da Praia. (UTM
37S 645017, 8744882, sheet 1140 Mocmboa da Praia)
In the off-white to pinkish brown sands just to the north on the road to Palma, local
planar low-angle cross-bedding (Figure 6.407) suggests that locally fluvial processes were
involved in deposition of these sands.
Figure 6.407:. Low angle cross-bedding and laminae in fine to coarse-grained Quaternary
sands, northwest of Mocimboa da Praia (UTM 37S 644228 8746224, sheet 1140 Mocmboa da
Praia).
In the Mbau area medium pink-brown to buff grey sands include small patches of
gravel and sandy gravel cut by stretches of grey alluvial sand. Some of the poorly sorted, partly
consolidated, medium-coarse sands (e.g. at UTM 37S 625377, 8711568) may be derived from
the Mikindani Formation. In a pit along the main road south of Chinda, (UTM 37S 609992,
8703784) up to 2 m of buff to pinkish loose fine-medium quartz-rich sand was excavated. East
of Litemanda, (UTM 37S 622039, 8684186 623749, 8683966), the buff to grey brown sands
397
are loose to soft and mostly medium grained with scattered coarse grains. There are some
intervening hollows and flats occupied by mid grey silty muds, probably alluvial in origin.
On sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba, in the east near Namau, wells (e.g. at UTM 37S
669676, 8587540) dug in buff-grey fine and medium fairly well sorted sand are probably
Quaternary deposits < 5 m thick in bedded units about 1 m thick. The bedding and sorting are
not typical of the Mikindani Formation. Low mounds of moderately to poorly sorted gravel
including subrounded to angular pebbles in a buff medium-coarse sand matrix (UTM 37S
654273, 8613554) and including some small calcrete nodules are considered to be Quaternary.
These deposits may be derived from red brown medium-coarse unbedded and poorly sorted,
partly consolidated sands which are thought to be Mikindani Formation and are exposed in a
pit to the south (UTM 37S 654240, 8612698).
On sheet 1040 Palma on the road south of Quionga (UTM 37S 664733, 8823674), buff
to grey medium sands contain scattered coarse subangular and subrounded grains and extend to
just north of Quionga where an escarpment in the sands faces the tidal inlet.
Coastal sand dunes, beache sand and interior dunes with red aeolian sand (Qd & Qdi): Beach
sands that are mostly white and quartz-rich are a spectacular feature of the coastline. They vary
from narrow (<10 m wide) fringes to wide (>10 m) intertidal sandy beaches that fringe tidal
flats or dunes (e.g. south of Mecufi). They locally have heavy mineral concentrations that
contain red garnet as well as ilmenite and other black opaque minerals. Muscovite and biotite
flakes are also locally present. Little or no heavy mineral content was observed at Pangane but
at Mucojo praia (UTM 37S 663101, 8667126) dark heavy minerals occur with quartz near the
high water mark. On the beach near Quissanga, recent white quartz-rich medium sand also
includes some heavy minerals.
Loose, fine sand has locally formed dunes in ridges roughly parallel to the coast. They
usually occur inland of sandy beaches and are stabilised by vegetation. In places the older
dunefields have become partly consolidated and vegetated and these can be mapped separately
on satellite imagery in belts up to 7 km wide. Inland of the beach near Pangane, dunes parallel
to the coast are up to 5 - 10 m high and composed of fine, loose, buff to pale brown sand with
subangular to rounded grains of mainly of quartz, but also calcite from shell fragments and
local heavy mineral layers.
Around Maunhane, near Pemba (UTM 37S 672032, 8565500) a belt of sand dunes has
accumulated on the east side of the peninsula (Figure 6.408). Inland of Olumbi (UTM 37S
660612, 8784908) the soft white fine and medium-grained sands appear to be partly wind
blown although the ridges are less distinct.
Between Mucojo and Pangane (UTM 37S 661972, 8665964) a low flat area in which
the top 50 cm is pale grey fine to medium sand and sandy silt, has locally been burrowed and
contains calcareous nodules. The underlying mid-grey sand, over 1 m thick, has a clayey
matrix. This flat may originally have formed a lagoon as it lies behind a belt of sand dunes.
Marine reef, coral and bioclastic sediments (Qmr): On sheet 1040 Palma there are two wavecut platforms underlain by coral limestone exposed on the Cabo Delgado peninsula. The older
platform, which is about 3 m higher than the lower platform, is underlain by jagged, pale grey
to pink coral. Locally there are bioherms of brown-weathering coral that form pinnacles up to
several metres in height. The younger coral platform is only exposed at low tide.
398
Figure 6.408: Dunes near Maunhane (UTM 37S 672032, 8565500, sheet 1240 QuissingaPemba).
Raised coral reefs were also investigated on Ibo island, on the Quissanga-Pemba sheet.
Excellent outcrops on the northwestern side of the island (UTM 37S 676490, 8636232) show a
~4 m high sequence (Figure 6.409), which has a basal poorly sorted coarse-grained limestone,
over 1.5 m thick, mainly composed of calcareous plates with cross sections in the range of 0,5
x 4 mm, and a matrix consisting of fine-grained to very fine-grained organic debris. This is
overlain by 2,5 m of coarse-grained coral rubble. A decreasing abundance of coral rubble (2-20
cm in size) occurs from the base to the top of this sequence. The uppermost unit, <30 cm thick,
consists of consolidated, unsorted coral rubble.
Figure 6.409: Raised coral reefs on the northwestern side of the Ibo island. (UTM 37S 676490,
8636232, sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba)
The calc-cemented bioclastic debris including coral and bivalves as well as coarsegrained to pebbly quartz is well exposed round the peninsula at Pemba, west of Wimbi beach
(e.g. UTM 37S 668573, 8566004, Figure 6.410). These reefs are partly raised above the high
399
tide mark and are irregularly weathered. The local cement tends to be a sparry calcite derived
from the bioclastic debris and this may also be the source of the carbonate cement in the nearby
costeiro gres. Blocks of sandstone and coral colonies up to 50 cm across are common in
weakly bedded units with low variable dips. These bioclastic reefs continue east to the
lighthouse at Maunhane where they are overlain by dune sands.
Figure 6.410: Bioclastic limestone reef east of Wimbi: the hammer rests on a coral colony.
(UTM 37S 668573, 8566004, sheet 1340 Mecufi)
Alluvial mud of fluvial-marine origin (Qst): Tidal flats comprise strongly bioturbated (with
crab and worm burrows), clay-bearing sands and are particularly well developed along major
inlets e.g. at Mecufi and the Rovuma delta. Sand bars in the tidal flats are up to several metres
in height and made up of white quartz sand. Estuarine silty sands near Olumbi (UTM 37S
661779, 8784548) are pale grey, loose and locally contain shells. In the tidal, mangrove
fringed, quartz-rich sands dark heavy minerals were deposited on the surface. Gravel-rich spits
are aligned parallel to the shoreline. The estuarine flat near the mouth of the Rio Montepuez
(UTM 37S 657004, 8619574) contains buff to pale grey fine and medium sands, weakly
bedded and cross-bedded composed mainly of quartz together with some garnet and heavy
minerals. Some of these buff sands are well sorted with rounded to subangular grains. On
estuarine and tidal flats near Tandanhangui (UTM 37S 665194, 8629250), the buff- grey,
loose, fine-medium-grained sorted sand is composed of subrounded to subangular grains.
Cleaner, medium-grained quartz-rich sand forms the beach.
On the margins of the estuary north of Mocimboa da Praia (UTM 37S 647344,
8747452) there are spits of pale buff medium quartz-rich sand with some black heavy mineral
rich laminae. The lower ground in the estuary is a dark grey, silty, mud. The flats are
commonly worked for salt, both on a small scale to supply small villages as well as on a
commercial scale (at Pemba and Mecufi). North of Quionga the flats between the mangrove
swamps are used to evaporate salt in man-made pans (Figure 6.411).
400
Figure 6.411: North of Quionga the flats between the mangrove swamps are used to evaporate
salt in man-made pans (sheet 1140 Mocmboa da Praia).
Alluvium (Qa): Broad belts of mid- to dark grey sandy silty mud and silty sandy alluvium
around 5 km wide occur along the major rivers such as the Rio Messalo and the Rio
Montepuez. Locally flanking (UTM 37S 654392, 8607836) the floodplains, there are earlier
deposits in mounds and terraces of greyish brown gravel and sand with poorly sorted silty
gravely sand, for example near the Rio Montepuez (at UTM 37S 654265, 8611402), which in
the latter case may be washed out from nearby Mikindani Formation. Abandoned channels are
in places gravely and overlain by fine-grained muds. The broad belt of alluvium either side of
the Rio Messalo is composed of dark grey sandy silty mud with local gravel lenses. Reworked
sand bars occupy the active bed of the river. Numerous smaller watercourses are filled sand,
and locally gravel bars, silt and mud are deposited between meanders.
.
Over-deepened valleys are a common feature immediately inland of the present
coastline and reflect regressive periods when sea level dropped. These valleys are now filled
with silty alluvium overlain by veneers of white, aeolian quartz-sand. Major escarpments can
define the limits of the largest valleys such as the Rio Messalo valley and indicate significant
uplift and erosion.
A line of quartz pebbles at the foot of the escarpment at UTM 37S 639460, 8708749 is
interpreted as a deposit formed during flooding of the valley, either as beach sand when the
valley formed an inlet or else from a flash flood that cut into the escarpment. On the road to
Namau (UTM 37S 657147, 8593248) thin floodplain deposits comprise dark grey to pale grey
sandy silt and mud. Farther east along the road, sandy silt contains hard buff to cream coloured
micritic nodules; some with cracks infilled with sparry calcite. This development of pedogenic
carbonate is the result of seasonal evaporation of the groundwaters. On the road to Mucojo
(UTM 37S 648054, 8664922), local patches of recent loose gravel are composed mainly of
rounded quartz pebbles in a grey medium sand matrix and are probably alluvial in origin.
401
Figure 6.412: A poorly sorted colluvium including angular boulders at its base is exposed in a
road cut (UTM 37S 586249, 8719772, sheet 1139 Mueda) near a tributary to the Rio Nhapa
where it overlies weathered Maconde Formation.
Sand and sandy soil with lacustrine saline mud ( Qas & Qls): Large parts of the plateau east of
Nangade, around Muidine and Pundanhar have a mantle of recent loose sand and sandy soils
that vary in colour, both laterally and vertically, from white, very pale brown, pink to deep red.
These are interpreted as residual deposits derived from underlying sandstones. Pits, either dug
for water or for material to surface motorable tracks, indicate that the sands/soils can be over 3
m in thickness. Larger pits indicate that these sediments are structureless. The sand tends to be
quartz-rich in sub-angular to subrounded grains.
On the Muidine and Palma sheets numerous scattered, circular to more irregularly
shaped temporary lakes or pans have developed between the sands. These shallow
depressions are a feature of poorly drained parts of the plateau. Near circular pans, some of
which are over 1 km in diameter, are filled with greyish silty clays and commonly rimmed by
well-sorted pale quartz-rich sands (Figure 6.413). A veneer of white sand is commonly found
inside the pans as well as white clay. Water tables are elevated below the pans so that they
commonly contain standing water as small lakes or else have water wells that exploit
groundwater at depths of about 1-2 m. Crescentic ridges up to several metres in height of
aeolian white sand commonly surround the pans.
402
Figure 6.413: Digging in pale well-sorted quartzose sand at the margin of a pan near
Pundanhar (UTM 37S 593587 8790296, sheet 1039 Muidine).
Quaternary deposits in western areas (Unit Qa): Recent alluvium in amounts large enough to
be depicted on the maps is found along some of the larger flood plains and along the shore of
Lago Niassa.
The flood plain along the Rio Messinge downstream of the nepheline syenite at Monte
Chissindo (UTM 36S 731000, 8624000) is extremely fertile and the local communities grow a
wide variety of crops on the plain. The sediments here are probably enriched in phosphates
weathered from the nepheline syenite. The alluvium along the Rio Rovuma at the Tanzanian
border consists of more coarse-grained river sand.
All the flat-lying areas along Lago Niassa have extensive sandy beaches. The beaches
are composed mainly of relatively fine-grained sand, with lesser gravel and boulders. The
colour of the sand normally reflects the local bedrock. In areas with extensive quartz veining
the sand and the beaches are extremely white. Other areas have heavy mineral layers in the
sand (Figure 6.414). In some areas red garnets can be found (eg. at UTM 36S 690892, 8573736
~ 20 km south of the town of Metangula) but most common is black magnetite sand in layers
up to ~10 cm. Some of the magnetite may have been derived from nearby iron ore
mineralisations, but most of it seems to be derived from finely disseminated magnetite in the
local rock.
403
Figure 6.414: Example of a very magnetite-rich beach sand on the shore of Lago Niassa.
There is a layer of magnetite up to 5cm thick, locally derived from a magnetite-rich gneiss.
(UTM 36S 707150, 8679850, sheet 1134 Ponta Messuli).
404
Table 6.8: Palynologicl analyses of selected samples from the Rovuma Basin.
NGU
Sample
no.
40676
46811
46813
Formation and
lithology
Pemba Formation
(CrPMco),
limestone
Pemba Formation
(CrPMsm),
bioturbated sandstone
Pemba Formation
(CrPMsm),
interbedded mudstone
and sandstone
46815
Pemba Formation
(CrPMsm),
interbedded mudstone
and sandstone
46822
Pemba Formation
(CrPMco); sandstone
46823
Pemba Formation
(CrPMco); sandstone
46843
Pemba Formation
(CrPMco);
Palynomorph assemblages
Terrestrial: Araucariacites australis, Callialasporites
trilobatus, Callialasporites spp. (common),
Cicatricosisporites spp., Classopollis spp., Cycadopites
sp., Marine: Canningia compacta, Circulodinium
distinctum, Circulodinium spp., Cometodinium sp.,
Oligosphaeridium diculum, Perisseiasphaeridium
inusitatum, Rigaudella apiculatum, Systematophora
areolata
Terrestrial: Araucariacites australis, Baculatisporites
sp., Callialasporites trilobatus, Spheripollenites sp.,
Marine: Nummus sp.
Terrestrial: Baculatisporites sp., Classopollis spp.,
Eucommiidites sp., Exesipollenties tumulus,
Leptolepidites sp., Fresh-water algae: Botryococcus
sp., Palambages sp., Marine: Cleistosphaeridium sp.,
Impagidinium sp.
Terrestrial: Alisporites similes, Baculatisporites sp.,
Callialasporites trilobatus, Callialasporites spp.,
Eucommiidites sp., Exesipollenties tumulus,
Stereisporites pocockii, Fresh-water algae:
Botryococcus sp., Marine: Circulodinium distinctum,
Endoscrinium campanula sp., Pterospermella sp.
sp., Callialasporites trilobatus, Callialasporites spp.
(common), Classopollis spp., Deltoidospora minor,
Densiosporites velatus, Marine: Carnavonodinium sp.
A, Cleistosphaeridium sp., ?Egmontodinium sp.,
Lithodinia cf. jurassica, Lithodinia spp.,
Nannoceratopsis pellucida, Pareodinia sp.,
Sentusidinium rioultii, Micrhystridium sp.
spp., Callialasporites trilobatus, Callialasporites spp.
(common), Contignisporites cooksonii, Classopollis
spp., Deltoidospora minor, Fresh-water algae:
Botryococcus sp., Marine: Carnavonodinium sp. A,
Chlamydophorella sp. Dingodinium jurassicum,
Sentusidinium echinatum (common), Sentusidinium
rioultii
sp., Callialasporites trilobatus, Callialasporites spp.
(common), Classopollis spp., Cycadopites sp.,
Deltoidospora sp., Marine: Cometodinium sp.,
Lithodinia sp., Rigaudella apiculata, Sentusidinium
rioultii, Surculodinium sp., Tehamadinium evittii
Age
Late Jurassic
(Tithonian)
Early
Cretaceous
(Aptian-Albian)
Early
Cretaceous
(Aptian-Albian)
Early
Cretaceous
(Aptian-Albian)
Late Jurassic
(KimmeridgianTithonian)
Late Jurassic
(Tithonian)
Late Jurassic
(Tithonian)
405
46848
Pemba Formation
(CrPMco), turbidite
sandstone
43218
Mikindani Fm.
(TeK), Red sandstone
Alto Jingone Fm.
(TeAj), Nummulitic
limestone
Pemba Formation
(CrPMsm)
Conglomerate on silty
mudstone
Pemba Formation
(CrPMsm)
Interbedded mudstone
and sandstone
Pemba Formation
(CrPMsm), silty
mudstone
Macomia Formation
(CrMo),
dark grey siltstone
43221
43228
43230
43232
43242
43277
Mifume Formation,
(CrMf), mudstone
43309
Rio Mecole Fm.

(JrRM),
Sandstone
Rio Mecole Fm.
(JrRM),
Sandstone
43312
406
Marine: Apteodinium maculatum grande, Apteodinium

granulatum, Batioladinium longicornutum,
Circulodinium distinctum, Cleistosphaeridium sp.,
Dingodinium albertii, Ellipsoidictyum imperfectum,
Endoscrinium campanula, Hystrichosphaerina
schindewolfii, Prolixosphaeridium parvispinum,
Nummus similes, Oligosphaeridium complex,
Scriniodinium sp.,Sentusidinium verrucosum,
Stiphrospheridium anthophorum, Surculodinium
trunculum, Systematophora cretace, Trichodinium
speetonense, Tubotuberella apatela, Valensiella sp.
Terrestrial: Classopollis sp. (single specimen)
Albian (incl.
reworked Late
Barremian)
Marine: Foraminiferal linings (no phytoplankton)
No palynomorphs recovered.
Fresh-water algae: Botryococcus sp. (common),

Palambages sp.
Fresh-water algae: Botryococcus sp. (common),

Palambages sp.
spp., Balmeisporites holodictyus, Balmeisporites spp.,
Classopollis spp. (abundant), Contignisporites
cooksonae, Contignisporites sp., Cyathidites
asper,Densiosporites sp., Ephedripites jansonii,
Ephedripites multicostatus, Eucommiidites
spp.(common), Matonisporites sp., Stereisporites
pocockii, Triporoletes laevigatus, Marine:
Cleistosphaeridium sp., Coronifera oceanica
(common), Subtilisphaera perlucida, Subtilisphaera
spp. (common)
Marine: Apteodinium deflandrei, Areoliogera
medusettiformis, Areoligera senonensis, Cerodinium
diebelii, Coronifera striolata, Dinogymnium sp.,
Exochosphaeridium phragmites, Florentinia laciniata,
Hystrichospheridium duplum, Hystrichosphaeridium
sp., Isabelidinium madura, Odontochitina operculata,
Pervosphaeridium monastriense, Pervosphaeridium
truncatum, Spinidinium balmei, Spiniferites ramosus,
Spiniferites spp., Spongodinium delitiense, Xenascus
ceratoides
No palynomorphs recovered.
Aptian-Early
Albian
Terrestrial: Araucariacites sp. (single specimen)
?Late JurassicEarly
Cretaceous
Late
Campanian
Table 6.9: Petrographic data of samples from the Rovuma Basin.
Sample
no.
43201
Field no.
43202
RK05/389
43204
RK05/401
43209
RK05/423
43210
RK05/426
43211
RK05/428
43213
RS09A
43214
RS22A
43215
RS41A
43216
43225
RS70
RS185
43226
RS186
43227
RS210
43229
RS221
43231
43233
RS229
RS238
43234
RS240
43236
RS247
RK05/388
Lithostratigraphic
unit
Pemba Formation
Description
SANDSTONE, sub-angular, poorly sorted,

quartz, feldspar, arkose?
Pemba Formation
SANDSTONE, coarse-grained, huge pisolith
(10 mm), huge micro-perthite w/characteristic
parallel veins of cc(?), cc-cement
Quaternary deposits SANDSTONE, very fine-grained, angular,
quartz, feldspar, dark minerals ( hornblende,
mica?)
Pemba Formation
SANDSTONE, medium grained w/ quartz,
feldspar, plagioclase, mica, well cemented
w/calcite
Pemba Formation
SANDSTONE, subangular, medium to coarse
grained, well compacted, calcite cement
Pemba Formation
Mudstone (bioclastic?), "dirty", some iron-oxyhydroxides, some opaques
N'Gapa Formation
Sandstone, sub-rounded, bimodal grain-size,
coarse- and medium-grained, quartz (polycrystalline), lithic fragments
N'Gapa formation
SANDSTONE, sub-angular, medium to fine
grain-size, poorly sorted, stained red w/massive
iron-oxy-hydroxide concretion
Mikindani
Sand (grain-mount), very fine, sub-angular,
Formation
poorly sorted, quartz, feldspar
Chinda Formation
Sand, sub-rounded, quartz, feldspar, epidote
Mifume Formation SANDSTONE, very fine, quartz, feldspar,
plagioclase, hornblende, epidote, w/ calcium
carbonate, also bioclasts
Mifume Formation Bioclastic w/ sparite clasts in additon to calcite,
plagioclase, and foraminifera?
Pemba Formation
SANDSTONE, poorly sorted, angular quartz,
feldspar
Pemba Formation
SANDSTONE, arkose, poorly sorted, subangular, cc cement
Pemba Formation
Sparite
Pemba Formation
SANDSTONE, arkose, medium to fine,
subangular, poorly sorted, quartz, potassium
feldspar, plag, h
Pemba Formation
SANDSTONE, angular, poorly sorted, quartz,
feldspar, hornblende, calcite cement
Pemba Formation
Bioclastic s, coarse, poorly sorted, quartz,
feldspar, shell fragments (brachiopods), calcite
cement
407
43238
RS266
Pemba Formation
43239
RS282
Alto Jingone Fm.
43240
RS283
Alto Jingone Fm.
43241
RS286
Alto Jingone Fm.
43244
RS294
43245
RS299
Mikindani
Formation
Mikindani
Formation
43246
RS317
Pemba Formation
43248
RS328
Mikindani
Formation
43249
RS330B
43251
RS333
43254
RS362
Mikindani
Formation
Mikindani
Formation
Chinda Formation
43255
RS431
Chinda Formation
43256
RS436
Chinda Formation
43260
OMS-10
Rio Mecole Fm.
43263
43264
OMS2
OMS-3
Rio Mecole Fm.

Pemba Formation
43268
OMS-7A
Pemba Formation
43269
OMS-7B
Pemba Formation
43272
OS12
Quissanga
Formation
408
SANDSTONE, very fine to fine, angular,

laminated, poorly sorted, quartz, feldspar,
plagioclase, muscovite, polycrystalline and
strained quartz
Bioclastic s, coarse, well rounded, poorly
sorted, calcite, carbonate cement
Bioclastic w/ lots of "American footballshaped" microfossils, pisoliths
Bioclastic, coarse, poorly sorted, macrofossil
SANDSTONE, subangular, fairly well sorted,
quartz, feldspar
SANDSTONE, medium to coarse grained,
poorly sorted, subangular grains, matrix
supported, quartz (also polycrystalline), red
stained hematite cement
Bioclastic Sandstone, fine, rounded grains,
angular quartz
Bioclasts, well rounded, some angular quartz in
calcite cement
Bioclasts w/ some quartz, many elongated
clasts; worm-like (but not vermiculite)
Bioclastic material of various sizes, some
angular quartz
SANDSTONE, fine to coarse, poorly sorted,
angular grains, round-shaped areas stained by
hematite
Clastic, fine to coarse grained, poorly sorted,
angular quartz
SANDSTONE, fine to coarse grained, poorly
sorted, angular, quartz, feldspar
SANDSTONE, arkose, subangular, quartz,
feldspar (microperthitic plagioclase).
Silt (grain mount).
SANDSTONE, fine to medium, poorly sorted,
quartz, feldspar including plagioclase and
microperthite, and some opaques, cracking
after cementation and consolidation; solid piece
of rock before new crack filled.
SANDSTONE, arkose, litharenite w/subangular quartz, fine-grained, minor clay,
detrital amphibole, zircon, epidote.
SANDSTONE, arkose, litharenite, polycrystalline quartz, plagioclase feldspar, pisolite
(4 mm), shell fragments,
Very fine sand, subangular, quartz , p , epidote,
h , hematite cement
43273
43276
43279
43280
46801
46804
46820
46828
46832
46833
46839
46850
43303
43304
OS13
Quissanga
Formation
SANDSTONE, medium to coarse, poorly

sorted, quartz, feldspar, amphibole (actinolite),
hematite cement
OS16
Quissanga
Siltstone, quartz, feldspar, w/calcite cement,
Formation
oolite, brachiopod
OS182A
Mikindani
Sand (grain mount), heavy mineral sand,
Formation
quartz, feldspar, lots of opaques.
OS182B
Mikindani
Heavy mineral sand (grain mount), see also
Formation
OS182A
RK05/16
Macomia
Coarse Sandstone, subangular quartz, some
Formation
polycrystalline, feldspar w/hematite cement and
other opaques, neogenic grain growth, kaolin
clay
RK05/79
Macomia
Very fine, unsorted Sandstone w/zeolites?
Formation
(chabasite, heulandite, laumontite?), rutile,
epidote. Laminated dark and light bands.
RK05/233
Pemba Formation
SANDSTONE, fine-grained, well sorted,
subangular, quartz, feldspar
RK05/257
Pemba Formation
SANDSTONE, subangular, poorly sorted
w/cement, quartz, feldspar, lithic fragments,
RK05/266A Pemba Formation
SANDSTONE, arkose, quartz, feldspar
(plagioclase), subrounded, well sorted, well
compacted.
RK05/266B Pemba Formation
Calcite w/ sparite void, occasional grains of
quartz, feldspar (plagioclase) (1 mm).
RK05/298
Pemba Formation
SANDSTONE, laminated w/ medium and fine
grained, fairly well-sorted laminae, well
cemented, quartz, feldspar,
RK05/382
Quaternary deposits SANDSTONE, well-sorted, quartz, feldspar,
mica
Quissanga
SANDY MARL, Very fine-grained dark gray
Formation
sandy marl, Well sorted, very fine-grained
clastic grains (mainly quartz, also feldspar and
carbonate) in very fine-grained carbonate
matrix. 10-20% clastic grains, 80-90 % matrix.
TT05/30
Irregular patches of opaque material less than
0.5 millimetre.
TT05/33
Mikindani
SANDSTONE, Very fine-grained grey
Formation
sandstone, calcite cemented, with possible
biotite grains. Well sorted, very fine-grained
angular to sub-angular clastic grains (mainly
quartz, also feldspar and carbonate) in very
fine-grained carbonate matrix. 40-60% clastic
grains, 40-60 % matrix. Irregular patches of
opaque material less than 0.1 millimetre.
409
43305
TT05/35
Mikindani
Formation
SANDSTONE, Medium to coarse-grained

yellow (to ochre) sandstone, well sorted,
friable, angular to sub-rounded grains, grain
supported, brownish matrix between the grains.
Equal amounts of quartz and feldspar.
43306
TT05/37
Pemba Formation
Sandy marl, Very fine-grained to very coarsegrained sandy marl. Well sorted, very finegrained clastic grains (mainly quartz, also
feldspar and carbonate) in very finegrained
carbonate matrix. 1-5% clastic grains, 95-99%
matrix. Irregular patches of opaque material
less than 0.5 millimetre.
43307
TT05/39
Pemba Formation
43308
TT05/41
Pemba Formation
Rio Mecole Fm.
43311
43312
410
TT05/54
TT05/55
Rio Mecole Fm.
SANDSTONE, Fine-grained to coarse-grained

laminated sandstone, with quartz and feldspar,
and coal fragments. Gray-brown to ochre.
Moderately to poorly sorted medium to finegrained. Angular to sub-angular grains, grain
supported, brownish iron oxide matrix between
the grains. Equal amounts of quartz and
feldspar. Very small biotite grains. Possible
coal fragments - less than 0.5 millimetres.
Mainly grain supported. Dark brown to opaque
matrix. Feldspar grains partially altered.
SANDSTONE, light gray to light yellow, silty,
with quartz, feldspar and biotite. Fine-grained,
with 50/50 quartz and feldspar grains in calcite
matrix. Grain-matrix ratio is c. 40/60. Some
possible biotite grains, heavily altered. Very
little opaque material.
SANDSTONE, Light gray, fine-grained to
coarse-grained sandstone, with quartz, feldspar
and biotite. Poorly sorted, fine-grained to
coarse-grained, with angular to sub-angular
grains of quartz, feldspar (constituting ca.
50/50), and subordinate amounts of lithic
fragments (q+fsp), heavily altered biotite,
muscovite/light mica and opaque material.
Matrix of very fine-grained quartz and feldspar
grains, with the feldspar grains partly heavily
altered
SANDSTONE, Fine-grained gray sandstone as
beds within sedimentary breccia. Very poorly
sorted, medium-grained, with 50/50 quartz and
feldspar. Angular grains. Feldspar heavily
altered. Up to 10% opaque material in the
matrix. Subordinate amounts of biotite and
muscovite,
Holocene carbonate
43313
TT05/75
43314
TT05/78
Mikindani
Formation
43315
TT05/88
Mikindani
Formation
43316
TT05/96
Mikindani
Formation
Coarse-grained limestone, composed of

calcareous plates. Part of the Holocene reef.
Complex carbonate rock, composed of
fragments of carbonate organisms
(foraminifera).
SANDSTONE, Fine-grained, light gray
sandstone, with some coarse-grained quartz.
Very poorly sorted, ranging from very finegrained matrix to grains up to 2 mm. Grains
dominated by quartz, with less than 10%
feldspar. Sub-angular to sub-rounded.
Subordinate amounts of muscovite/light mica
and biotite. Matrix supported. Brownish mica,
possible dominated by iron oxide.
SANDSTONE, Medium to coarse-grained
poorly sorted sandstone, with quartz pebbles.
Very poorly sorted, with sub-rounded to subangular grains, ranging from very fine-grained
to 3 millimetres. Grains dominated by quartz,
with less than 5-10% feldspar. Matrix is very
fine-grained, medium brown of uncertain
mineralogy. Constitutes up to 20-40% of the
rock.
SANDSTONE, Fine-grained, poorly sorted
sandstone, arenitic, with c. 5% heavy mineral
grains. Poorly sorted, fine-grained to mediumgrained, with sub-angular to sub-rounded grains
of quartz, feldspar (constituting ca. 50/50), and
opaque minerals (very fine-grained). 50/50%
grains and matrix. Matrix is medium brown, of
unidentified composition.
411
METAMORPHIC DEVELOPMENT
7.1 Introduction
This chapter will describe the characteristic metamorphic grade and development of the main
metamorphic complexes. The descriptions are based on interpretations of mineralogical
evolution, mineral equilibria and geothermobarometry on selected samples where minerals in
equilibrium were analysed by electron microprobe (EMP) or scanning electron microscope
(SEM) equipped with an energy dispersive system (EDS). Mineral abbreviations used are after
Kretz (1983).
A major part of the project area has attained a metamorphic grade of high amphibolite
and granulite facies (Jourde and Wolff, 1974). The subdivision of these facies into useful PTX
spaces characterised by observable mineral reactions has been a major challenge for
metamorphic petrologists for over 40 years, starting with Green and Ringwood (1967). The
reason for the complexity is that most of the phases taking part in reactions in this PT regime
are multi-component solid solutions that make all transitions dependent on composition. Since
the last major exploration of the project area, referenced in Pinna et al. (1993), a vast amount
of thermodynamic data, field observations and computer-assisted methods have been
published, and it is now possible to account for the PT path of rock units in the PT regime
between the granulite facies and the eclogite facies. The isograds, however, are less definitive
with simple means than traditional index mineral zones that could be mapped out by the
observation of certain mineral parageneses. For example, the transition from amphibolite facies
to granulite facies was simply marked by the appearance of metamorphic orthopyroxene. When
moving from either amphibolite facies or intermediate-pressure granulite facies towards the
eclogite field, a thorough knowledge of the mineral chemistry is needed. Even if these highpressure granulite facies parageneses contain garnet, this mineral is also "allowed" in the
amphibolite facies. Typical parageneses for high-pressure granulites (HP-granulites) are
Grt+Cpx+Pl+Qtz without Opx for mafic rocks and Grt+Ky+Kfs for pelitic and felsic rocks
(Figure 7.1).
The importance of textures in recognition of HP-granulites must be emphasised. The
fact that a high-grade paragenesis survives retrogression proves that the retrogressive reactions
have been slow compared to the post-peak P- and T- adjustments. Relict metastable phases will
therefore often be found, and often in geometrically simple relationships such as coronas and
symplectites. Plagioclase coronas around garnet are a typical feature of granulites, and the
coexistence of plagioclase with other minerals such as orthopyroxene, hornblende or biotite in
the coronas, indicates the sequence of retrogressive reactions and PT-evolution according to
the scheme in Figure 7.1. A more quantitative diagram is given in Figure 7.2.
It could be argued that the subdivisions made in Figure 7.1 are merely a question of
terminology, but HP granulite is commonly associated with subduction of rocks into the
mantle, while intermediate and low-P granulites are commonly associated with a normal, 35
km thick continental crust. A rare exception to this is in lower segments of old stable crust
where radiogenic heat production has decreased and created parageneses typical of HP
granulites under lower thermal gradients (O'Brien and Rtzler, 2003).
412
Figure 7.1: Schematic PT-diagram

showing how the orthopyroxene-free subfacies of the granulite facies (red) fits in
between the commonly accepted
metamorphic facies. A relatively silicarich rock composition is implied (from
Pattison, 2003).
Figure 7.2: Petrogenetic grid taking into account the orthopyroxene-free paragenesis (O'Brian
and Rtzler, 2003). The lower limit of HP-granulite is defined as kyanite-in.
PT-estimates for the different complexes are presented in Table 7.1 to Table 7.7, with a
geographical overview in Figure 7.3. Pressure estimates are based on the geobarometers of GrtCpx-Pl-Qtz (GADS), Grt-Opx-Pl-Qtz (GAES), Grt-Al-silicate-Pl-Qtz (GASP) and Grt-MuscBt-Pl (GMBP) by using thermodynamic data from Holland and Powell (1998), in addition the
Grt-Hbl-Pl-Qtz geobarometer of Koon and Spear (1989). Temperature estimates are based on
413
several conventional geothermometers for Grt-Opx (Harley, 1984; Carswell and Harley, 1990),
Grt-Cpx (Ravna, 2000a), Grt-Bt (Perchuk et al., 1985; Krogh et al., 1990; Kaneko and Miyano,
2004) and Grt-Hbl (Ravna, 2000b). PT estimates derived from geothermobarometry, are
evaluated relative to established mineral equilibrium data from PT-grids in the literature. For
illustration of the variation in the estimated pressures and temperatures, plots of the calculated
lines from the geothermometers and the different calibrations used, are shown for
representative samples. The pressure and temperature values presented in the tables and in
Figure 7.3 are based on selected geothermobarometers, their intersection or temperatures at
assumed pressures. Usually the calibrations showing the maximum values are used, but where
those values are outside the stabiliy fields achieved from mineral equilibrium data, other
calibrations are preferred. The Grt-Hbl-Pl-Qtz geobarometers usually show lower P than
GADS or GAES, which can be attributed to a retrogressive evolution of the amphiboles in the
mineral assemblage. The metamorphic grade of northern Mozambique shows typically high
temperatures, but re-equilibration of the mineral chemistry during retrogression will often
result in an estimated T lower than the peak conditions. The mineral chemical dataset is
presented in Appendix 2.
7.2 Ponta Messuli Complex
The Ponta Messuli Complex consists of migmatitic gneiss, augen gneiss, talc schist,
amphibolite, gabbro and granite. The migmatitic gneiss has a metapelitic composition and has
reached granulite facies conditions. The gneiss shows a two-stage mineralogical evolution.
Large garnet porphyroblasts (GrtI) display a new growth of inclusion-rich garnet (GrtII) along
their rims (Figure 7.4). The garnet-isograd reaction in metapelites occurs at about 500qC for
CaO + MnO-poor garnets (Spear, 1993), as occurring in sample 42760 (36S, 714350,
8718577) The new-grown garnet is in equilibrium with the mineral assemblage including
Grt(II) + Sill + Zn-rich Spl + Crd + Bt + Mag/Ilm (Figure 7.4). The occurrence of this
assemblage indicates temperatures above 600qC. Cordierite is a typical mineral in metapelitic
migmatites formed at high T. Metapelites start melting at a temperature of ~700qC (assuming P
of 7 kbars), causing migmatitisation. A PT estimate of this sample gives P = 6,7 kbar by using
GASP (based on Holland and Powell, 1998), and T = 720qC by Grt-Bt thermometry (Krogh et
al., 1990) for the high-temperature metamorphism of the Ponta Messuli Complex (Table 7.1,
Figure 7.5).
Sample
42760 (UTM
36S 714350,
8718577)
T (C)
734
P(kbar)
6,7
Geothermobarometers
Grt-Bt
GASP
Reference
Krogh et al., 1990
Holland and Powell, 1998
Comment
Table 7.1: PT-estimates from Ponta Messuli Complex, based on intersection of the
geothermobarometers shown in Figure 7.5.
The lithologies amphibolite and augen gneiss in the Ponta Messuli complex, with the
mineral assemblages of Hbl + Bt + Pl + Qtz + Mag and Bt + Hbl + Pl + Qtz + Mc,
respectively, indicate amphibolite-facies conditions.
414
Figure 7.3: Main geological units of northeastern Mozambique showing results from
geothermobarometry.
Figure 7.4: A Grt I showing new growth of inclusion-rich Grt II along the rim, Width of view:
5,3 mm. B Migmatitic gneiss of Ponta Messuli Complex showing mineral assemblage of
GrtII+Sill+Crd+Bt. Width of view: 1.4 mm. (Both pictures from sample 42760 (UTM 36S,
714350, 8718577, sheet 1134 Ponta Messuli)
415
Figure 7.5: GASP geobarometry and Grt-Bt geothermometry on sample 42760 (UTM 36S
714350, 8718577, sheet 1134 Ponta Messuli), P (GPa), T (qC).
7.3 Nampula Complex

The Nampula Complex comprises migmatised supracrustal gneisses, orthogneisses (locally
charnockitic), granitoid gneisses, amphibolites and metasedimentary rocks. Garnet-bearing
gneisses and sillimanite-bearing metapelites occur locally. The occurrences of metamorphic
ortho- and clinopyroxenes show that granulite facies conditions have affected parts of the
complex (Figure 7.6). Grt-Bt geothermometry on samples near the contact with the Ocua
Complex, show temperatures from ~650qC to 720qC (samples 33362 (UTM 37S 603584,
8491348), 26882 (UTM 37S 493566, 8417169) and 26840 (UTM 37S 376903, 8369952);
Table 7.2), the estimated temperatures increase westwards to the Malema area. A pressure of
9,3 kbar is indicated by GMBP geobarometry from the garnet-bearing gneiss of sample 26882
(UTM 37S 493566, 8417169), occurring close to the Ocua belt (Figure 7.7). The estimate is
based on a secondary mineral assemblage of Grt(rim) + Bt(rim) + white mica + Pl + Rt. The
estimated T of ~700qC from this assemblage reaches the equilibrium curves of partial melting
of granitic compositions under wet conditions. The estimated temperature from this sample,
together with the observed Pl + Bt corona replacing garnet in sample 26840 (UTM 37S
376903, 8369952) (Figure 7.6), are interpreted related to a stage of partial melting.
416
Figure 7.6: A Pl+Bt corona replacing garnet. Sample 26840 (UTM 37S 376903, 8369952,
sheet 1437 Malema), width of view: 5.3 mm. B Pyroxene-bearing hornblende gneiss. Sample
40415 (UTM 37S 270458, 8278941), width of view: 5,3 mm.
Sample
33362 (UTM 37S
603584, 8491348)
26882 (UTM 37S
493566, 8417169)
26840 (UTM 37S
376903, 8369952)
T (C)
654
P(kbar)
703
9,3
719
Geothermobarometer
Grt-Bt
Reference
Krogh et al., 1990
Grt-Bt
GMBP
Grt-Bt
Krogh et al., 1990

Krogh et al., 1990
Comment
Assumed 8
kbar
Assumed 8
kbar
Table 7.2: PT-estimates from the Nampula Complex based on intersection of the geothermobarometers shown in Figure 7.7, and values from the geothermometers showing the highest
temperature.
Figure 7.7: Geothermobarometry on sample 26882 (UTM 37S 493566, 8417169, sheet 1438
Ribu-Mecuburi), P(GPa) and T(qC).
417
7.4 Unango Complex

This complex includes units with varying metamorphic histories. Major shear zones trend E-W
across sheet 1335 Lichinga. The area north of the shear zones is characterised by charnockitic
and enderbitic granofelses with intermediate to low-pressure granulite facies mineralogy in the
eastern part, and rocks showing a high-pressure granulite facies assemblage close to Lago
Niassa. These "northern granofelses" are most probably intrusive rocks that may have
recrystallised under lithostatic stress over a considerable time span.
The high-pressure granulite facies rocks are illustrated by sample 31318 from sheet
1317 Meponda (UTM 36S 704830, 8534680). It has attained the highest pressure during
recrystallisation of all the Unango Complex samples studied, with a P estimate of >15 kbar
(Table 7.3 and Figure 7.8). The mafic granulite has a well-equilibrated granoblastic
metamorphic texture with clinopyroxene, plagioclase, garnet, hornblende and quartz.
Accessory minerals are ilmenite and rutile. A weak foliation defined by "stretching" of the
granoblastic network indicates that a deviatoric stress has been present during recrystallisation.
This probably reflects pure shear in the lower crust or in the waning stage of the subductive
deformation that brought the rock to mantle depths.
Figure 7.8: Geothermobarometry of sample 31318 (UTM 36S 704830, 8534680) on sheet 1334
Meponda, P(GPa) and T(qC).
The E-W-trending major shear belt consists of amphibolite facies gneisses transecting
most of the sheet 1335 Lichinga. The metamorphic conditions are lower grade, with formation
of talc and low-grade amphiboles. However, lenses with the high-pressure mineralogy of Ky +
Rt are preserved internally in the shear belt. At two localities south of Lichinga (UTM 36S
753555, 8528178 and 753225, 8527922) quartzites with kyanite and rutile are observed. We
believe that the Ky+Rt-bearing rock has survived retrogression due to very special mechanical
properties. As seen from Figure 7.9, the grain-borders are coated with a fine-grained mass of
kyanite that has blocked all permeability in the rock. Without any supply of a volatile phase,
this rock is probably resistant to retrogression, a property, which could have practical
applications.
418
Sample
42758
(UTM 36S
742235,
8494297)
31318
(UTM 36S
704830,
8534680)
33512
(UTM 37S
231564,
8361419)
22781
(UTM 36S
765588,
8469748)
40406
(UTM 36S
751305,
8178197)
T (C)
883
P(kbar)
10,5
Geothermobarometers
Grt-Opx
Grt-Opx-Pl-Qtz
Reference
Carswell and Harley, 1990
15,3
Grt-Cpx
Grt-Cpx-Pl-Qtz
Ravna, 2000
6,9
Grt-Bt
Grt-Opx
Grt-Opx-Pl-Qtz
Krogh et al., 1990

6,6
Grt-Bt
Grt-Pl-Sill-Qtz
Krogh et al., 1990

10,2
Grt-Cpx
Grt-Cpx-Pl-Qtz
Ravna, 2000
819
759
697
697
724
Comment
Table 7.3: PT-estimates from the Unango Complex.
Figure 7.9: Quartzite with kyanite and corundum from the area south of Lichinga (UTM 36S
753555, 8528178, sheet 1335 Lichinga). A) Width of field of view: 0,35 mm. Note that all
quartz grain borders are completely sealed by kyanite, which also forms separate poikilitic
grains. B) Texture of the quartzite, Width of field of view: 5,3 mm.
South of the shear belt, granofelses sporadically re-appear on the sheets 1435
Mandimba and 1436 Cuamba but foliations are usually visible in the rocks. Sample 33512
(UTM 37S 231564, 8361419) is of well-foliated, banded garnetiferous gneiss. There is clear
evidence for early intermediate-pressure granulite facies with 3x5 mm poikiloblastic
orthopyroxene; plagioclase and red biotite retrogressed to a black-yellow biotite and a
plagioclase of smaller grain size. Estimated PT conditions provide temperatures up to 760qC
and pressures of nearly 7 kbar (Figure 7.10).
419
Figure 7.10: Result of geothermobarometry on sample 33512 (UTM 37S 231564, 8361419,
sheet 1436 Cuamba).
Sample 22781 (UTM 36S 765588, 8469748) from sheet 1335 Lichinga is a metapelitic
gneiss. Peak metamorphism occurring in this rock is in the sillimanite + garnet field. Quartz
veining follows a moderate deformation and prismatic crystals of sillimanite are recrystallised
to fibrolite and garnet is possibly embayed and corroded by this process, which also produces
some reddish (titaniferous) biotite. With a temperature of 697qC and a pressure of 6,6 kbar this
rock may have been in the intermediate-P granulite facies (Figure 7.11). There are no traces of
cordierite or muscovite in the rock and the pressure could possibly have exceeded 7 kbar,
according to the petrogenetic grids for pelites (e.g. Yardley, 1989).
Sample 42758 is from the banded mafic granulitic gneiss (P2UNmr) at locality UTM
37S 742255, 84942979. This is only 4 km from the big Metonia ring intrusion, which
presumable causes the very high calculated T of about 880qC (Table 7.3, Figure 7.12). The
high P and T for this sample can be foreseen from the textures seen in thin section (Figure
7.13). The reaction indicated by the texture is a post-peak HP-granulite-facies adjustment to
intermediate pressure granulite facies according to the reaction: Grt + Qtz = Opx + Pl. There is
no reaction between garnet and clinopyroxene. The rock has experienced incipient melting as
indicated by formation of stromatic banding with peritectic garnet growth.
420
sheet 1335 Lichinga).
Figure 7.12: Geothermobarometry of sample 42758 from sheet 1335 Lichinga (UTM 36S
742255, 84942979), P(GPa) and T(qC).
421
Figure 7.13: Photomicrograph of sample

42758 (UTM 36S 742235, 8494297, sheet
1335 Lichinga), a stromatic gneiss 4 km
from the Metonia ring intrusion (UTM
36S, 742255, 8494279). Orthopyroxene
(Opx) + plagioclase (Pl) replace garnet
(Grt) next to quartz (Qtz) while
clinopyroxene (Cpx) remains in
equilibrium. Width of field of view: 5,3
mm.
In the southernmost part of the Unango Complex, sample 40406 (UTM 36S 751305,
8178197) on sheet 1635 Milange is a good example of well-equilibrated granoblastic texture.
The grain size is 0,1 0,5 mm and grain boundaries are straight and commonly meet in triple
points with ~120q angles at the junctions. Clinopyroxene and garnet seem to be part of a stable
paragenesis, which indicates that prograde metamorphism has moved the rock out of the
amphibolite facies (Figure 7.1) and into the field where Cpx + Grt + Hbl + Pl + Qtz is a stable
paragenesis. The calculated PT estimates show T >700qC and P of 10,2 kbar (Table 7.3,Figure
7.14), and applying these in Figure 7.2, it may be seen that this rock has briefly been subjected
to the lowermost part of the HP-granulite field. The failure to completely reach the field of HPgranulite must be ascribed either to the rock's relatively basic composition (see different lines
for Grt-in in Figure 7.2) or to post-peak diffusional adjustment although the rock has not
experienced any retrogressive recrystallisation. The high P estimate from this sample is in
accordance with the pressures attained by the nearby Ocua Complex.
Figure 7.14: Result of geothermobarometry of sample 40406 (36S, 751305, 8178197) from
sheet 1635 Milange, P(GPa) and T(qC).
7.5 Marrupa Complex
The Marrupa Complex is dominated by orthogneisses of felsic to intermediate composition,
with subordinate paragneisses and mafic orthogneisses. The gneisses of the Marrupa Complex
are predominantly Bt+Hbl-bearing, recording amphibolite facies conditions. Garnet occurs
locally in both amphibolitic lenses and gneisses. Garnet growth is found in metagabbro
422
(sample 38418, UTM 37S 409347, 8593708), in which euhedral garnet grows in the
plagioclase laths of the former gabbro (Figure 7.15A). Primary clinopyroxene in this sample is
surrounded by a corona of opx+amphibole symplectite, always separated from the newly
grown garnet by plagioclase (Figure 7.15B). In the granodioritic gneiss (sample 38410, UTM
37S 306368, 8606984, Figure 7.15C) we find the reaction:
plagioclase + biotite + green amphibole o garnet + epidote + biotite
Garnet occurs geographically widespread, and the growth of garnet indicates metamorphism at
intermediate pressures, most likely amphibolite facies since garnets at lower grade
metamorphism will need special compositions not so commonly occurring, and garnet-bearing
rocks of higher grades are in general also quite rare.
Figure 7.15: A) Growth of euhedral garnet in plagioclase laths. Sample 38418 (UTM 37S
409347, 8593708, sheet 1238 Xixano), width of view: 0,7 mm. B) Symplectite of amphibole
and pyroxene, surrounded by a corona of plagioclase which separates the symplectite from the
new grown garnet. Sample 38418, width of view: 1,4 mm. C) Amphibole and biotite (I)
replaced by Grt+Ep+Bt (II). Sample 38410 (UTM 37S 306368, 8606984, sheet 1237 Mecula),
width of view: 1,4 mm.
Higher temperatures are indicated by the occurrence of sillimanite in metapelites. Local
migmatitisation of the gneisses indicates temperatures >650qC. The granitic gneiss 33252
(UTM 37S 335562, 8537364) shows an equilibrium mineral assemblage of
Grt+Bt+Ms+Pl+Qtz in addition to K-feldspar and magnetite. Geothermobarometry on the
granitic gneiss using GMBP gives P of 5,7 kbar (Holland and Powell, 1998) and T of 672qC
(Kaneko and Myiano, 2004; Figure 7.16, Table 7.4).
423
Sample
33252
(37S,
335562,
8537364)
T (C)
672
P(kbar)
5,7
Geothermobarometers
Grt-Bt
Grt-Musc-Bt-Pl
Reference
Kaneko and Miyano, 2004
Comment
Table 7.4: PT-estimates from Marrupa Complex.
sheet 1337 Marrupa), P(GPa) and T(qC).
7.6 Xixano Complex
The Xixano Complex consists of amphibolites, metapelites, calcsilicate rocks and
orthogneisses, with lenses of granulite and mangerite. Amphibolite-facies conditions
dominates, but with the preservation of a granulite facies lens. The interpretation of
metamorphic conditions in the Xixano Complex is based on samples of metapelitic and
amphibolitic lithologies and a granulite lens.
One sample, 33274 (UTM 37S 443739, 8539932) from the central part of the complex,
is a banded granulite showing evidence for dehydration melting. Large cm-scale orthopyroxene
and garnet phenoblast are recorded in leucosomes. The granulite shows the mineral assemblage
Grt + Opx + Pl + Bt + Ilm. The occurrence of orthopyroxene indicates that granulite-facies
temperatures >800qC prevailed during the metamorphism. Geothermobarometry gives P of
10,9 kbar (GADS, Holland and Powell, 1998) and T = 727-810qC by using Grt-Opx (Carswell
and Harley, 1990) and Grt-Bt (Kaneko and Myiano, 2004) geothermometers (Table 7.5, Figure
7.17). The high T, above 800qC, achieved from the Grt-Bt geothermometer is consistent with
the occurrence of Opx. The granulite shows secondary growth of garnet around ilmenite and
orthopyroxene, followed by a retrogressive stage with production of green amphibole coronas
around garnet and orthopyroxene together with breakdown of orthopyroxene to sheet silicates.
424
Sample
33274
(UTM 37S
443739,
8539932)
38444
(UTM 37S,
465252,
8609918)
T (C)
810
727
P(kbar)
10,9
Geothermobarometers
Grt-Bt
Grt-Opx
Grt-Opx-Pl-Qtz
Reference
Kaneko and Miyano, 2004
5,7
Grt-Cpx
Grt-Cpx-Pl-Qtz
Ravna, 2000
706
Comment
Table 7.5: PT-estimates from Xixano Complex.
sheet 1338 Namuno) P(GPa) and T(qC).
The granulite lens is surrounded by amphibolite-facies rocks, which dominate the
Xixano Complex. Amphibolites throughout the Xixano Complex contain clinopyroxene, which
indicate metamorphism above 700qC (samples 38444 (UTM 37S 465252, 8609918) and 33394
(UTM 37S 571476, 8486542). Growth of garnet is widespread both in metapelitic and
amphibolitic lithologies (Figure 7.18A), and indicates metamorphism at intermediate pressures.
Extensive occurrence of sillimanite in metapelites (Figure 7.18B), shows high temperatures,
and restricts pressures to below 8 kbar for T of 700qC. Metapelite sample 33220 (UTM 37S
438328, 8537913) contains large garnet porphyroblasts. The garnet porhyroblasts are crowded
with sillimanite needles indicate growth at high temperature conditions (Figure 7.18C). Sample
425
38444 (UTM 37S 465252, 8609918) gives estimates of P = 5,7 kbar (GADS, Holland and
Powell, 1998) and T=706qC (Grt-Cpx, Ravna, 2000) for the garnet-amphibolite facies
metamorphism.
Figure 7.18: A) Garnet growing as coronas around amphibole. Photomicrograph, sample

33394 (UTM 37S 571476, 8486542, sheet 1339 Montepuez), width of view: 1,4 mm. B)
Quartzitic metapelite with sillimanite, white mica and rutile. Sample 33398 (UTM 37S 506347,
8753338, sheet 1139 Mueda), width of view 1,4 mm. C) Part of a garnet porphyroblast
crowded by sillimanite needles. Sample 33220 (UTM 37S 438328, 8537913, sheet 1338
Namuno), width of view: 0,7 mm. D) Replacement of clinopyroxene by green amphibole and
biotite, while a thin plagioclase-corona forms around garnet-porphyroblast. Sample 33404
(UTM 37S 500063, 8608538, sheet 1239 Meluco), width of view: 5,3 mm.
A secondary retrogressive stage with formation of green amphibole and biotite is
characteristic for the amphibolites of the Xixano Complex. The garnet-amphibolite sample
33404 (UTM 37S 500063, 8608538) shows in addition formation of a plagioclase corona
around garnet indicating decompression (Figure 7.18D).
Metamorphic zircon from sample 33274 (UTM 37S 443739, 8539932) provides an age
of 735 4 Ma for the granulite-facies event (see Chapter 11). The secondary stage of garnet
growth in the granulite-facies mineral assemblage is probably contemporary with the garnet
growth in the amphibolites. Based on this, we interpret the garnet-amphibolite-facies
metamorphism as Pan-African, correlated with the Pan-African metamorphic ages achieved
from the Ocua and Marrupa Complexes.
426
7.7 Muaquia Complex

The Muaquia Complex comprises granitic to granodioritic gneiss with numerous smaller lenses
and inclusions of quartzite, mafic rocks, pelites and less deformed granites and granodiorites.
In most lithologies, a relatively homogenous granoblastic texture seems to have been in
existence at an early stage in the metamorphic history. This is based on the frequent
observation of equigranular grano-/lepidoblastic texture with a slightly flattened pattern of
grain-boundary networks. Micas are typically both muscovite and biotite with strong alignment
forming a foliation. Continuous micro-shears are mostly parallel with the foliation but have
occasionally been developed at an angle with this (see chapter 6.8). The shears are the site for
growth of muscovite. At one locality (Granitic gneiss, sample 31948 UTM 37S 215537,
8600864) euhedral garnet has grown across the muscovite in one of these micro-shears,
engulfing parts of the muscovite as inclusions. In other micro-shears the garnet has been ripped
apart by post-/late-growth movements on the shear. Biotite (black-yellow pleochroism) is
common in all parts of the rock together with epidote. In more mafic lithologies, for example
the biotite gneiss at (UTM 37S 243905, 8627086, sample 31836) in the northern limb of the
complex (sheet 1236 Mavago), epidote has grown in the foliation across biotite crystals. One
may see a strong red colouration "attacking" the biotite along its cleavage and on outer
surfaces, clearly indicating that the epidote has acquired Fe3+ from the biotite. The balance
between Fe3+ and Ti in the biotite has been changed and parts of the biotite have the red colour
typically for high-grade rocks but in this case the red colour actually indicates low-grade
reactions. Hornblende is common in mafic units, while actinolite is not observed.
Pseudomorphs of staurolite and sillimanite in pelitic rocks are described in chapter
6.9.3. If staurolite and sillimanite were part of the same paragenesis during maximum
metamorphic grade, T must have been <675qC and P < 7 kb (see Figure 3.11 in Yardley, 1989),
provided the rock composition has moderate contents of Al2O3 and MnO. The breakdown of
staurolite to chlorite has possibly taken place at T >560qC and P>3 kb).
In the northwestern part of the complex, close to the M'Sawize Complex, a remarkable
unit of metasediments is present as two lenses or limbs of an isoclinally folded layer of
quartzite with kyanite and minor mafic subunits rich in garnet. (see chapter 6.8.5) This rock is
thought to have survived retrogression due to mechanical closing of the rock for volatiles that
is necessary to overcome reaction thresholds for the retrograde reactions. This implies that
peak metamorphism has reached the kyanite field due to pressure above ~7 kbar and
temperatures under ~675qC.
We do not have any reliable geothermobarometric calculations from the Muaquia
Complex, but the observations indicate a maximum metamorphic event that reached upper
amphibolite facies or possibly HP-granulite facies with the paragenesis Ky+Grt. During or
after this event, the rock recrystallised to a granoblastic texture. Later retrogression caused the
pelitic lithologies to develop sillimanite and staurolite and a foliation was formed aligning the
sillimanite nodules (Chapter 6.9.3). This deformation was probably truly penetrative. Later,
probably after a period of tectonic rest, the rock was deformed and a second, semi-penetrative
foliation developed (micro-shears) with growth of muscovite and epidote. Staurolite was
replaced and chlorite grew from the released iron. In a few localities a late- or synmetamorphic growth of euhedral garnet occurred. This could indicate that the PT conditions
reached an area of garnet stability at the end of the decompression path, see Figure 7.19. This
PT-development is not geometrically unlike the shape of the PT path for the Ocua Complex as
seen in section 7.9.
427
Figure 7.19: Petrogenetic grid for pelites, with encircled numbers representing
Mn/Mn+Fe+Mg in garnet. The arrow indicates a possible PT path for the Muaquia Complex,
based on the observations described in the text. The diagram is based on Spear (1993, 1999).
7.8 M'Sawize Complex
In chapter 6.10, descriptions are presented of two localities, which are of importance for the
understanding of the metamorphic history of this complex. One of these (sample 31794, UTM
37S 223045, 8600102, chapter 6.10) is a fine-grained, slightly foliated metagabbro. Texturally
the rock is granoblastic with medium-grained (1-4 mm) plagioclase and more fine-grained
mafic minerals, comprising aggregates of clinopyroxene, hornblende and garnet. It contains no
orthopyroxene and only a few grains of quartz. Clinopyroxene is partly replaced by
hornblende. The rock contains garnet and scapolite. Accessory minerals include titanite,
magnetite, quartz and rutile. The garnets are commonly broken down to a symplectite of
hornblende and plagioclase that may occur both as rims and cores. This is clearly an
orthopyroxene-free garnet-clinopyroxene-plagioclase paragenesis. The few grains of quartz
present seem to belong to the peak paragenesis. The rock has been in the HP granulite facies
field (Figure 7.2), or at least above the "Grt-in for qtz-tholeites"-line, in accordance with
estimated P of 11,5 kbar and T = 800qC.
Another locality, sample 37245 (at UTM 37S 249453, 8548646 on sheet 1336 Majune),
illustrates the prograde metamorphic reaction (see chapter 6.10) In this mafic unit, the PT
relations were in the field of intermediate-pressure granulite facies as shown by the
metamorphic texture and orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene in the preserved matrix of the rock.
If presented in the context of Figure 7.2, the PT position for this rock is underneath the line
"Grt-in for qtz-tholeites". A non-penetrative deformation of the rock has opened it for flux of
carbonic fluids along fissures. This has in turn influenced the activities in the fissures and some
428
fractions of millimeter away from it, so that an orthopyroxene-free Grt + Cpx paragenesis has
been created. With reference to Figure 7.2, there are different ways to reach the arrested PTstate presented in Table 7.6.
In the central-eastern parts of the M'Sawize Complex, extensive migmatites are
dominant (chapter 6.10). This could be a consequence of a crossing of the "Wet gabbro
liquidus" as displayed in Figure 7.2. In this case a near isobaric cooling could make the rock
pass into the "orthopyroxene out in adamellite" area. The "plagioclase out in qtz-tholeites"
must be located at higher P (more mafic composition), since plagioclase is still part of the
paragenesis. The measured P and T (Table 7.6) represent then post-peak adjustments along a
retrogressive path.
Alternatively, a prograde PT-path is possible. In that case the start would be in the
intermediate-pressure granulite field, rising to cross the "garnet in" and "orthopyroxene out"
lines followed by diffusive resetting of the minerals to the observed PT. However, trying to
plot this path in petrogenetic grids like the one in Figure 7.2, does not give a consistent graphic
solution in full accordance with the observed paragenesis. As pointed out by Pattison (2003),
the equilibria in the actual PT regime are not yet completely known, and the activity of water
and sluggish reactivity of phases are also major factors.
We conclude that compression is the most likely explanation for the paragenesis
described from the metagabbro (P3SWgb) in chapter 6.10. This is in turn followed by a
retrogression to end up with the crystallisation of epidote that has been observed throughout
the M'Sawize Complex.
Sample
37245
(UTM 37S
249453,
8548646)
31794,
(UTM 37S
223045,
8600102)
T (C)
543
P(kbar)
6,2
678
10,3
800
11,5
Geothermobarometers
Cpx-Opx
Al in Opx
Grt-Cpx
Grt-Cpx-Pl-Qtz
Grt-Cpx
Grt-Cpx-Pl-Qtz
Reference
Brey et al., 1989
Ravna, 2000
Ravna, 2000
Comment
Matrix
Matrix
Vein
Vein
Table 7.6: PT-estimates from M'Sawize Complex.

7.9 Ocua Complex
The Ocua Complex cores a major strain belt recording granulite facies metamorphism, dated to
Pan-African metamorphic ages of 540-580 Ma (see chapter 11). The complex consists of felsic
and mafic granulites, calcsilicates and amphibolite facies gneisses. The felsic granulites shows
the mineral assemblage of Grt + Opx + Cpx+ Pl + Qtz + Mag, while the mafic granulites
contain Grt + Cpx r Opx + Pl r Kfs + Qtz + Ilm r Mag. A secondary stage of corona
formation around garnet is typical for the granulites of the Ocua Complex. The coronas around
garnet occur as three different types: 1) Pl + Opx r Mag (Figure 7.20), 2) Pl, associated with
replacement of pyroxenes by green amphibole and biotite in the matrix (Figure 7.20) and 3)
Pl+amphibole.
429
Figure 7.20: A) Pl+Opx-symplectitic in corona around garnet. Sample 40409 (UTM 36S
809285, 8226662, sheet 1635 Milange), width of view: 1,4 mm. B) Corona of plagioclase
around garnet are associated with replacement of clinopyroxene by amphibole in the matrix.
Sample 40408, (UTM 36S 799366, 8206097, sheet 1635 Milange), width of view: 1,4 mm. C)
Garnet porphyroblast with inner corona of amphibole + Pl-symplectite, and an outer corona
of Opx + Pl + Mag. Sample 40737 (UTM 37S 609956, 8505284, sheet 1340 Mecufi), width of
view: 5,3mm. D) Recrystallisation of Grt, Cpx, Opx and green amphibole during shearing of
felsic granulite. Sample 33455 (UTM 37S 234744, 8353517, sheet 1436 Cuamba), width of
view: 5,3 mm.
The most prominent corona formation around garnet was seen in sample 40737 (UTM
37S 609956, 8505284). Large garnet porhyroblasts show an inner corona of amphibole+Pl,
surrounded by an outer corona of Opx + Pl + Mag (Figure 7.20). In the matrix we find
clinopyroxene, plagioclase, green amphibole and quartz associated with the garnet
porphyroblasts. The Grt + Cpx assemblage is typical for the high-pressure granulite facies,
where Opx is not stable, and gives PT-estimate of the Grt+Cpx+Pl+Qtz assemblage of P 15,5
kbar (based on Holland and Powell, 1998) and T 905qC (Ravna, 2000), (Figure 7.21). The Pl +
Opx+Mag-corona is interpreted to have formed during decompression at high temperatures
(isothermal or near-isothermal) as the rock passed into the lower P granulite facies field
(Figure 7.22, O'Brien and Rtzler, 2003) by the reaction:
garnet o orthopyroxene + plagioclase + magnetite (not in balance)
A subsequent retrogression producing amphibole+Pl-symplectitic coronas around garnet is
formed by the reaction:
garnet + H2O o amphibole + plagioclase (not in balance)
This last reaction illustrates retrogression to amphibolite facies conditions due to access to a
fluid phase.
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sheet 1339 Montepuez).
431
Sample
40737
(UTM 37S
609956,
8505284)
33307
(UTM 37S
608008,
8506110)
33376
(UTM 37S
353958,
8637452)
33397
(UTM 37S
591888,
8513462)
33298
(UTM 37S
596463,
8510768)
33310
(UTM 37S
608733,
8506279)
40409
(UTM 36S
809285,
8226662)
40408
(UTM 36S
799366,
8206097)
33399
(UTM 37S
500063,
8608538)
T (C)
866
P(kbar)
11,6
Geothermobarometers
Grt-Cpx
Grt-Cpx-Pl-Qtz
Grt-Cpx
Grt-Cpx-Pl-Qtz
Grt-Cpx
Grt-Cpx-Pl-Qtz
Reference
Ravna, 2000
Ravna, 2000
Ravna, 2000
Grt-Cpx
Grt-Cpx+Pl+Qtz
Ravna, 2000
11,1
Grt-Opx
Grt-Opx-Pl-Qtz

9,3
Grt-Opx
Grt-Opx-Pl-Qtz

Grt-Bt
Krogh et al., 1990
9,4
Grt-Opx
Grt-Opx-Pl-Qtz

11,2
Grt-Cpx
Grt-Cpx-Pl-Qtz
Ravna, 2000
11,4
Grt-Opx
Grt-Opx-Pl-Qtz
Carwell and Harley, 1990

13,4
905
15,5
797
731
821
737
825
758
731
853
Table 7.7: PT-estimates from Ocua Complex.
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Comment
Shear zone
Assumed 9 kbar
Figure 7.22: PT-grid based on O'Brien and Rtzler (2003). The red path illustrates the PTevolution of the Ocua belt based on estimated PT and textural development of sample 40737
(UTM 37S 609956, 8505284, sheet 1340 Mecufi).
Figure 7.23: Results of geothermobarometry on sample 33307 (UTM 37S 608008, 8506110,
sheet 1339 Montepuez), P(GPa) and T(qC).
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sheet 1637 Milange), P(GPa) and T(qC).
Figure 7.25: Geothermobarometry of sample 33399 (37S, 500063,8608538, sheet 1239

Meluco). P(GPa) and T(qC).
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Estimated pressures from the granulites of the Ocua Complex are 9-15,5 kbar, with
temperatures estimated up to 905qC (Table 7.1, Figure 7.23, Figure 7.24, Figure 7.25). The
highest pressures are recorded from samples of Grt-Cpx-bearing granulites in the eastern end
of the complex. The highest pressure estimated from the westernmost part of the Ocua
Complex is 11,2 kbar (sample 40408, UTM 36S 799366, 8206097), Figure 7.24). However,
Pl+Opx+Mag-symplectites around garnet, resulting from isothermal decompression at high
temperatures, are also recorded from the western part of the Ocua Complex.
A sheared felsic granulite (sample 33455, UTM 37S 234744, 8353517) showing
recrystallisation of Grt+Cpx+Opx+Pl+amphibole+Qtz (Figure 7.20D) gives P up to 11,1 kbar
and T of 820qC (Figure 7.26), recording high PT-conditions during the shearing.
sheet 1436 Cuamba), P(GPa) and T(qC).
7.10 Other complexes
The Txitonga Group is exposed in the northwestern part of Niassa Province. It extends from
the village of Cobu towards the north-northeast. Field observations from the northern part
report greenschist to low amphibolite facies gneiss. In the southern part, a considerably higher
metamorphic grade is evident, as shown in Figure 7.27 and Figure 7.28. In this area, sillimanite
has been reported, together with garnet and staurolite, which places the PT path within the
same "staurolite triangle" as for the Muaquia Complex shown in Figure 7.19, and the PT-path
for this area could be similar. Throughout the major part of the Txitonga Complex
retrogression to low amphibolite facies or greenschist facies is quite complete without visible
garnets or with garnet pseudomorphs preserved.
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Figure 7.27: Quartz-mica schist with staurolite (grey, twinned mineral). In the upper left
corner there is a garnet with a rim of Fe-oxide (red) and to the right some bigger grains of
muscovite. Just the garnet there is a fracture with signs of retrogression. Sample 31864, (UTM
36S 691606, 8643074, sheet 1234 Metangula), width of field of view: 7 mm.
Figure 7.28: Quartz-mica schist with garnet. The garnet is preserved only as an irregular
core surrounded by chlorite. This can reflect a more Mn-rich core stable at lower grade
conditions. Quartz constitutes the white area in the pressure shadow of the garnet. Sample
42759, (UTM 36S 688511, 8654778, sheet 1234 Metangula), width of field of view: 7 mm.
The Lalamo Complex is situated east and north of the Nairoto Complex, and is overlain
by the sedimentary rocks of the Rovuma Basin to the east. The Lalamo Complex comprises
predominantly various supracrustal rocks; biotite gneiss, meta-sandstone, quartzite, marble,
amphibolite, conglomerate and minor meta-igneous rocks of various compositions. The
metamorphic grade, based on the field observations, is variable. Thin sections reveal mostly
amphibolite facies parageneses, with poikilitic garnet as a common mineral. In marbles,
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diopside, tremolite and epidote has been observed together with olivine and andradite. In
ultramafic rocks, anthophyllite, tremolite and serpentine are common, however no equilibrium
parageneses have been reported. The existence of metamorphic diopside indicates maximum
temperatures between 650 and 700C at a pressure about 5 kbar.
The Meluco Complex occurs in two large oval, dome-like structures (30x50 km and
45x60 km) in the southwestern part of sheet 1239 Meluco. The largest of these structures
continues onto sheet 1240 Quissanga-Pemba, where the Meluco Complex makes up the major
part of the Precambrian rocks. Three much smaller, restricted structures occur on sheets 1339
Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi. The complex consists of orthogneisses, mainly of granitic to
granodioritic composition, with tonalitic rocks as a subordinate component. The gneisses have
a well-developed foliation constituting a typical amphibolite facies mineralogy with biotite and
hornblende as common metamorphic minerals.
The Montepuez Complex is a strongly deformed gneissic area on the northern side of
the Ocua Complex. On the basis of the parageneses of the different lithologies, microscopic
work and mineralogical analyses, the rock assemblage of the Montepuez Complex has
generally experienced amphibolite grade metamorphism.
The Nairoto Complex is well exposed as a 15-30 km wide NNE-SSW trending belt of
rocks dominated by felsic orthogneisses that runs from the central part of sheet 1139 Mueda
southwards along the contact between sheets 1238 Xixano and 1239 Meluco. North of
Montepuez there is a major fold with axial plane trending NNE-SSW that turns the unit to a
WNW-ESE direction. Eastwards the complex comprises a 10-15 km wide belt across sheets
1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi. The complex thus comprises an arc-shaped belt wrapped
around the Lalamo Complex. The complex predominantly consists of a suite of felsic
orthogneisses with varying degrees of migmatisation. Granitic to granodioritic varieties
predominate. There are no indications that the metamorphic grade has exceeded amphibolite
facies, nor have there been any major retrogressive events. Migmatitic veins contain sporadic
garnets, indicating melt reactions around the peak of metamorphism.
7.11 Synthesis
In general, the metamorphism in the main complexes of northern Mozambique has reached
amphibolite and granulite facies conditions. The Palaeoproterozoic basement of the Ponta
Messuli Complex, with a monazite age of 1946r11 Ma, shows granulite facies conditions with
estimated P of 6,7 kbar and T=734qC. The estimated P and T-values are in accordance with
observation of Crd+Sill+Spl-bearing mineral assemblage in migmatitised metapelites.
The Unango Complex shows both intermediate- and high-pressure granulite facies
conditions. The dated samples of 33512 (UTM 37S 231564, 8361419) and 22781 (UTM 36S
765588, 8469748), which show Pan-African metamorphic ages, have an estimated P of 6,9
kbar in Grt+Opx-bearing gneiss and Grt+Sill-bearing metapelite: the occurrence of Opx
indicates T above 800qC. In the northwestern part of the Unango Complex, mafic granulites
reach high-pressure conditions of up to 15,3 kbar. The estimated high pressures are in
accordance with the mineral assemblage of Grt+Cpx, indicative of the high-pressure granulite
field. High pressure is also evident in the preservation of Ky+Rt-bearing quartzites. PanAfrican eclogites are reported from the Mozambique belt of northern Malawi (Ring et al.,
2002), and the high-pressure conditions of the Unango Complex are presumably related to the
same event. The estimated P of ~10 kbar from sample 40406 (UTM 36S 751305, 8178197)
located close to the Ocua Complex in the southernmost part of the Unango Complex, is in
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accordance with the Pan-African metamorphism affecting the Lurio belt. The M'Sawize and
Muaquia Complexes also show granulite facies metamorphism, estimated to 800qC and 11,5
kbar. This metamorphism is overprinted by a later lower pressure metamorphism.
The Marrupa and Xixano Complexes show amphibolite facies conditions during the
early Pan-African nappe stacking. Growth of garnet is widespread in both complexes,
indicating that they reached garnet amphibolite facies. Local migmatitisation of the gneisses
shows that temperatures above 650qC were reached in the Marrupa Complex, while estimated
pressures of 5,7 kbar were achieved in both complexes. In the Xixano Complex, the PanAfrican garnet-amphibolite facies overprints an earlier granulite facies event, which is dated to
735r4 Ma with an estimated P of 10,9 kbar.
The complexes situated in the eastern area (Nairoto, Meluco, Lalamo and Montepuez
Complexes) in general show amphibolite facies metamorphic grade. The Txitonga Group
preserves a greenschist- to low amphibolite-facies grade, but higher grades of garnet, staurolite
and sillimanite are evident in its southern part.
The Pan-African strain belt cored by the Ocua Complex shows granulite-facies mineral
assemblages in both mafic and felsic lithologies with Grt+CpxrOpx-bearing mineral
assemblage. PT estimates from a highly deformed felsic granulite indicate a P of 11,1 kbar
during shearing. Grt + Cpx-bearing granulites show high-pressure granulite facies conditions
with estimated pressure up to 15,5 kbar in the eastern sector of the Lurio belt. The formation of
Opx + Pl-symplectites indicates a near-isothermal decompression into lower pressure granulite
facies before subsequent cooling and retrogression of the rocks into amphibolite facies.
Pressures above 11 kbar are estimated from the western part of the Lurio belt, and the
isothermal decompression illustrated by the Pl + Opx-symplectite formation of coronas around
garnet is evident also in this area. The formation of Pl r Bt r amphibole coronas around garnet
is a typical feature in the areas both north and south of the Ocua Complex.
The rocks of the Nampula Complex with Opx + Cpx-bearing metamorphic mineral
assemblages, show that conditions of granulite facies were reached. An estimated P of 9,3 kbar
is achieved from Grt-bearing gneiss close to the Ocua Complex. Grt-Bt-geothermometry in the
Nampula Complex shows a trend of increasing temperature from sheet 1339 Montepuez
westwards into sheet 1437 Malema in samples along the border of the Ocua Complex.
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IMPACT OF NEW AIRBORNE GEOPHYSICAL DATA
8.1 Background
The purpose of the services described in the Addendum to the Geological Mapping Contract
LOT 1 was to refine and improve the 1:250,000 scale geological maps through the
interpretation of the new airborne geophysical surveys covering parts of the mapped regions
(Figure 8.1). This chapter summarises how the new geophysical data have been used, and
illustrates how interpretation of the data has contributed to the mapping program and to the
development of a large-scale tectonic model for the region. The separate geophysical
interpretation report resulting from the addendum gives further information.
Figure 8.1: The areas covered in the geological mapping programmes LOT 1 and LOT 1
Extension (1X), and the locations of new airborne geophysical surveys Block 4, Block 5, Block
6E, Block 6W and Block B. Fugro Air Systems Ltd. flew and processed the airborne
geophysical data in 2004 and 2005. 1: 250,000 scale map sheets are numbered.
While only 19 of the 31 1:250,000 scale geology maps directly benefit from the new
data (Figure 8.1), all 31 of them take proper account of earlier airborne geophysical data
acquired in the 1970s and early 1980s (Figure 8.2).
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Figure 8.2: Rainbow colour map of aeromagnetic data acquired in the 1970s and 1980s over
northern Mozambique. Total magnetic field strength (shown) and total gamma count rate are
available in the coloured areas. Outlines of the new surveys are shown (see also Figure 8.1).
New airborne survey Block 6 covers the Maniamba Graben and contiguous areas,
including an area of known occurrences of kimberlites (see chapter 6.20). The contiguous
Blocks 4 and 5 cover some of the most inaccessible and geologically complex areas of
Mozambique for which the previously existing geological data are sparse and often unreliable.
Also, no earlier geophysical data are available for large parts of sheets 1437 Malema and 1438
Ribu-Mecuburi (Figure 8.2). Block B covers an area where earlier airborne geophysical data
are poor (sheet 1436 Cuamba) or absent (sheet 1536 Guru).
The new data contributed very significantly to the understanding of the geology in the
other maps because the data (a) are of significantly higher spatial resolution than the old data,
(b) were obtained using better measuring instruments, (c) include full spectrum radiometric
data rather than simple total gamma count rate values and (d) are entirely digitally derived.
The new high-resolution geophysical data were flown in 2004 and 2005 but were not
made available to the Norconsult Consortium before October 2005. Since then, the geophysical
data have been interpreted and the 19 sheets overlapped by the new data extensively revised
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according to the specifications in Addendum to the Geological Mapping Contract LOT 1.

Detailed revision of the geology maps is based on qualitative examination of enhanced images
of the new radiometric and magnetic data included in the geophysical report (Norconsult
Consortium, 2006, Table A8) and on different quantitative geophysical analyses of the
magnetic and radiometric data described in the same report. The overall tectonic model for the
region was also strongly influenced by consideration of the new geophysical data.
The examples that follow illustrate how the new geophysical data have contributed to
understanding of the regional geology (chapter 8.3), kinematics and structural interpretation
(chapter8.4), geochronological data (chapter 8.5), and kimberlites (chapter 8.6). We also show
how the content of a sample 1:250 000-scale geology map was refined and improved through
detailed consideration of the new airborne geophysical data (chapter 8.7).
8.2 Radioelement signatures of the geological complexes
The new airborne radiometric data provide information on the amounts of the radioelements
potassium (K-40), uranium (U-238) and thorium (Th-232) in the ground. The new data were
processed in such a way as to reduce the effects of spatially variable surface conditions on the
ground concentrations of the radioelements. The data were then subjected to an unsupervised
classification procedure to group the multi-band radiometric data into thematic information
classes (Norconsult Consortium, 2006). Each class represents a unique radioelement signature
of the ground down to around 30 cm depth, which in turn reflects the radioelement
composition of the bedrock geology beneath assuming that the overburden is locally derived.
These radiometric classes were used in the mapping of rock types with characteristic
radioelement compositions (see chapter 8.3.2).
Classes/signatures representing similar bedrock radioelement compositions were
merged to produce a large-scale radioelement geochemistry map of the surveyed region
(Figure 8.3). This large-scale geochemical characterisation of the major rock units aided
mapping of the primary geological complexes, especially where the complexes are variably
deformed.
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Figure 8.3: Geochemical characterisation of the primary geological complexes using the new
airborne radiometric data. Regions with similar radioelement properties (classes) are grouped
according to the legend and coloured using the ternary red (K-40), green (Th-232) and blue
(U-238) system. The background colour pseudo-relief image is of total gamma count rate
values from the earlier airborne geophysical data set.
8.3 Regional geology
In the following examples we compare old airborne geophysical data with new high-resolution
geophysical data and show how the new data have contributed to unravelling the regional
tectonostratigraphy and in so doing, how they have influenced the production of the new
geological map series.
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8.3.1 Regional scale deformation and timing relationships

Figure 8.4 shows an extract from the new radiometric and magnetic data (combined in the
bottom image) covering part of the contact between the Marrupa and Xixano Complexes, and
the old aeromagnetic data for the same area (top image). The old data show the contact clearly
and perhaps also a tendency towards discordance and possible truncation of the form lines in
the Xixano Complex. However, the new geophysical data disclose a remarkable degree of
detail. The tectonic contact is much better resolved, especially in the southeastern area where it
is folded into tight to isoclinal folds towards the contact with the Lurio belt. What is also
notable is that the easternmost 10 km of the Marrupa Complex is clearly strongly banded. This
corresponds to a broad zone of mylonitisation of the granite gneisses seen in the field. These
mylonites are also folded around the folds associated with deformation in the Lurio belt.
Therefore, this allows the relative timing of mylonitisation and folding to be determined; i.e.,
post-Xixano-emplacement folding of the tectonic contact between the Marrupa and Xixano
Complexes. Such observations are essential to the interpretation of regional geology and the
development of the geotectonic model.
8.3.2 Constraints on the building of the new tectonostratigraphic column

The identification of the Montepuez Complex and its inclusion in the regional
tectonostratigraphy is one important result of the mapping program. The Montepuez Complex,
previously defined as part of the Chiure Group by Pinna et al. (1993), who also included the
adjoining Nairoto and Xixano Complexes in the Group, forms a peculiar wedge-shaped unit of
strongly deformed para- and orthogneisses. Figure 8.5a shows the old geophysical
aeromagnetic dataset over the Montepuez Complex. The poor resolution of the image does not
allow a robust interpretation of the triangular-shaped complex and its tectonostratigraphic
significance was unclear until the new geophysical coverage became available. The new
reduced-to-pole aeromagnetic dataset shown in Figure 8.5b allows instead an extremely
detailed structural analysis and interpretation of the area. The rocks within the Montepuez
Complex are strongly folded into tight and isoclinal folds on all scales, leading to significant
repetition of the stratigraphy. The strong deformation makes the lithological succession very
complex with large variations on all scales both within and between the lithologies.
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Figure 8.4: Top: Colour pseudo-relief image of early aeromagnetic data over part of the
contact between the Marrupa and Xixano Complexes. Bottom: Ternary radioelement image
from new radiometric data over the same region as above. The pseudo relief effect is based on
the new aeromagnetic anomaly data set using a virtual light source in the northwest. The
folded and mylonitised Marrupa-Xixano contact and the clear tectonic discordance between
the Xixano form lines to the west and the tectonic contact are revealed by the new data.
The decision to define the Montepuez Complex derived from the appreciation of this
tectonostratigraphic complexity and from the fact that it is not possible, at the 1:250 000 scale,
to distinguish cartographically all the individual components of the wedge-shaped, strongly
tectonised complex. This is clearly shown in Figure 8.5c, on which the new radiometric data
were used to produce radioelement classes that group rocks of similar radiometric signature.
The figure shows that the Montepuez Complex is formed by components derived from
different sections of the regional tectonostratigraphy that are highly deformed and
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intermingled. The black and dark blue colours, for example, represent the radiometric classes
that correspond to the Xixano Complex farther to the west, whereas the turquoise is typical for
the Ocua Complex, to the south of the Montepuez Complex. The spatial distribution of the
colours is therefore diagnostic of the complexity of the internal structure of the Montepuez
Complex.
Figure 8.5: Old (a) and new (b) reduced to pole aeromagnetic anomaly data over the
Montepuez Complex. (c) Shows the Montepuez Complex as seen in classified radiometric data
(see Norconsult, 2006). Each radiometric class is coloured according to the average potassium
(red), uranium (blue) and thorium (green) concentration of the ground it overlies.
8.3.3 Identification of the Nipepe klippe
Figure 8.6 illustrates very efficiently the important contribution of the new geophysical dataset
to the unravelling of the regional geological framework. The old dataset is of very variable
quality and, more importantly, does not cover a significant part of the area. In this very case,
therefore, the new dataset proved to be even more useful than in other areas, because, apart
from providing much detail on the structural grain of the region and information on the lateral
extent of the Xixano Complex, it also filled in the large gap immediately to the north of the
Lurio belt, a key structural feature of northeastern Mozambique. Interpretation of the new data,
in combination with field observations, allowed the identification of the hitherto unknown
"Nipepe klippe", which defines the present-day westernmost extension of the Xixano Complex.
As discussed in chapter 12, this information proved to be crucial in the identification of the
nappe-tectonic style in northeastern Mozambique.
445
8.4 Kinematics and structural interpretation

In addition to providing crucial information on the regional tectonostratigraphic relationships
in northeastern Mozambique, the new high-resolution geophysical data provide important
kinematic information on shear zones and enable the unravelling of complex histories of
tectonic reactivation. Examples from the eastern part of the Lurio belt and the western edge of
the Montepuez Complex are discussed in the following sections.
8.4.1 Lurio belt pure-shear conjugate shear zone array
The new airborne geophysical data are detailed enough to resolve secondary structures within
the shear zones. The old data seldom offered clear structural geological information at this
level. For example, the old magnetic data for the eastern part of the Lurio belt, shown in Figure
8.7, barely allow the discrimination of the Lurio belt from its foreland to the northwest. The
new data on the lower part of Figure 8.7 show instead a remarkable amount of detail and offer
new insight into the structural evolution of this part of northeastern Mozambique. The
mylonitic foliation of the Lurio belt, together with its boundaries with the less pervasively
deformed terranes to the north and south, are very clearly visible in the new geophysical data.
A crustal-scale set of steep dextral and sinistral conjugate shear zones is also easily identified
on the figure (white dashed lines). The resolution of the new geophysical images allows the
conclusion that these conjugate shears deform earlier isoclinal folds that refold the Lurio
mylonites and thus that the shear zones postdate development of the Lurio belt. Kinematics on
these shear zones can also be clearly established through the asymmetric bending of external
foliation planes into the shearing planes. The opposing senses of shear of the two shear zones
define a conjugate system of pure-shear flattening across the belt with a northwest-southeast
trend (large white arrows). Moreover, the progressive formation of the steep shear zones has
created a set of secondary asymmetric folds with southwesterly and easterly senses of vergence
that also constrain the kinematics of the shears. The observations of these secondary structures,
combined with detailed field observations, were essential to the construction of a more detailed
interpretation of tectonic movements and therefore critical to the development of the
geotectonic model for the Lurio belt.
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Figure 8.6: Old airborne magnetic anomaly dataset (reduced to pole; composite of three
different surveys in the top image) and example of the new geophysics over the same area
(below) in the form of a ternary radioelement image with pseudo-relief effect based on the
reduced to pole aeromagnetic anomaly field (virtual light source to the NW). A significant area
was not covered by the old dataset. White lines outline the "Nipepe klippe", a structure whose
identification has been possible only due to the integration of field observations and the
interpretation of the new geophysics.
447
Figure 8.7: Comparison of the old (top) and new (bottom) reduced to pole aeromagnetic
anomaly data over part of the Lurio belt. Both images are colour shaded relief presentations
with a virtual light source in the northeast. Only selected, regionally important shear zones are
interpreted in this figure in order to demonstrate the potential of the new aeromagnetic data in
unravelling complex regional kinematic patterns.
8.4.2 Interpretation of shear zone reactivation
The new geophysical data have proved useful in unravelling the complex reactivation history
on long-lived shear zones, thereby constraining a wide 'time-window' of deformation events. In
this respect, the new geophysical data are a major improvement on the old data set. Illustrating
this point, Figure 8.8 shows the complex structures developed across the Lalamo, Nairoto and
Montepuez tectonic contacts. The old magnetic data set on the left show the Nairoto-Lalamo
448
contact clearly but the nature of this contact with the Montepuez Complex to the south is more
ambiguous. It is clear from the old data that there is a dextral sense of shear on the NairotoLalamo contact. The combined radiometric-magnetic image on the right of the figure is derived
from the new geophysical data. The new data, like the old data, show a dextral sense of shear
on the boundary between the Lalamo and Nairoto Complexes. However, the new data also
show later sinistral slip along this weakened zone, contemporaneous with the development of
the pure-shear conjugate shear zones discussed in Chapter 8.4.1leading to extrusion of the
Montepuez marbles along a north-northeast south-southwest-trending shear zone. Sinistral
shearing can also be observed in the Nairoto and Xixano Complexes just to the east of this
reactivated contact. This is a good example of how the new data were utilised to determine the
complex kinematics of shear zones through time.
Figure 8.8: Evidence of complex shear zone reactivation along the Lalamo-Nairoto tectonic
contact. Bending of form lines is illustrated by dotted lines and kinematics on shear zones by
arrows. Early dextral shearing is shown in white and the later sinistral shearing is shown in
yellow. Left: Old reduced-to-pole aeromagnetic anomaly data. Right: New geophysical data in
the form of a ternary radioelement image with pseudo-relief effect based on the reduced to pole
aeromagnetic anomaly field (virtual light source to the northwest).
8.4.3 Asymmetric regional-scale boudins
Figure 8.9 illustrates other cases in which the new data were crucial in unravelling the
complex, long-lived tectonic history of northeastern Mozambique. The image to the left shows
the old radiometric total count dataset for the northernmost part of the Xixano, Marrupa,
Nairoto and Lalamo complexes. Although the gross architecture of the area can be appreciated,
fine detail can only be extracted from the new radiometric dataset, shown to the right in the
form of a ternary radioelement map. The semitransparent white circles highlight areas of
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particular structural interest, such as kilometre-scale asymmetric sinistral boudins within the
eastern boundary of the Xixano Complex and a dextral northeast-southwest-trending shear
zone. Given the large-scale of these structures, the high resolution of the new data was crucial
in order to localize and interpret them. The systematic inversion of the sense of shear detected
with the aid of the new geophysical data in several parts of the area was fundamental, as
discussed in greater detail in chapters 9 and 12, for the identification of a set of crustal-scale
upright folds that affect the whole of northeastern Mozambique. The kinematic inversion is
explained in terms of shear-sense inversion due to flexural flow folding mechanisms across the
hinge of large-scale antiforms and synforms.
Figure 8.9: Old total count radiometric data (left) and new multi-channel radioelement data
(right) in the form of a ternary K-Th-U radioelement map. The detail of the new dataset allows
the establishment of the kinematics of the large-scale shear zones that dissect the area. The
semitransparent white circles highlight areas of significant structural interest.
8.5 Interpretation of geochemical and geochronological data
The new geophysical data, mainly the ternary K-Th-U radioelement data, help to assess the
representativeness and tectonic significance of samples selected for geochemical and
geochronological analyses. Figure 8.10 illustrates this concept. A syenite gneiss was recorded
in the field at several localities in the Ocua Complex. Sample 33304, collected at one of these
localities, shows that this syenite gneiss has a very specific petrography, characterized by Kfeldspar, clinopyroxene, titanite and absence of quartz, and a very specific geochemical
signature, characterized by high potassium, strontium and barium contents. Zircon in sample
33304 yields an intrusion age of 599 6 Ma for the plutonic protolith of this gneiss. The Th and
U content of sample 33304 are below the detection limit of the XRF method, and the zircon is
characterized by a comparatively low content of U (high CL signal). On the radioelement map,
the high K, low U and low Th contents of the syenite gneiss translate into a characteristic
intense red colour. The radioelement map provides the basis for linking the field observation
points, recorded as syenite gneiss, to one unit of regional extent, labelled P3OCsy. The
radioelement map shows that the syenite gneiss is a continuous layer, a few hundred metres
thick, that can be followed for more than 100 km in the middle of the Lurio belt (white
arrows). Available field, geochemical and geochronological data on sample 33304 and
geophysical data, indicate that the Ocua Complex contains a highly attenuated,
Neoproterozoic, ~600 Ma-old, syenite pluton. The geochronological data on this pluton fix a
maximum age for the strong east-northeast - west-southwest-trending fabric in the Lurio belt.
A near-coeval, subcircular, undeformed, syenite pluton is dated in the Xixano Complex (607
7 Ma, Jamal, 2005) and Neoproterozoic syenite plutons are known in the Monapo Complex
450
(Siegfried, 1999). This indicates that the Ocua Complex includes lithologies derived from PanAfrican nappes, like the Xixano and Monapo Complexes.
Figure 8.10. Ternary K-Th-U radioelement map centered on the eastern Lurio belt. The figure
shows the location, geochemical data and geochronological data of syenite sample 33304, and
the extent of the geological unit this sample represents (white arrows).
8.6 Detection of possible kimberlite bodies
Kimberlites intruding Karoo sedimentary rocks were found in the Maniamba Graben by
Russian geologists in the late 1970s (Jakovenko et al., 1979). Forty-three kimberlite dykes, as
451
well as an unknown number of basaltic kimberlites and 4 isometric bodies (pipes) were
discovered in the southwest part of the graben. They produced positive magnetic anomalies in
ground measurements, but were not detected in the previous airborne magnetic survey due to
its large line spacing and ground clearance.
The known kimberlites are clearly visible in the new, higher resolution airborne
magnetic survey (Figure 8.11, Figure 8.12). Narrow, linear features corresponding to known
outcrops of kimberlite dykes can be seen in the central part of Figure 8.11 (within the white
circles in the right image), which shows a detail of the new geophysical data from the
southwestern part of Block 6. These new geophysical data are also useful in helping locate
additional kimberlites. Both linear and circular anomalies that probably correspond to
kimberlite dykes and pipes, respectively, are found. Examples of these occur in the southern
and northeastern part of Figure 8.11 (right image). They occur in areas where no kimberlites
are known from mapping: these indications should be verified on the ground (see also Chapters
13 and 14). The strongly magnetic rocks in the westernmost part of the figure are gneisses of
the Ponta Messuli Complex. Figure 8.12 covers a greater part of the graben and a large area in
the north with a potential for kimberlites is delineated with a dashed line (right image).
Figure 8.11: Left: Magnetic total field anomaly data (reduced to pole) from the old airborne
geophysical survey. Known kimberlite dykes are not discernable because of the survey's large
line spacing and ground clearance. Right: Magnetic total field anomaly data (reduced to pole)
from the new geophysical survey (Block 6). Many narrow, linear features in the central part of
the area (in the white circles) correspond to known outcrops of kimberlite dikes, and are
therefore interpreted as such.
452
Figure 8.12: Left: Magnetic total field anomaly data (reduced to pole) from the old airborne
geophysical survey. Right: Magnetic total field anomaly data (reduced to pole) from the new
geophysical survey (Block 6). Many narrow, linear features in the southwestern part of the
area correspond to known outcrops of kimberlite dikes, and are therefore interpreted as such.
A large area in the north with a potential for kimberlites is delineated with a dashed black line.
8.7 Modification of the geological maps
New airborne geophysical data have complemented geological field observations and earlier
airborne geophysical data to produce better map products and, in turn, a better understanding
of regional geological processes. Figure 8.13 shows a comparison between two different
editions of sheet 1138 Namuno, before and after use of the new geophysical data in the
interpretation. The map on the left shows the interpretation based on fieldwork and on the old
geophysical data set, while the product on the right benefits from interpretation of the new
data. The major differences and improvements can be summarized as follows:
x In the southern part of the sheet, the locus of the complexly folded Xixano-Marrupa
contact was indistinct in the old geophysical data set while the new geophysical data
clearly delineates the tight to isoclinally folded tectonic contact.
x The new map interpretation shows a much sharper delineation of the Ocua lithologies
defining the Lurio Belt.
x The new map interpretation shows rather impressively the infolding and dissection of
slivers of the Marrupa Complex and their incorporation in the complex tectonic
melange of the Montepuez Complex. Such an interpretation could not have been made
from the old geophysical dataset.
x The detail of the form lines in the highly tectonised easternmost sliver of the Marrupa
Complex juxtaposed against the Xixano Complex is much improved with the new data.
x In the relatively more massive granulitic massif in the centre of the Xixano Complex,
there is a greater resolution of geological features, shear zones and banding that is
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completely different from the interpretation from the old data where the geophysical
data is rather 'flat'.
x The definition of the Neoproterozoic igneous body in the eastern central part of the
sheet is much improved.
x The complex lithological variation just to the north of the Monte Maco Pan-African
intrusions is much improved.
Figure 8.13: Geological map 1138 Namuno before and after utilization of the new geophysical
data
454
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
9.1 Introduction
This chapter documents the structural framework of northeastern Mozambique to the north of
the Lurio belt and the northern marginal areas of the Nampula terrane/block, forming the
foundation for the geotectonic interpretations of Chapter 12. This chapter presents both a
regional scale overview of the structures discerned from the interpretation of the new highresolution geophysical data and the description and interpretation of the structures observed at
critical outcrops. These observations are presented and discussed in different geographical
sections as shown in Figure 9.1.
Figure 9.1: Synthetic map showing the distribution of the main tectonostratigraphic units in
northeastern Mozambique and the areal sub-sections discussed in this chapter.
455
These are taken from west to east in the northern area, and then are followed by the
observations from Malema, Ribu-Mecuburi and finally Insaca-Guru, Mocuba and Milange.
9.2
Structures observed on sheets 1134 Ponte Messuli, 1135 Lupilichi, 1234 Metangula
and 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono
9.2.1 Regional-scale geophysical interpretation

Much information on the tectonic and structural complexity of this area can be gleaned from
the aeromagnetic data. Combination of these data with outcrop-scale observations of geometric
relationships and kinematics provides a powerful tool for the interpretation of regional scale
structures. Fieldwork has shown (see Chapters 9.2.1 to 9.2.18) that the Macaloge-Chiconono
sheet is transected in a north-northeast - south-southwest direction by crustal-scale mylonitic
shear zones. These dip steeply and display sinistral strike-slip kinematics at greenschist-facies
grade, locally overprinting and retrogressing the granulite-facies host rocks. These shear zones
are seen at individual outcrops, which collectively document the extent of the shear zone
systems across several sheets. Figure 9.2 shows an interpretation of the magnetic data based on
these outcrop observations. Two major shear-zone arrays are apparent. The most easterly cuts
through the granodioritic gneiss of the Unango Complex and runs north-south in the eastern
part of the Macaloge-Chiconono sheet, extending southwards into the Lichinga sheet. This
shear-zone array is over 40 km wide, with individual tectonic lenses up to 100 km long and 10
km wide. It juxtaposed different tectonic blocks of granodioritic gneiss with some smaller
lenses of charnockitic rocks. The shear sense is clearly sinistral strike-slip. This shear zone
array merges in the north with the western shear-zone array. This cuts through the charnockitic
rocks of the Unango Complex and is over 100 km long extending southwards into the Lichinga
sheet. The western shear-zone array is much narrower (10-20 km) than the eastern array but
consists of more densely spaced structures. Here, individual tectonic slices can be as little as 5
km long. These structures account for the widely spread, isolated blocks of the Geci Group,
which are caught up in this shear zone array. Metamorphic overgrowths on several zircons
from one shear zone in this array give a very late Pan-African age of 444 5 Ma (U-Pb).
9.2.2 Tectonic contact at margin of the Txitonga Group
(Sheet 1234 Metangula, UTM 36S 690072, 8655901)
The contact between the Txitonga Group and the juxtaposed gneisses of the Ponta Messuli
Complex is generally poorly exposed. However, on the southern side of the Txitonga Group
near the Mchenga Nkwichi Lodge, south of Cobu, evidence exists for a tectonic contact.
Although the contact is not observed, augen gneisses become increasingly foliated northwards
towards the contact up to the last outcrop at UTM 36S 690072, 8655901, where they are
extremely foliated (Figure 9.3). Small asymmetric, northwest-verging folds and an intense
mineral stretching lineation suggest that the gneisses have been thrust obliquely over the
Txitonga Group (Figure 9.4) and that the contact is therefore a tectonic discontinuity.
9.2.3 Mylonitised Hornblende Gneiss
(Sheet 1234, Metangula, UTM 36S 703950, 8572815)
Strongly deformed, partly mylonitic rocks are particularly common along boundaries between
different rock units. This gneissic granite becomes progressively more deformed westwards.
The boundary to the enderbite/charnockite to the west is marked by highly deformed chloritehornblende gneiss with a marked S-C fabric (Figure 9.5).
456
Figure 9.2: Structural interpretation of aeromagnetic data based on outcrop observations of

ductile, strike-slip shear zones on the Macaloge sheet. This reveals two major, crustal scale
sinistral strike-slip imbricate shear arrays cutting the Unango Complex.
457
Figure 9.3: Asymmetric folds near the contact of granitic augen gneisses with the Txitonga
Group at UTM 36S 690072, 8655901.
Figure 9.4: Stereonet data for poles to shear
foliation (squares), asymmetric folds (open
circles) and mineral stretching lineation
(solid dots) near the southern contact of
granitic augen gneisses with the Txitonga
Group. The solid great circles represent the
inferred fold limbs. The dashed line
represents the map-scale contact trend
(237N). The mineral lineation suggests dipslip shearing on the contact, whereas the
small-folds suggest a more complex oblique
shear sense.
9.2.4 Strike-slip shear kinematics on the western margin of Txitonga Group

A small granodioritic gneiss outcrop on the profile between Lago Niassa and the western
margin of the Karoo Basin in the Txitonga Group gives information on the nature of the
contact between both sets of rock suites (UTM 36S 711885, 8663978). The granodiorite in this
location is more intensely foliated than the gneissic rocks east of the contact, suggesting that
the contact has been tectonised. The foliation in the granodiorite shows small folds (Figure
9.7), the fold hinges being rotated anticlockwise from the margin to the Txitonga
458
Figure 9.5: Chlorite-hornblende gneiss at the boundary between enderbite gneiss and gneissic
granite. The S-C fabric shows a sinistral sense of shear. Outcrop in the footpath between
Mazogo and Meluluca (UTM 36S 703950, 8572815).
Group, which suggests a dextral strike-slip sense of movement to create the deformation in the
granodioritic gneiss. This indirectly infers a dextral strike-slip shear zone along the contact of
the Txitonga Group and the gneisses to the east. Some isolated mica 'fish' in the granodiorite at
the same locality display asymmetric geometries, which also demonstrate a dextral shear sense.
9.2.5 Sinistral strike-slip mylonitic shear zone
A zone of strongly sheared rocks extends southwards from the Metangula road to the southern
boundary of the map sheet. The zone intersects the granitic gneiss unit, but also affects
horizons of granulitic rocks (enderbite/charnockite) and biotite gneiss. The width of the most
deformed rocks is 1-2 km but at least an additional 2 km have been affected and therefore this
zone is considered as a separate unit and is discussed here, rather than in the section dealing
with tectonic structures. The most affected rocks have been transformed into mylonites and
ultramylonites. Where kinematic indicators, such as S-C fabrics or asymmetric fold structures,
are recognisable a consistent sinistral direction of movement is found (Figure 9.6).
In road sections along the Metangula road, thin horizons of foliated leucogranite are
present along the foliation planes of the mylonitic schists. These have very low contents of
mafic minerals (i.e. biotite, amphibole). One of these horizons, about 1 m thick, fine-grained
and foliated, was sampled for dating (UTM 36S 698895, 8594030). Preliminary analysis of U
and Pb in zircons from this sample by ICP-MS-LA gave two intercepts on the concordia in the
206
Pb/238U vs. 207Pb/235U diagram. The upper intercept of approximately 1,000 Ma is about 20
Ma younger than other rocks in northern Mozambique, as dated during this project (see
Chapter 11). This is interpreted to be the age of intrusion. The lower intercept is approximately
430 Ma (but with an uncertainty of 95 Ma), which might represent the age of deformation and
metamorphism. This age is in reasonable agreement with data from another major regional
north-south trending shear zone in a strongly deformed granite further northwest (Sample
35228, UTM 36S 776146, 8650372). This sample has a lower intercept of 444+5 Ma.
459
Figure 9.6: Strongly deformed granitic gneiss close to the a) eastern and b) western boundary
of the mylonitic schist unit, both showing sinistral S-C fabric (a: UTM 36S 700710, 8572330
and b: UTM 36S 698980, 8573800).
Figure 9.7: Stereonet data for small folds within the granodioritic gneiss immediately to the
east of the contact with the Txitonga Group (UTM 36S 711885, 8663978).
9.2.6 S-C fabrics in hornblende gneiss
On the same profile additional kinematic evidence is found in hornblende gneisses (UTM 36S
702767, 8658220). These show a steep, well-defined foliation transected by shear planes,
which displace the foliation with an extensional ductile shear displacement (Figure 9.8 and
Figure 9.9). These structures are known as extensional shear bands and are typically found in
high-strain zones. These show a clockwise rotation from the foliation, which suggests a dextral
strike-slip shear sense. This interpretation agrees with structures seen at locality UTM 36S
711885, 8663978.
9.2.7 Steep veins parallel to foliation
At this locality in the Txitonga Group, there is a paucity of structural and kinematic evidence.
However, the steep mica schist foliation here contains several massive quartz veins up to 1 m
wide. These are parallel to the foliation and it was impossible to determine the asymmetric
geometry of the veins relative to the foliation, to determine any shear sense. This is probably
because the veins were formed as an en-echelon array, at an angle to the shear plane (foliation)
and have since been rotated into the foliation during progressive deformation. However, it is
appropriate to say that the veins have been produced as a result of shearing related to strike-slip
deformation. What is not possible to determine from the field evidence
460
Figure 9.8: Relationship between

extensional shear-band and foliation in
hornblende gneiss at UTM 36S 702767,
8658220.
Figure 9.9: Extensional shear bands in
hornblende gneiss at UTM 36S 702767,
8658220. The extensional shear bands show
a dextral displacement within the
hornblende gneiss.
is the sense of shear. The inference that the deformation was predominantly strike/slip
movement fits well with the rest of the evidence gathered for the structural nature of the
Txitonga Group and its contacts.
9.2.8 South-verging small-folds and reactivation veins: a
Evidence of the nature of deformation of the Txitonga Group is found at UTM 36S 694540,
8655978. Here, regionally north-south-striking chlorite schists are folded in short wavelength
(1-2 m) small folds (Figure 9.10) with a south-verging asymmetry (Figure 9.11). This suggests
overthrusting from the north. However, quartz veins formed along the north-dipping axial
planes to these small-folds in an en-echelon dextral geometry, indicating low-angle
overthrusting to the north. This shear sense indicator is therefore not in agreement with the
sense of shear required to produce the earlier formed folds. This suggests that the veins have
formed as a result of reactivation of the fold structure, fractures having dilated along the axial
planes to the folds. This implies that two separate deformation episodes formed the folds and
subsequently the quartz veins. Evidence presented in the Chapter 11 and in Section 9.2.2
suggests that the tectonic contact between the structurally lower Ponta Messuli Complex and
the overlying Txitonga Group is a thrust tectonic contact with top-to-northwest displacement.
These southeast-directed folds may be related to back-thrusting associated with this tectonic
juxtaposition.
9.2.9 South-verging small-folds and reactivation veins: b
Some evidence exists for strike-slip movements in the metasedimentary rocks of the Txitonga
Group south of Cobu. In metasandstone at UTM 36S 694001, 8651678, where the foliation
dips steeply and strikes north-south, extensional shear bands are seen to intersect the foliation
461
(Figure 9.12). These are rotated anticlockwise from the pre-existing foliation and therefore
represent a sinistral, strike-slip displacement sense along the foliation in the metasandstone.
Figure 9.10: Asymmetric, south-verging folds south of Cobu with reactivation veins along
axial planes at UTM 36S 694540, 8655978.
Figure 9.11: Stereonet data for asymmetric,

south-verging folds south of Cobu with
reactivation veins along axial planes at UTM
36S 694001, 8651678.
Figure 9.12: Stereonet data for extensional

shear bands in psammite south of Cobu at
UTM 36S 694001, 8651678. The foliation is
a solid line and the extensional shear bands
are the dotted line. This demonstrates a
sinistral shear sense.
9.2.10 Ductile shear zone in fine-grained leuco-granite intrusion

(Sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono, UTM 36S 761626, 8605058)
The central part of the Macaloge-Chiconono sheet is dominated by charnockitic to enderbitic
granulites. This rock type generally forms a low or flat-lying topography with only few
exposures. Ridges and small hills in the area tend to be composed of more felsic, equigranular
intrusions (previously termed leptites). From satellite interpretation and aerial photography, it
is clear that these intrusions tend to follow the mainly north-southtrending foliation.
However, in many cases these intrusions have a more complex geometry. This is, in part, a
response to subsequent ductile deformation (Figure 9.13). The eastern part of the fine-grained
leucogranite from UTM 36S 761989, 8604766 to 761626, 8605058 has a foliation with an east-
462
west strike. This is shown in the topography as an east-west-trending ridge. However, at

several places along the ridge, the fine-grained leucogranite outcrops are discontinuous and
appear to be displaced along faults or shears with a 50 m displacement.
Towards the western part of the fine-grained leucogranite body, the outcrop swings
round so that the fine-grained leucogranite outcrop forms a north-south-trending ridge. Here
the foliation follows the trend of the topography. This probably implies that the fine-grained
leucogranite body was originally one body but was dissected by the shear zone and now
consists of two discrete bodies with a different foliation. The shear sense indicators on this
structure are ambiguous. However, the shape of the two deformed parts of the fine-grained
leucogranite body on each side of the shear zone suggests that the shear sense has been strikeslip dextral. This suggests a shear zone of regional scale, similar to those found within the
Txitonga Group in the vicinity of Cobu.
Figure 9.13: Sketch map of a fine-grained leucogranite at UTM 36S 761626, 8605058. The
present geometry is explained by the presence of a ductile shear zone, which cuts through the
fine-grained leucogranite and divides it in two. The two sections have been subsequently
rotated relative to one another due to folding along the ductile shear zone.
9.2.11 Fault structures in the Karoo Supergroup
(Sheet 1135, Lupilichi, UTM 36S 769699, 8698636)
There are several poor outcrops of Karoo Supergroup on the road north from Macaloge to the
Rio Rovuma. Sparse evidence of syn-/post-Karoo tectonic activity is found in one of these
outcrops at UTM 36S 769699, 8698636, where steeply south-dipping fractures are seen in
coarse-grained sandstones, which dip gently to the north (Figure 9.14). These display a dip-slip
reverse component of slip towards the north. This is very different from the implied east-west
extensional opening of the Maniamba Graben and may represent reactivation. However, these
structures are relatively minor and appear to deform the surrounding sedimentary layering in a
463
syn-sedimentary fashion suggesting that they formed not long after the opening of the
Maniamba Graben.
Figure 9.14: Reverse movement brittle fault in Karoo sandstone at UTM 36sS769699,
8698636. This structure is syn-sedimentary.
9.2.12 Crustal scale mylonite zone
(Sheet 1235 Macaloge-Choconono, UTM 36S 776146, 8650372)
This crustal-scale shear zone shows extremely intense mylonitisation over a strikeperpendicular distance of 250 m. The shear zone separates granites on the western side of the
Macaloge-Chiconono sheet and granulites on the eastern side. The intensity of the mylonitic
fabric along this structure makes it impossible to determine the protolith from hand specimens,
although the nearest unmylonitised outcrops of granodioritic gneiss are only 50 m to the west.
This shear zone shows unambiguous shear-sense indicators (Figure 9.15 and Figure 9.16)
including S-C fabric, asymmetric small folds, extensional shear bands and foliation fish. These
all demonstrate sinistral strike-slip displacement. The intensity of the mylonitic fabric and its
minimum thickness of 250 m suggest at least tens, if not hundreds of kilometres of
displacement. However, no obvious displacement markers are recognised on either side of the
shear zone to confirm this. On the eastern margin of the mylonite belt there is a zone of brittle
deformation within granodioritic gneiss. This zone is approximately 100 m thick and consists
of a complex network of thin seams of a very fine-grained black material, at first thought to be
pseudotachylite (Figure 9.17). These structures form either mylonite-parallel shears, which
display dilational jogs containing cataclastic material, or conjugate shears at a high angle to the
ductile shear zone margin. The mylonite-parallel structures represent simple shear structures,
showing strike-slip shear parallel to the mylonite zone margins. The conjugate structures at a
high angle to the mylonite zone represent pure-shear flattening across the shear zone. The two
different types of structures are mutually crosscutting. All of these structures represent brittleductile reactivation of the sinistral strike-slip mylonite; first with the same sense of shear, and
then with a dip-slip reverse component, as elucidated by the conjugate shears. At present the
timing of the mylonitisation and the subsequent brittle reactivation is unknown. It is
noteworthy that no mineral lineation is found on foliation planes anywhere within the mylonite
zone or in its associated brittle reactivation zone to the east. This is most likely a response to
464
the pure-shear overprinting of the deformation zone. Mineral lineations may have developed
but can have been obliterated by the flattening across the zone.
.
Figure 9.15: Photos showing shear sense in the mylonite belt at UTM 36S 776146, 8650372.
(A) Sinistral strike-slip shear sense in extensional shear bands. (B) Sinistral strike-slip shear
sense from S-C fabrics. (C) Extensional shear band with an anticlockwise relationship to the
foliation suggesting sinistral strike-slip shear sense but the layers have been displaced
dextrally, suggesting later reactivation. (D) Sinistral strike-slip shear sense from S-C fabrics.
(E) North-verging asymmetric small-folds in the foliation giving a sinistral strike-slip shear
sense. (F) North-verging asymmetric small intrafolial folds giving a sinistral shear sense. (G)
Sinistral shear sense foliation fish. (H) Dextral reactivation of extensional shear bands along
fractures.
465
Figure 9.16: Stereonet data for the mylonitic shear

zone at UTM 36S 776146, 8650372. Squares
represent poles to foliation. Open circles represent
mineral stretching lineations. Triangles represent
small fold hinge plunges.
Figure 9.17: Examples of brittle fault structures

located on the margin of the ductile mylonite in
Figure 9.9. These structures suggest brittle
reactivation of the mylonite at high strain rates. Two
suites of fractures are present (A) Structures parallel
to the margins of the mylonite zone. These show
pull-apart zones where a dilational jog has formed
(at fingertip). In these zones cataclastic material
(possibly fluidised) can be seen on the macro-scale.
(B) Conjugate structures at a high angle to the shear
zone margin. These are interpreted as representing
pure-shear flattening across the shear zone.
466
Figure 9.18: Backscatter electron images of brittle fault structures at UTM 36S 776146,
8650372. They show that these late structures developed at amphibolite facies, with the
presence of amphibole, chlorite and biotite.
9.2.13 Extensional ductile shear zone
In the extreme southwestern part of the Macaloge-Chiconono sheet a major map-scale suite of
deformation zones was found (UTM 36S 810563, 8596682). Over a distance of 3 km, five
shear zones were located in granodioritic gneiss, with thicknesses from several metres to
several hundred metres. Structural information from one of these shear zones is presented in
Figure 9.19, showing that the shear zones display an apparent top-to-the-east extensional shear
sense.
Figure 9.19: Stereonet data for sub-mylonitic shear zone at
UTM 36S 810563, 8596682. The great circle represents the
average foliation, which dips at a very shallow angle to the
east. The square represents the mineral lineation, which is
almost down-dip. The arrow represents the direction of shear
(from asymmetric foliation fish).
467
9.2.14 Dextral strike-slip shear zone

A poorly outcropping strike-slip shear zone was observed (UTM 36S 813251, 8597962) in the
same profile as the major extensional shear zone observed. No mineral lineation was observed
so this inference is based on the observation of asymmetric mica fish perpendicular to the
foliation plane. It is not clear how this structure is related kinematically, or in age, to the
extensional ductile shear zone found at locality UTM 36S 810563, 8596682.
Figure 9.20: Stereonet data for the greenschist shear zone at
UTM 36S 769141, 8644626. Squares represent poles to
shear plane foliation. Open circles represent s-planes.
Triangles represent mineral lineation. The data demonstrate
a dip-slip shear zone with a slight dextral component.
Asymmetries in the outcrop suggest reverse dip-slip
displacement.
9.2.15 Greenschist-facies shear zone

This structure was studied in some detail in relation to its possible significance for gold
mineralisation (Chapter 12.1). Although no gold was found, several interesting structural
features should be mentioned here. The shear zone is located only a few kilometres west of the
crustal-scale mylonite zone observed at UTM 36S 776146, 8650372 and may be related to this
structure. However, the shear zone itself appears to have developed under greenschist- facies
conditions. The shear structures consist of dark coloured phyllonitic rock within a relatively
unsheared porphyritic granitic body.
S-C fabrics are well developed in the outcrop and the geometric relationships of these
structures show that the shear zone is a reverse top-to-the-east dip-slip shear zone (Figure
9.20). This shear zone has developed in response to an east-west compressive event and
therefore appears to be unrelated to the major mylonite zone located just to the east. However,
a relationship between the reactivation of the mylonite by brittle structures and the structures
seen at this outcrop cannot be ruled out. Both demonstrate east-west compression at lower
structural grades (and presumably metamorphic conditions) than the mylonite belt.
9.2.16 Gold-bearing strike-slip shear zones
(Sheet 1135 Lupilichi, UTM 36S 722899, 8714024)
In the hilly topography 1 km west of MPapa there are a number of north-south striking,
haematite-bearing shear zones (UTM 36S 722899, 8714024). These vary in thickness from a
few tens of centimetres up to 15 m and dip steeply (Figure 9.21). The shear zones display S-C
fabrics where the intersection of the two fabrics plunges steeply and is almost vertical. This
suggests a strike-slip shear sense. The fabric asymmetry suggests that the shear sense is
dextral. The shear zones occur in a fine-grained, homogeneous meta-greywacke, which
displays no haematisation outside the shear zone. This suggests that the haematisation is
probably related to the shear zone. The shear zone was probably originally rich in sulphides
468
and therefore may be related to the gold mineralisation. Thin layers of a hard, very fine-grained
silicified rock mark the margins of the shear zones. The extreme competence contrast between
this silicified rock and the meta-greywacke probably resulted in the shear zone strain
localisation in this area. The displacement on the shear zones is highlighted by the change in
the regional foliation in their vicinity. For example, about 1 km east of the observed group of
shear zones, the regional foliation dips moderately with a north-south strike, without any fold
development (Figure 9.22). However, within 100 m from the shear zones, the foliation is
rotated 90 and folded into open folds. These folds have axial planes sub-parallel to the Splanes of the shear zones.
Figure 9.21: Photo of S-C fabrics
in an extensively haematised shear
zone within a meta-greywacke at
UTM 36S 722644, 8714294 in the
Lupilichi area. The S-C fabrics
give a dextral shear sense. These
structures are very common in the
Lupilichi area.
Figure 9.22: Stereonet data for the haematite-rich shear zone at UTM 36S 722644, 8714294.
(A) Fabrics in the shear zone. Squares represent poles to shear plane foliation. Solid great
circle is average foliation plane. Circles represent S-planes. The data demonstrate a strike-slip
shear zone with a dextral component. (B) Rotation of foliation into the haematised shear zones.
Dotted great circle is average regional foliation outside of the shear zones. The solid great
circles represent folds developed in the vicinity of the shear zone. These are rotated in to the
same orientation as the shear zone.
469
9.2.17 Quartz vein kinematics and gold mineralisation

At UTM 36S 723659, 8714056 the relationship between the vein geometry and the regional
foliation allows a model for the development of the veins to be established. Here the veins are
mono-mineralic and contain none of the sulphides related to the gold-bearing veins being
excavated at MPapa (see below) and at other sites. However, their geometrical relationships
are the same as those of the gold-bearing quartz veins, and they can therefore serve to
demonstrate the origin of the veins relative to tectonic movements.
These localities are situated several hundred metres west of MPapa and occur in a
relatively poorly exposed area. However, it can be seen from the outcrop pattern that the veins
cut the foliation and display a clockwise-rotated strike relative to the foliation (Figure 9.23).
On a larger scale it is also obvious that the veins form geographically limited lenses (1 m wide
and up to 50 m long), which sidestep to the west while being followed northwards. The veins
demonstrate an "en-echelon" geometry and the foliation relationships show that this en-echelon
set of veins is dextral. The veins generally dip at the same angle as the foliation but are
discordant to the foliation. The steep aspect of the vein array demonstrates that they are within
a strike-slip corridor. The geometry and movement sense are identical to those found on the
haematised shear zones west of MPapa and strongly suggest that the veins are related to the
development of the shear zones.
Figure 9.23: Quartz vein geometries relative to foliation in the MPapa gold field (UTM 36S
723659, 8714056). The veins form en-echelon sets, which are rotated clockwise relative to the
regional foliation, indicating a dextral strike-slip shear sense.
A 1,5 m wide vein being mined approximately 1 km east of the village of M'Papa
shows the same geometrical relationship to the foliation (Figure 9.24). The foliation is more
intensely developed here, around the margins of the vein, suggesting the presence of a
foliation-parallel shear zone.
9.2.18 Conjugate brittle faults in Karoo sandstone
Structural observations in the Karoo Supergroup are scarce, as it appears that tectonic
movements after the deposition of the Karoo have been extremely limited. However, at one
locality there is a very clear indication of the development of conjugate brittle faults. These
470
Figure 9.24: Photographs of the quartz veins and associated wall-rock alteration in one of the
excavation sites near MPapa (UTM 36S 724378, 8713480). (A) The vein cuts the foliation and
is rotated clockwise relative to the shear zone foliation and therefore demonstrates a dextral
shear sense. (B) The foliation in the vicinity of the vein margin is very intense and altered.
occur as 1-2 cm wide granulation seams, where the original grain size in the sandstone (1-2
mm) has been ground down to 0,5-1 mm. These brittle shears are less resistant to weathering
and are incised relative to the surrounding sandstone (Figure 9.25). Stereonet data reveals that
these structures form conjugate sets with a vertical acute bisector, meaning that they formed in
an overall extensional setting. The extension axis is oriented northeast-southwest. These
structures probably represent syn-late Karoo extension along the axis of the basin.
Figure 9.25: Photo of conjugate brittle faults and stereonet data in Karoo sandstone on the Rio
Rovuma.
471
9.2.19 P-T conditions during strike-slip segmentation of the Unango Complex

For a detailed discussion of the metamorphic history of the area, the reader is referred to
Chapter 7. However, some general comments are made here regarding the P-T conditions
during tectonism. Study of thin sections of the ductile shear zones cutting the Unango Complex
and juxtaposing the high-grade units along strike-slip shear zones, shows that these shear zones
developed under greenschist-facies conditions.
9.3
Structures observed on sheets 1334 Meponda and 1335 Lichinga
9.3.1 Regional scale geophysical interpretation

Large-scale structures are generally interpreted from the regional aeromagnetic data and
satellite scenes, supplemented by field observations. On both sheets, the key concept is a model
of "segmentation tectonics", where ductile shear zones appear to form a branched,
anastomosing, open network covering large areas (Figure 9.31). The strike of the foliation
developed in the shear-zones varies between 010 and 070, generally with a southerly dip. At
some localities, both dextral and sinistral shear movements have been deduced, but too few
observations are available for a definite conclusion about the relative age of these movements.
At one locality (UTM 36S 765447, 8469176) there seems to be a sinistral simple shear
component following an earlier dextral shear. Further east (UTM 36S 795000, 8545000) a
clear dextral observation has been made. The presence of both dextral and sinistral kinematics
is also indicated by the magnetic lineament pattern, in which the dextral geometry prevails in
the central and southeastern area, forming imbricated stacks of lensoid blocks.
A more continuous and generally sinistral shear-zone system is observed instead in the
central, western and northwestern part of the Lichinga sheet, extending into the Meponda
sheet. The most profound drop in magnetic susceptibility is in an east-westerly zone in the
middle of the sheet. Several ground observations of low-grade schists and mylonites have been
made (Figure 9.26, see also Figure 9.31 and shear-zones numbered 1, 9, 11, 12, 21, 22). The
interpretation is that this area represents a bending towards the west of a sinistral bundle of
shear zones that extends from the northeastern map corner, building up a kinematic pressure
regime with more mobility of fluids and more efficient retrogression of magnetite. The shear
zones, which are in greenschist facies, appear to cut along the limbs of folded metasedimentary gneissed at Monte Malati (~UTM 36S 797000, 8522000). Two small occurrences
of talc schist coincide with the location of the shear zones (UTM 36S 772171, 8531134 and
788059, 8527860) as deduced from the aeromagnetic data.
A major mylonite zone occurs east of Meponda, striking north, before it bends towards
the NE, close to the village Luaisse, making up the valley of the Rio Luaisse (no. 19 in Figure
9.31). In that valley, the mylonite zone defines the contact between granulite-facies
charnockitic gneisses and amphibolite-facies biotite gneisses (Figure 9.27). Granitic gneisses
and pegmatites situated along this contact have also been affected (Figure 9.28). A branch of
the tectonic zone continues due northwards into the Metangula and Macaloge-Chiconono
sheets (no.20 in Figure 9.31).
472
Figure 9.26: Photomicrographs of mylonitic texture from major shear zone to the south of
Lichinga (UTM 36S 758925, 8520980). This shear zone is part of an anastomosing system of
shear zones across the Lichinga sheet from east to west. It separates the major region of
enderbitic gneiss from hornblende-biotite gneiss.
Figure 9.27: Hornblende-biotite gneiss, showing sinistral ductile shearing, with mylonite zone
and imbricate fault structures. Locality: Rio Luaisse (UTM 36S 707227, 8532748).
In the south, the mylonite zone outcrops in a small river to the east of Meponda. The
rock exposed here is strongly deformed, forming mm-scale banded mylonitic chlorite schists.
Some mm-sized porphyroblasts of felsic minerals are found. At the western side of this zone,
the foliation in the gneisses strikes approximately north-south, while at the eastern side the
gneisses strike northeast-southwest. This indicates a left-lateral (sinistral) movement along this
tectonic zone.
In the biotite gneisses, a strong lineation with a very shallow plunge is evident, together
with a mylonitic, partly blastomylonitic fabric (Figure 9.29). This, together with a sub-vertical
foliation, shows a generally strike-slip component during the formation of the pronounced L-S
structures in these rocks (Figure 9.30). In contrast, the charnockites have acted as competent
bodies, floating in the more ductile biotite-rich rocks.
473
Figure 9.28 (left): Contact between protomylonitic granite and epidote-biotite-chlorite schist,
with small feldspar clasts and quartz stringers. The schist is probably highly sheared granite
(i.e. phyllonite). Right: close-up photo of sheared pegmatite dyke, within the granite. Locality:
Rio Luaisse (UTM 36S 705899, 8531350).
Figure 9.29: Close-up photo of mylonitic

hornblende-biotite gneiss, showing local
sinistral sense of shear (UTM 36S 701000,
8533290).
474
Figure 9.30: Strongly deformed hornblendebiotite gneiss, with well-developed lineation.

Late granitic dykes cross-cut the structures,
and are partly deformed. Location: Along the
coast north of Meponda (UTM 36S 702235,
8518106).
Figure 9.31: Map of the most important shear zones on the Meponda and Lichinga sheets. The
distinction between "inferred" and "possible" is based on the availability of data. Shear zones
with numbers are commented on in the text. In the centre of the map, shear zones 9,11,21,22
and 23 are only indicative of the style of shearing, and are not a complete account of the zones
of movement.
There are probably several generations of shear-zones formed during different
rheological conditions and consequently their influence on the host rock may vary. Under
semi-brittle conditions the deformation may be ductile in nature but restricted to a narrow
glide-surface, while under a more regional, penetrative ductile regime the foliations in the
surrounding gneisses may be deflected kilometres from the maximum movement zone. It is
thought that, under similar environmental conditions, the rheological behaviour of granulites is
brittle relative to amphibolite-facies rocks. The implication of this, in the investigated area, is
that rocks that do not seem to be sheared, but which have a discordant foliation, may be found
quite close to major shear zones, even if the interstices between shear-zones has been
subsequently retrograded.
The central area, within 15 km south and southeast of Lichinga, is poorly exposed but
appears to be the area most affected by shearing. The aeromagnetic data show a continuous
low signature with only some weakly defined lineaments parallel to shear-zones numbered 1,
475
9, 11, 12 and 23 in Figure 9.31. Ground observations in this area confirm the idea of a densely
anastomosing and braided network of shear-zones, often reported as "mylonitic gneiss", "thinly
banded gneiss" etc. Also in micro-scale this development is evident (i.e. Figure 9.26). It is also
interesting to note that metamorphic retrogression is much more pervasive in this area than
other areas of the Unango Complex and is testament to the nature of the shear zone network as
fluid conduits during deformation.
These shear zones (which also extend northwards into the Macaloge-Chiconono sheet),
have a bimodal trend as shown in Figure 9.32.
Figure 9.32: Rose diagram showing bimodal orientation of greenschist facies shear zones
cutting the Unango Complex granulites. The north-northeast - south-southwest trend
represents the main shear zone orientation whereas the east-northeast west southwest
orientation represents the imbricate secondary shear zones.
The sense of shear related to the shear zones is generally difficult to verify. At one
locality in the central area, between shear zone no.1 and no.9 in Figure 9.31, sinistral sense is
reported. At other localities both directions seem to be conceivable. Foliations are sometimes
moderately discordant to the direction of the geophysical lineaments and may indicate shear
sense by climbing from one shear-zone to the next. This is the case with zones no. 21 and 22 in
Figure 9.31.
South of shear zone no. 1 (Figure 9.31), shear zones are inferred from the magnetic map
and ground observations. One exception is zone no.16 (and a possible one south of no.16),
which is evident from interpretation of the satellite images. It is not clear from field evidence if
zone no.16 cuts through the ring-dyke near UTM 36S 750000, 8506000, but we assume it to be
late- or post-tectonic relative to the sinistral simple-shear event.
Shear-zone no.17 with its imbricated stack numbered 13, 14 and 15, is drawn from
lineaments on the magnetic map. Ground-observations in the southern part of zone no.17 may
indicate that this shear zone formed under high-grade conditions. Its shear sense appears to be
dextral with a later sinistral component that modified the s-shape of the segments. For the
476
lineaments no.17 and 18 a sinistral movement is indicated by the relative displacement of the
contacts of the banded granulitic gneiss.
Shear zone no. 2 (Figure 9.31) is inferred from aeromagnetic data and verified in the
field by observation of mylonites at UTM 36S 773200, 8461630. It is coupled to an imbricated
stack of shear zones, numbered 4, 5 and 6 that together form a dextral system. On the northern
end of shear zone 2, a sinistral shear imbricate stack (no.7 and 8) is envisaged from the
magnetic pattern.
Very few observations are available from the area in the southeast, where shear zone
no. 3 is drawn. This structure forms a sharp boundary to more potassic rocks in the south and
southeast. This border is probably influenced by an interaction between Precambrian shearing
and later, brittle faulting.
Shear zone no. 24 (Figure 9.31) is verified through detailed mapping around its
southwestern part, showing how it cuts through the limb of folded quartzites near the main
road from Lichinga to Malanga.
The folding of the banded granulitic gneiss unit, the Chala Gneiss (unit P2UNmr), in the
southwestern part of the Lichinga sheet is a major structural feature. The banding in this gneiss
is discernible on all satellite images, and in the field it is seen to be probably related to the
observed alternation between rock units of paragneiss (mostly quartzites) and mafic or dioritic
orthogneiss units several hundred metres in width. The banding defines a major fold with an
axial trace trending SW (at c. UTM 36S 744000, 8551000). Parallel to this, 5 km to the
northeast, the limb of the fold is sheared out along a shear zone also visible on satellite images.
Measurements in the field indicate that the fold has a northeasterly axial plunge.
Another important structure in this area is the apparent alignment of
Neoproterozoic/Palaeozoic syenitic and granitic intrusions. They form a wide, curved band
from Meponda towards the southeast, curving into Malawi near the southern end of Lago
Niassa. The fundamental significance of the structure is not certain, but it may be related to
reactivation of dextral shear zones in a sinistral sense.
Faults and fractures related to rift formation form late regional-scale structures. These
structures are best seen on the satellite scenes. The density of lineaments is greater in the
western part, particularly within the Meponda sheet.
In the northeast of the Lichinga sheet, very long lineaments probably representing
brittle fault/fault zones or joints are discernible from the data set. These have directions 80- 85
(approximately east-west).
Near Lago Niassa the main directions of the faults and fractures are between 110 and
120 (northwest-southeast). They form major escarpments and valleys in the area. These have
been important conduits for fluid flow and late intrusions of mafic dykes (Figure 9.33). In the
southeast corner of the Lichinga sheet a brittle fault zone follows an older shear zone with a
northeast-southwest direction (approximately 45). This is complementary to 145-striking
faults, forming small basins, in which Karoo sedimentary rocks are preserved.
477
Figure 9.33: A 2 m wide mafic dyke crosscutting banded hornblende-biotite gneiss, Meponda
road at UTM 36S 703060, 8517170.
On the mesoscale or outcrop to hand-specimen scale, foliation and mineral banding are
the most obvious structures. These structures are mainly in the form of segregation banding
formed during high-grade metamorphism, but primary lithological boundaries, strongly
deformed and isoclinally folded, can also be seen. At places there are alternating biotite,
hornblende-biotite gneisses and metagabbroic gneisses in the same outcrop. These may display
isoclinal folding on a dm- to m-scale (Figure 9.34). Similar patterns are easily discernible on
the aerial photographs.
As mentioned above, the biotite- and hornblende-biotite gneisses (Meponda Gneiss,
unit P2UNbb) are characterised by migmatitic banding and veining that must have formed at
high-grade metamorphic conditions and/or during enhanced activity of the water component in
the volatiles. Also granodioritic and granitic gneisses show migmatitisation (Figure 9.35). The
time relationship between deformation and segregation of the neosome component, together
with the volume proportion between neosome and paleosome, is crucial for the appearance of
the migmatitic structure. These are complex relationships outside the scope of this report.
Banding is less pronounced in the charnockitic gneisses, which in many cases are equigranular,
without any visible schistosity or foliation (granofelses).
Figure 9.34: Primary banding in

hornblende-biotite gneiss, strongly deformed
and showing isoclinal folding. (UTM 36S
702775, 8517205).
478
Figure 9.35: Migmatitic biotite gneiss,

probably originally a granodiorite, with
strongly deformed and disrupted neosomes.
Locality: UTM 36S 738410, 8508355.
9.4
Structures observed on sheets 1435 Mandimba and 1436 Cuamba
9.4.1 Main structural features

Three major tectonic domains can be identified on the Mandimba and Cuamba sheets. These
are:
x
A western domain underlain by Unango Complex rocks with a pronounced north-south
tectonic grain. This domain is separated on its eastern side from the other two domains by a
major north-south-trending anastomosing ductile shear zone through the centre of the
Cuamba Sheet.
x
A southeastern domain in the nose of a set of regional west-southwest-plunging folds
(interpreted from regional evidence to the east of the Cuamba Sheet). This domain is
underlain by Unango Complex rocks as well as by banded gneisses of the Marrupa
Complex.
x
A northeastern domain underlain by variably migmatised granitic gneisses is separated
from the southeastern domain by a curviplanar ductile shear that predates the anastomosing
north-south shear zone.
There are also major ductile shears within both the southeastern and western domains. In the
southeastern part of the Cuamba sheet the shears are axial planar to the regional-scale folds and
appear to control the emplacement of the Malema Suite of Pan-African alkaline granite
plutons. The pronounced parallelism of planar fabrics in the western domain is typical of the
granulite-facies terranes observed immediately to the west across the border in Malawi.
9.4.2 Western Domain
Notwithstanding its uniform gross tectonic character, the gneisses of the Western Domain
preserve a complex history of deformation and related regional metamorphism. Several fold
phases can be demonstrated in the field as well as polyphase ductile shearing. The oldest
structures are tight to isoclinal folds (with both S and Z geometries) with an axial planar
gneissosity. Mafic bands that are commonly boudinaged, best define the folds. Regional
isoclinal folds include the fold defined by the Serra Lipembecue syenitic gneiss. Small-scale
tight to isoclinal folds of the gneissosity are also common in larger exposures and the gneisses
are dominated by these early oblate (flattening) fabrics, accounting for their uniform gross
tectonic character. However, small-scale, open east-west/east-northeast west-southwesttrending folds are superimposed on the early isoclines as well as a larger northwest-southeasttrending open fold reflected in the curvature of the mapped lithological units shown in the
northern half of the Mandimba sheet.
There are a number of major ductile shear zones in the northern half of the Mandimba
sheet with an overall northeast-southwest curviplanar trend. For example, an important ductile
shear is exposed along, and adjacent to the Rio Luelele. Gneisses exposed where the main
Lichinga road crosses this river exhibit a very strong east-west foliation (266/82) and a
stretching lineation that plunges at about 50 towards 260. Four kilometres downstream, the
gneisses are strongly sheared (258/85) with a stretching lineation plunging 40 towards 290.
Strongly sheared and flattened blastomylonitic charnockites are exposed in this area. Smallscale S-C fabrics and shears indicate dextral east-west shearing (foliation 076/90). Horizontal
stretching lineations defined by cigar-shaped (prolate) quartz ribbons occur in the plane of the
foliation. The augen gneiss east of Monte Samba delineates a large ductile shear zone that is
concordant to the gneissosity. Several generations of small-scale ductile shears are ubiquitous
to larger gneiss exposures.
479
Brittle faults mostly trend east-northeast to east-west or northwest-southeast. Quartz

veins or reefs locally infill fault planes.
9.4.3 Southeastern Domain
The southeastern domain defines the western closure of a major west-southwest-plunging
antiform that can be traced for several hundred kilometres eastwards. The axial plane of the
regional fold passes through the quartz-rich gneisses of Entre-Montes. The northern limb of
this antiform has a gross northwest-southeast trend within which are re-oriented, early isoclinal
folds. These early folds are best defined on the Cuamba sheet by quartz-rich gneiss and
amphibolitic gneiss bands. The amoeba-like shape of the quartz-rich gneiss unit of EntreMontes reflects polyphase folding including at least one early phase of isoclinal to tight folding
refolded about the west-southwest-plunging antiform. Here, two foliations can be locally seen
with an early foliation parallel to gneissosity and a later foliation that is axial planar to westnorthwest - east-southeast-trending folding.
Figure 9.36: Pavements of flat lying banded gneisses at UTM 37S 282582, 8344388.
The southern limb of the regional antiform has a pronounced west-southwest-trend
defined by major ductile shears and a parallel alignment of Malema suite granites in the
southeast part of the Cuamba sheet. Planar, locally mylonitic fabrics overprint earlier planar
fabrics including migmatitic textures and various small-scale fold phases to produce banded,
flaggy biotite-gneisses (e.g. Figure 9.36). The new gneissosity has variable dips from gently
dipping to sub-vertical structures seen in ductile shear zones. Flaggy gneisses in the southeast
corner of the Cuamba sheet have gentle dips. Their strong planar fabrics suggest that they have
suffered a major flattening deformation to produce a pervasive foliation that has obliterated all
earlier (primary and secondary) fabrics. An associated strong stretching lineation is
consistently ~north-south oriented. Kinematic criteria are scarce but always show top-to-thesouth/southeast transport. For example, a preliminary analysis of the fabrics in the shears
bounding the lozenge-shaped outcrop of migmatitic grey gneisses indicates that this unit forms
480
the core of a pop-up structure with tectonic transport to the southeast across the shear
defining its northern margin.
Pods of weakly foliated gneisses with early migmatitic textures are locally preserved
within new transposed gneissic fabrics (Figure 9.38) in major ductile shears. Exposed shears
show highly variable dips, and in many cases have subvertical planar fabrics. For example, the
shear zone through the town of Cuamba (referred to as the Cuamba-Muitetere Shear Zone) is a
sub-vertical dextral structure south of Monte Mutucu.
Another major ductile shear defines the southern margin of the variably migmatitic
granitic gneisses in the northeast quadrant of the Cuamba sheet. This shear has a curviplanar
west-northwest trend but is truncated by the anastomosing north-south-trending ductile shear
zone. There is a significant change in regional metamorphism across the west-northwesttrending shear as it separates retrogressed granulite-facies rocks (in the southeastern domain)
from amphibolite-facies rocks (in the northeastern domain). The style of deformation in the
gneisses south of the shear also changes as the shear is approached. Major isoclinal to very
tight folds aligned parallel to the shear are the dominant structures next to the shear, in contrast
to the convoluted interference folds seen further south.
The Malema Suite of granite complexes is aligned along the west-southwest-trending
shears in a band approximately 20 km wide. Many of the granites are deformed by shearing,
particularly around their margins (Figure 9.37).
Figure 9.37: Xenolithic granite phase of the Munte Mutucu massif deformed in the CuambaMuitetere Shear Zone with an intense ductile shear fabric in the lower part of the photo and
rootless folds defined by mafic xenoliths in the upper part of the photo. (UTM 37 249119,
8373600.
481
9.4.4 Northeastern domain

This domain differs from the other two domains as amphibolite-facies, variably migmatised
granitic gneisses that do not preserve any evidence for an earlier granulite-facies
metamorphism are the dominant lithology. The lack of any banded gneisses also means that
there are no mappable folds within this domain. However, all exposures of the migmatitic
granitic gneisses are characterised by small-scale ptygmatic and asymmetrical folds. Measured
gneissosity readings within this domain are randomly oriented to reflect the small-scale
asymmetrical folds. Fewer ductile shears are recognized in this domain compared to the other
two domains. However, numerous brittle faults can be identified from the rectilinear drainage
pattern.
The northeastern domain tectonically underlies the southeastern domain in the core of
the regional west-southwest-plunging antiform.
Figure 9.38: Transposed fabrics along shears and fold limbs of an earlier gneissosity in the
Cuamba-Muitetere Shear Zone. Photo taken at UTM 37S 245300, 8371471.
9.4.5 Faulting in the Marrupa Complex
Brittle faults are poorly exposed but their presence is indicated by a rectilinear drainage
pattern. A major northeast-southwest fault displaces the sheared contact between the Unango
Complex and northeastern Marrupa Complex and is locally infilled by a gabbroic dyke. Other
gabbroic dykes mostly have parallel northeast-southwest to east-northeast west-southwest
trends that may also be fault controlled. Numerous north-northwest- to north-trending faults
occur in the southeast, whereas northwest, east- and northeast-trending faults are more
abundant elsewhere.
482
9.4.6 Types and ages of deformation

The three major deformation types are folds, ductile shears and brittle faults. The brittle faults
are clearly the youngest structures, preceded by folding and shearing.
Folding: There are two generations of isoclinal folds an early phase that folds banding with
an axial planar gneissosity and a later phase that folds the gneissosity. Examples are present in
both the Unango and Marrupa Complexes within the western and southeastern domains. These
early folds may or may not be contemporaneous in the two complexes. West-northwest eastsoutheast-trending tight folds immediately south of the shear that bounds the southern margin
of granitic gneisses of the northeastern domain may be relatively late structures associated with
flattening across this shear. Later, more open folds in the Unango Complex have east-west and
northwest-southeast axial traces in contrast to the regional east-northeast - west-southwest fold
across the Marrupa Complex. The temporal relationships between these open folds are not
known.
Ductile shears: As noted earlier, there are several generations of ductile shears including the
following three major regional shear sets.
x East-northeast-west-southwest-trending shears, best developed in the southeast of the
Cuamba sheet as axial planar fabrics of the regional antiform, but also occurring in the
northern part of the Mandimba sheet.
x The bifurcating ~north-south shear zone through the centre of the Cuamba sheet.
x A curviplanar shear defining the southern margin of Marrupa Complex granitic gneisses
and migmatitic granite gneisses to the east of the bifurcating north-south shear zone.
The east-northeast - west-southwest-trending shears, at least within the Marrupa Complex, are
contemporaneous with the development of the regional antiform and probably
contemporaneous with the emplacement of the Malema Suite of alkaline granites. Thus,
although these granites are clearly deformed in the shears, there are also undeformed granite
veins that crosscut the mylonitic foliation of the shears around Monte Mutucu. The northsouth shear zone appears to be a later structure as it effectively cuts off the regional antiform.
The curviplanar shear on the S side of the various granitic gneisses is also regarded as older
than the north-south shear zone as it is truncated by this structure. It may also be
contemporaneous with emplacement of the Malema suite. Thus several pod-shaped gneissic
granites are aligned parallel to the shear on its southern side and these granites are regarded as
part of the Malema Suite.
Faults: Brittle faults have a variety of trends and may be tensional features related to crustal
uplift. No major north-south faults, which could be related to the East African Rift System that
cuts across Malawi immediately west of the Mandimba sheet were observed.
9.5 Structures observed on sheets 1136 Milepa, 1236 Mavago and 1237 Majune
9.5.1 Regional scale geophysical interpretation
Major shear zones form the contacts between the main complexes on the Mavago and Milepa
sheet. Mylonitic gneisses cut through and envelop the Muaquia and M'Sawize complexes. This
is clearly evident along their northwestern margin, where the Unango Complex consists of
mylonitic and blastomylonitic biotite- and granitic gneisses. Mylonitic gneisses of the Marrupa
Complex transect structures of the Unango Complex in the northern part of the map sheet.
Fieldwork on the Milepa sheet, within which this zone reaches a width of 3-4 km, suggests that
it is a major sinistral strike-slip shear zone.
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The northern north-northwest south-southeast-trending belt of the Marrupa Complex

was originally interpreted from satellite imagery as transecting the north-south-trending rocks
of the Unango Complex, implying a major shear zone along the southwestern contact of the
Marrupa Complex. This would explain an increase in the intensity of banding in the gneisses in
the southern part of the Marrupa Complex as shear strain increases towards the crustal-scale
shear zone. This interpretation is important, because previous workers had not observed this
major structure. Fieldwork has now confirmed the presence of this structure as a complex, 3-4
km wide, intensely mylonitised shear zone consisting of deformed Marrupa Complex granitic
gneisses. Several slices of charnockitic rock of the Unango Complex are also caught up in the
shearing, on the northern side of the shear zone, enclosed within Marrupa Complex rocks.
However, mapping has shown that the shear zone is not a single, linear shear zone but that it
consists of at least two shear zones. The main shear zone, consisting of granitic gneisses, lies
south of a 4.5 km-wide zone of migmatitic granodioritic gneisses. The northern margin of this
unit is also mylonitised.
In the following text we present observations and data from critical exposures that
document the structural history and evolution on the Mavago and Milepa sheets. These are
discussed for each individual sheet.
9.5.2 Granodioritic body with ductile thrust shear
(Sheet 1236 Mavago, UTM 37S 182787, 8639346)
This outcrop consists of an apparently undeformed granodioritic body, perhaps of Pan-African
age, which forms an approximately 100 m high hill in the surrounding plain. The intrusive
body is thought to have a circular geometry and post-dates the foliation in the surrounding
granitic gneisses The granodiorite is a massive, medium-grained (1-4 mm) intrusion consisting
of quartz+feldspar+biotite in an equigranular, equant texture. However, the intrusion is
deformed by a 50 cm-thick ductile shear zone, which dips at a shallow angle to the east (Figure
9.39a). The stereonet data is presented in Figure 9.39b. The shear zone has an increased
amount of biotite relative to the undeformed granodiorite and the grain size is reduced to 1-2
mm (In addition, the magnetic susceptibility is greatly increased in the shear zone (from 2.05.5 x 10-3 in the undeformed rock to 14.4-16.8 x 10-3 SI units in the shear zone). This shear
zone represents a reverse movement or thrust from east to west.
9.5.3 En-echelon veins with dip-slip thrust displacement
At this locality, an array of moderately-dipping quartz veins is present in a quartz-feldspar
magnetite-bearing rock (Figure 9.40a). These are late tectonic veins as they cut cleanly through
the steeply dipping foliation. The veins form a sinistral en-echelon array, indicating a lowangle shear plane dipping to the Ssoutheast (Figure 9.40b). This indicates a reverse
displacement (thrusting) with movement top-to-north. These structures are probably secondary,
and related to overthrusting on the major crustal scale shear zone approximately 10 km south
of this locality, at coordinates UTM 37S 183504, 8599338.
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Figure 9.39a: Photo of ductile shear zone cutting the

granodioritic intrusion at UTM 37S 182787, 8637120.
The main shear zone, which is a minimum of 50 cm
wide, has 2 m of well-foliated granodioritic intrusion in
its hanging wall. Imbricate structures here give a topto-west dip-slip reverse component of shear.
b: Stereonet data for the shear zone.

Average foliation plane in the shear
zone is a solid line. The dashed line
displays the imbricate structures in
the shear zones. A top-to-west
reverse sense of shear is inferred.
Figure 9.40a: Photo of en-echelon quartz vein array at UTM 37S 190522, 8612186. The array
forms a shear, which indicates overthrusting at a shallow angle from south-southeast to northnorthwest. b: Stereonet data for the en-echelon quartz vein array. The veins dip shallowly to
the north-northwest and cut through the steep foliation (great circle). The kinematics of the
vein array suggest a shear plane with a shallow dip and reverse displacement directed
towards the north-northwest.
9.5.4 Dip-slip ductile shear zone
This locality represents a major crustal-scale shear zone with a complex movement history.
The rock type marks the deformation at the margin between the Unango Complex to the west
and the Muaquia and M'Sawize complexes to the east. The rock type is a biotite-rich sub-
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mylonitic granite. The foliation dips at a shallow angle to the east and two different sets of
folds are observed (Figure 9.41 a-c, Figure 9.42). The first set of folds (F1) has isoclinal limbs
and fold axes that are parallel to the shallow-dipping foliation and plunge down the plane of
the foliation. These are interpreted to represent an early strike-slip shearing episode along the
foliation. There is not enough evidence to determine the direction of shear as the folds are very
symmetrical. The second set (F2) are open asymmetrical folds, which verge towards the
southeast, parallel to the maximum dip of the foliation. This suggests an extensional, dip-slip
movement parallel to the foliation. This is interpreted as a later deformation event, which has
caused east-west extension across this zone. (It should be noted here, however, that this
deformation is only apparently extensional). A rotation of the flat-lying foliation towards the
east by 30 to the west would then imply a top-to-east reverse shearing.
Figure 9.41: (A) F1 isoclinal folds. The fold

axes are parallel to the flat-lying foliation and
represent a strike-slip shear movement along
the foliation. (B) F2 open, asymmetric folds.
These represent an apparent extensional dipslip movement (top-to-east) directly down the
foliation plane. (C) Fault plane mullions
created by extensional shearing down the dip
of the shear zone. These show an oblique
component of shear. (UTM 37S 248830,
8640104).
Figure 9.42: Stereonet data for mylonitic shear zone

at UTM 37S 248830, 8640104. The flat-lying, eastdipping foliation (solid great circle) represents a
major shear zone. Open circles are F1 hinge plunges.
Closed circles are F2 hinge plunges. Squares are
poles to foliation. Triangles are mullion plunges
along the foliation planes.
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9.5.5 Asymmetric north-verging, thrust-related folds

At a group of localities along a north-south profile from UTM 37S 183504, 8599338
northwards to 183378, 8599578, variations in the dip and strike of the foliation lead to the
conclusion that large-scale sub-regional fold structures are present in the paragneisses. The
foliation alternates between shallow dips to the south and moderate dips to the north (Figure
9.43). This is interpreted as being the result of folding, with roughly east-west axial traces. The
folds have a vergence towards the north and an estimated wavelength of several hundred
metres. These folds coincide with the southern margin of the map-scale shear zone, as shown
by the mylonitic biotite gneiss lithology in the southwestern part of the sheet. It is most likely
that these folds are a result of deformation in the hanging wall above the inferred displacement
along the shear zone. The geometry of these folds allows determination of the axis and sense of
displacement on the shear zone. These folds suggest an almost dip-slip displacement (with a
minor degree of sinistral displacement) with a top-to-north reverse geometry. This suggests
that the rock units to the south of the shear zone have been emplaced over the units to the north
and displaced westwards along the shear zone.
Figure 9.43: Stereonet data for regional
scale fold structures around UTM 37S
183504, 8599338. Squares are poles to
planes. Open circles are mineral lineations
on the foliation plane. The solid great circle
is the best-fit plane to the southern, shallower
fold limb. The dashed great circle is the
steeper, northern fold limb. The dotted great
circle is the estimated fold axial plane, which
verges to the north.
9.5.6 Granite mylonite

Very intensely mylonitised granite was observed at this outcrop. The shear zone is >10 m
(based on the area exposed). The grain size of the matrix in the mylonite is <0.5 mm. However,
larger porphyroblasts, up to 2 mm across, were also observed. The very intense foliation dips
gently to the east (Figure 9.44). Several mineral lineations suggest dip-slip displacement.
However, no asymmetries were observed in the porphyroblasts, therefore an inference about
the displacement sense on the shear zone could not be made. This may suggest that the shear
zone has experienced some degree of pure shear flattening (related to crustal thinning), which
would have the effect of obliterating the fabric asymmetries.
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Figure 9.44: Stereonet data for mylonitic

shear zone seen at UTM 37S 193016,
8567414. The great circles represent
foliations. The small open circles represent
mineral lineations. The inferred deformation
is dip-slip but can be either extensional or
reverse as no porphyroblast asymmetries
were observed.
9.5.7 Deformed veins in strike slip shear zone

At this locality, just a few kilometres east of the flat-lying dip-slip shear zone, described above
(Chapter 8.5.4), a 10 m wide steeply-dipping shear zone is observed in otherwise unsheared
granite/biotite gneiss (Figure 9.45). No definitive shear sense indicators are observed in the
shear zone foliation. However, the quartz vein was intruded under brittle-ductile conditions, as
the ductile foliation is perturbed at the vein margins. The vein is therefore an integral part of
the shear zone development. The vein geometry suggests an "en-echelon" tension-gash
geometry relative to the shear zone and therefore describes a dextral shear sense. This is
probably the same sense as that in the shear zone. Therefore, the shear zone indicates a dextral
sense of shear.
Figure 9.45: Photograph of north-south-striking strike-slip ductile shear zone in granitic

gneiss at UTM 37S 194697, 8566236 with additional quartz vein.
9.5.8 Shear zone bounding the Marrupa-Unango Complexes
(Sheet 1136 Milepa, UTM 37S 198161, 8690580)
The southwestern part of the Milepa sheet is dominated by north-south striking, steeply
dipping granulite rocks of the Unango Complex. However, the northeastern part of the sheet is
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dominated by a different structural trend of lower grade gneisses, which dip moderately to the
north. These form part of the Marrupa Complex. The contact between these two different
crustal units is tectonically complex and consists of several ductile shear zones with a complex
movement history. The nature of this contact is best observed at UTM 37S 198161, 8690580.
Here granitic gneisses have been strongly mylonitised over a distance of several hundred
metres (Figure 9.46). This zone is interpreted to be the contact of the Marrupa Complex with
the Unango Complex. Here the shear sense is unequivocally dip-slip (unlike most of the shear
sense indications in the Unango Complex which are strike-slip).
Figure 9.46: Stereonet data and photo for large-scale ductile shear zone separating the
Marrupa Complex from the Unango Complex at UTM 37S 198161, 8690580.
No other kinematic indicators observed in outcrop allow determination of the direction
of shear. However, an oriented thin section was prepared (Figure 9.47) and this shows that the
zone is compressional top-to-south. Therefore, the Marrupa Complex has been thrust over the
Unango Complex. Several other minor shear zones were observed parallel to the main shear
zone and parallel to the west-northwest east-southeast structural trend in the Marrupa
Complex. These have a more complex history of movement, as is shown from Figure 9.48.
Several of the shear zones, like the main bounding shear zone, display dip-slip displacement.
However, most of these smaller shear zones display oblique slip or even strike-slip
displacement. This probably demonstrates that the docking of the Marrupa Complex with the
underlying Unango Complex was a complex, episodic process probably related to
transpressional tectonics.
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Figure 9.47: Optical micrographs of microstructures from the main bounding shear zone to the
Marrupa Complex (A) Shear bands. (B) Foliation Fish. (C) Asymmetric porphyroblast. (D) SC fabric. All show a dextral movement. The Marrupa Complex is towards the top left and the
Unango Complex is towards the bottom right. The double-headed arrow shows the horizontal.
9.6
Structures observed in the Marrupa, Mecula and Macalange sheets
9.6.1 Thrusting in the Marrupa granite gneisses

Evidence of thrusting in the granitic gneisses of the Marrupa Complex is relatively common
and can be recognised in the topography with the presence of asymmetric inselbergs, which
have a steep side on the southeast and a shallow slope on the northwest (Figure 9.49a). These
structures are commonly developed on a footwall sliver of amphibolitic gneiss. These slivers of
amphibolitic material are relatively uncommon within the Marrupa Complex and therefore
appear to facilitate the development of the thrust structures as a lubricating layer. Abundant
shear-sense indicators in the amphibolitic sole demonstrate top-to-southeast reverse movement
(Figure 9.49a and d). Large brittle-ductile top-to-southeast imbricates are developed in the
hanging wall to the thrust structures in the granitic gneisses. These can be up to 10m thick
between sole and roof thrust (Figure 9.49c). Stereonet data suggest top-to-southeast dip-slip
reverse displacement (Figure 9.50).
490
Figure 9.48: Stereonet data for different ductile shear zones observed near the contact between
the Marrupa Complex and the Unango Complex. Solid lines are foliation planes. Squares are
poles to foliation, open circles are small-fold hinge plunges and solid circles are mineral
lineation. The unlabelled stereonet at the bottom right is the main shear zone shown in Figure
9.46. Most of the shear zones display the same orientation as the main crustal bounding shear
zone (DJ4, IH158, DJ6, IH159) but only one displays the same dip-slip kinematic (IH159).
Several shear zones are oriented north-south or northeast-southwest. These structures may be
related to a complex transpressional emplacement of the Marrupa Complex over the Unango
Complex.
491
Figure 9.49: Thrust structure on the Marrupa sheet. A- The structures tend to form asymmetric
klippen, with the steep side on the southeast. Granitic gneiss is normally found in the
hangingwall and amphibolitic gneiss is usually found along the thrust plane or in the footwall
B- Segmented amphibolite immediately in the footwall to the thrust. The mega-asymmetric
porphyroclasts demonstrate top-to-southeast displacement. C- Proto-imbricate stack in the
hanging wall to the sole thrust at the top of the amphibolite layer with top-to-southeast
displacement. D- Asymmetric small-folds in the footwall amphibolite with top-to-southeast
vergence.
Figure 9.50: Stereonet data for the thrust

structures observed in Figure 9.49 showing
an approximately dip-slip top-to-southeast
reverse displacement.
9.6.2 Extensional ductile shear zone

(Sheet 1237 Mecula, UTM 37S 353958, 8637452)
In the northern part of the Mecula sheet, on the northern side of the Rio Lugenda, a very
intense mylonite zone, which has a true structural thickness of approximately 100 m, is found
within Marrupa Complex gneisses (UTM 37S 353958, 8637452). This is the largest tectonic
structure seen N of the Lurio belt. The shear zone dips shallowly towards the southeast (Figure
492
9.51 and Figure 9.52) and occurs in a massive and equant grain-sized granitic gneisses, which
crops out both in the hanging- and the footwall. The wall-rock gneisses have been extensively
deformed during the shear zone evolution and large (up to 30 cm long and 15 cm wide), semiasymmetric porphyroclasts of more or less undeformed granitic pods (which now make up less
than 15 % of the rock mass) are found floating in a finer-grained, sheared groundmass of
granitic material containing abundant biotite. The sheared groundmass has suffered extensive
weathering and the rock is very crumbly, whereas the remnant pods of granitic gneiss are
relatively fresh (Figure 9.51a, c and f). Stereonet data for this shear zone is presented in Figure
9.52. Rare mineral stretching lineations and much more common stretching mullions (Figure
9.51b) are present on foliation surfaces. These demonstrate a northwest-southeast dip-slip
stretching axis. Shear kinematics in the tectonic zone are not wholly unambiguous but enough
examples of extensional shear bands (Figure 9.51a) and asymmetric porphyroclasts (Figure
9.51a, c and d) suggests a top-to-southeast shear sense. Combined with the stretching axis and
foliation data, these data suggests that this is an extensional ductile mylonitic shear zone,
which is stretching and thinning the crust on a northwest-southeast axis. The scarcity of
asymmetric shear sense indicators and the paucity of mineral stretching lineation observations
in such a strongly mylonitised rock can also be accounted for by vertical flattening of the shear
zone during its development. This would occur as a result of the crustal thinning and would
tend to flatten the asymmetric indicators making them more difficult to interpret and obliterate
the mineral stretching lineation.
Despite the low-angle nature of these structures, they can be traced out on the
aeromagnetic data as they cut through the northwest-southeast-striking orthogneiss foliation at
right angles. These structures can be mapped as an anastomosing array stretching northwestsoutheast in an approximately 100 km wide corridor stretching over several hundred kilometres
towards the southwest from Mecula, dying out in the M'Sawize Complex. This structure is
interpreted as belonging to the same structural array as those described in section 9.6.3.
These structures appear to have an added complication in their geometry, as is shown
from Figure 9.51g and Figure 9.51h. This shows an outcrop at UTM 37S 357820, 8624532,
approximately 10 km southeast of the shear zone outcrop described above. Although the
outcrop is of a much poorer quality, an identical porphyroclastic texture with a mylonitised,
orthogneissic composition is observed. We interpret this to be the same type of shear zone as
that present north of the Rio Lugenda. Here the foliation is dipping shallowly to the northwest
(see red data on Figure 9.52), with small fold shear sense indicators demonstrating a top-tosoutheast shear sense. We interpret this to be the same southeast-dipping extensional mylonite
seen north of the Rio Lugenda, but here the shear zone has been folded after formation along
an open upright fold with a northeast-southwest horizontal fold hinge, which gives an apparent
reverse sense of shear to the southeast.
9.6.3 Extensional ductile mylonitic shear zone
(Sheet 1337 Marrupa, UTM 37S 325816, 8578130)
At this locality a very intense mylonitic fabric is developed in a granitic gneiss on the Rio
Lureca. The foliation dips at a shallow angle towards the southeast and a very planar fabric is
observed, without much asymmetry, suggesting a vertical flattening of the fabric. However,
some asymmetric fabrics are observed (Figure 9.53a) along with a pronounced southeastnorthwest trending mineral-stretching lineation (Figure 9.53b) which suggests a top-to-
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Figure 9.51: Extensional mylonitic structure in the northeastern part of the Mecula sheet
(marked D on Figure 9.54). The mylonite zone is over 100 m in structural thickness. AAsymmetric porphyroclasts of granitic gneiss pods and extensional shear bands top-tosoutheast. B- Stretching mullions towards southeast. C- Top-to-southeast asymmetric clasts.
D- Top-to-southeast asymmetric clasts. E-Very flattened porphyroclasts with some top-tosoutheast asymmetry. F- Example of meso-scale porphyroclastic texture of mylonite zone. GSame mylonitic rock type found 10km south but dipping northwest suggests a folding of the
extensional structure. H- Top-to-southeast small folds at locality in G.
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Figure 9.52: Stereonet data for the

extensional ductile mylonite seen in Figure
9.51. The black symbols represent those for
the south-dipping shear zone from Figure
9.51a to f (black circles=poles to foliation,
open circles=mineral stretching lineation,
triangles=mullions). The red symbols are
from the locality of Figure 9.51g and h where
the shear zone has been folded and is dipping
northwest (red circles=poles to foliation, red
squares=small-fold hinge plunge). The large
black arrow shows the trend of crustal
extension.
southeast extensional movement. This structure has a true thickness of up to 100 m and can be
shown on the aeromagnetic map to extend for several hundred kilometres.
9.6.4 Regional-scale crustal extension structures
The M'Sawize and Muaquia Complexes occur as a regional scale circular 'pod' within the
contact zone between the Unango Complex beneath and to the west, and the Marrupa Complex
on top to the east. These rocks have previously been correlated with the rocks of the Lurio belt
by Pinna et al. (1987). However, our mapping shows that these rocks are not geologically
directly connected with the Ocua Complex, despite their lithological and metamorphic
similarities. We have decided to separate these rocks into two different complexes based on the
presence of metasedimentary and meta-intrusive rocks. The location of these rocks with respect
to the regional-scale tectonic structures is interesting (Figure 9.54).
Figure 9.53: Extensional ductile mylonitic shear zone at locality UTM 37S 325816, 8578130
(marked C on Figure 9.54). A- Both extensional shear bands and asymmetric porphyroclasts
suggests top-to-southeast extensional shear on the shallow southeast-dipping foliation. B- Dipslip stretching mineral-stretching lineation.
495
The rocks of these two complexes appear to be enveloped by an array of ductile shear zones.
These are observed in the field as very intense, crustal-scale mylonite zones, with ubiquitous
top-to-southeast extension. These structures can be mapped over a range of several hundred
kilometres on the basis of the aeromagnetic data and we interpret them as regional scale
extensional structures. Figure 9.54 shows that the extensional shear zones cut across the
tectonic boundary between the M'Sawize and Muaquia Complexes and are therefore post
nappe imbrication (see Chapter 12). They very likely exploit and reactivate earlier structures.
However, mapping shows that these structures could be associated with indications of gold
mineralisation in the area (see Chapters 13 and 14).
Figure 9.54: Interpretation map of regional scale ductile extension structures. The extensional
faults cut across the tectonic boundaries separating the tectonic complexes exposed in the
region, thus constraining their age to a post-nappe imbrication stage. These extensional shear
zones have been observed at 4 localities marked A-D. A- Shallow-angle east-dipping granitic
mylonite with dip-slip mineral lineation and vertically flattened, symmetric porphyroblasts. BObservations of early strike-slip folds and late top-to-southeast extensional folds. CExtensional top-to-southeast porphyroblasts in east-dipping granitic mylonite (see Section
9.6.3). D- Extensional ductile mylonite with top-to-southeast porphyroblasts (see Section
9.6.2).
9.7
Structures observed on sheets 1338 Namuno, 1238 Xixano, 1138 Negomano, 1139
Mueda, 1239 Meluco, 1339 Montepuez and 1340 Mecufi
This section provides a regional scale overview of the critical structures discerned from
interpreting the new geophysical data within this area. These observations on the regional scale
496
help strengthen those made on an outcrop scale, thereby providing a more robust structural
model. We attempt to present these different structures as close to a chronological order as
possible, according to our geotectonic model, which will be presented in Chapter 12. The
critical features observed from the new geophysical data are outlined below.
9.7.1 The nature of the Marrupa-Xixano Complex Contact
Figure 9.55 shows a detail of the contact relationship between the Marrupa and Xixano
Complexes. Field evidence shows that this contact is tectonic, but it is relatively poorly
exposed along all of its approximate length of ~250 km. Consideration of the 1:250,000
mapping data also demonstrates that tectonic slivers of Xixano Complex supracrustal rocks are
found tectonically emplaced within the Marrupa Complex up to 7 km west of the main contact
plane. This suggests a complex, broad contact zone between the two Complexes. The
aeromagnetic data in Figure 9.55 shows a major discordance in lineament orientation between
the two complexes, especially in the southern part of the Xixano Complex, where northnortheast-south-southwest lineaments are truncated against the contact with the Marrupa
Complex. The data shows that an approximately 10 km wide zone in the easternmost part of
the Marrupa Complex is extremely strongly banded. We interpret this as a complex, partly
mylonitised tectonic zone defining the contact between the two complexes.
Figure 9.55: Detail of the aeromagnetic data (Norconsult Consortium, 2006) of the contact
between the Marrupa and Xixano Complexes. The banded signature on the eastern margin of
the Marrupa Complex is a 10 km wide zone of intensely mylonitised granitic gneiss rocks.
9.7.2 Southwest-northeast-trending map-scale folding
As discussed above in Section 9.7.1, the Marrupa-Xixano Complex contact is a major tectonic
contact, emplacing the Xixano Complex on top of the Marrupa Complex in a southeastnorthwest directed event. However, observation of this tectonic contact shows that it has been
497
refolded. In the Negomano, Xixano and northern part of the Namuno sheets, this contact is
approximately linear and strikes north-northeast-south-southwest. However, in the southern
part of the Namuno sheet, this contact is folded into almost isoclinal, east-northeast westsouthwest-trending folds. Moreover, these folds affect the whole of the foreland to the Lurio
belt at least as far north as the Tanzanian border. For example, a large synclinal structure is
seen within the Xixano Complex (Figure 9.56). The basic intrusive rocks forming the high
magnetic part of the Xixano Complex form the core of a syncline with the supracrustal rocks to
the east lying beneath these. The supracrustal rocks are folded around the intrusive rocks at the
northern margin of the Xixano Complex near to the Tanzanian border. This fold structure, with
limbs >200 km long and a wavelength of >50 km, is interpreted as a syncline plunging at
shallow to moderate angles to the southwest. Sections 9.8.4, 9.8.5 and Chapter 11 describe
these structures in more detail.
Figure 9.56: Detail from the radiometric data (Norconsult Consortium, 2006) showing postXixano emplacement folding of the Marrupa-Xixano Complex tectonic contact. The
radiometric image spectacularly shows that the mylonitised Marrupa Complex rocks in the
footwall to the contact are also folded, demonstrating that the mylonitisation, related to the
emplacement of the Xixano Complex, is pre- folding.
9.7.3 Flexural slip on the limbs of map-scale folds
The folding described above, in Section 9.7.2 produces also secondary structures, which we
interpret to be a result of ductile flexural slip on the variably competent layers during folding.
As one example, Figure 9.57 displays a detail of the aeromagnetic data from the eastern part of
the Xixano Complex, where competent, massive quartz dioritic and charnockitic rocks (highly
magnetic) in the west are in contact with banded, less competent metasupracrustal rocks (low
498
magnetic). Here, an approximately 100 km long charnockitic lense is segmented by a northsouth-trending shear zone, which displaces the lense across it in a sinistral strike-slip motion.
This structure is interpreted as a large-scale shear band. This shear band lies on the eastern side
of a large-scale antiformal structure (see Chapter 12 for more details). Flexural slip on the
layers would produce strike-slip sinistral displacement along the layers in this location (see
inset).
Figure 9.57: Detail from the aeromagnetic data showing segmentation of a charnockitic lense
by the development of a sinistral shear band on the northwestern limb of a large-scale
antiform. Southward branching and continuation of the shear band creates a sinistral
asymmetric boudin of the charnockite. These types of structures are likely to be the result of
mega-scale flexural slip on the south limb of the regional scale synclinal fold associated with
the development of the Lurio belt (see Section 9.7.2).
9.7.4 LalamoXixano-Montepuez Complex contact relationships
In the central and western part of the Xixano Complex we relate the development of sinistral
strike-slip ductile shear zones to the development of flexural slip on the limbs of regional-scale
upright folds on a north-northeast - south-southwest trend. Examination of the aeromagnetic
data further west (Figure 9.58) shows a reversal of shear sense across the anticlinal fold
closure, which helps to strengthen the hypothesis of flexural slip on the limbs of the fold. This
picture is further complicated by the fact that subsequent sinistral strike-slip movement along
this weakened zone during the development of the pure shear conjugate shear zones discussed
in Section 9.7.5 has reactivated this contact.
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Figure 9.58: Detail from the aeromagnetic data showing reversed shear sense across an
anticlinal fold closure (fold axial trace in dashed yellow) indicating opposed senses of shear
related to flexural flow (pink annotation) on the limbs of the fold. The original flexural slip on
the eastern limb of the anticline has produced dextral slip on the Lalamo-Nairoto tectonic
contact. Subsequent sinistral slip along this weakened zone during the development of the pure
shear conjugate shear zones discussed in Section 9.7.5 has reactivated this contact and
extruded the Montepuez marbles along a north-northeast - south-southwest-trending shear
zone (solid yellow).
9.7.5 Conjugate pure shear deformation zones in the Ocua and Montepuez Complexes
On a map-scale, the Lurio belt does not display a linear geometry but rather displays a
complex, folded and kinked geometry. It is clear from the aeromagnetic data that the
mylonitised banding formed during the early stage of the Pan-African Lurio belt development
has been subsequently folded. Figure 9.59 shows an interpretation of these structures.
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Figure 9.59: Detail from the aeromagnetic data showing map-scale shear zones with opposing
senses of shear defining a conjugate system of pure-shear flattening across the zone with a
northwest-southeast trend (large arrows) The formation of the shear zones has created a set of
secondary asymmetric folds with southwest and eastward senses of vergence (yellow lines).
Two sets of late Lurio ductile shear zones have formed. These have north-northeast south-southwest and east-west orientations. These shear zones have opposing senses of shear;
the north-northeast - south-southwest structures have a sinistral sense of shear and have
secondary drag folds associated with them, which show a sinistral vergence, whereas the eastwest structures have a dextral sense of shear and develop drag folds with a dextral sense of
vergence. The shortening phase, which produced the isoclinal folds within the Lurio belt, has a
maximum compressive direction on a northwest-southeast trend. We interpret the formation of
these additional shear zone structures as a continuation of the same deformation event but in
which the Lurio belt begins to suffer pure-shear flattening along its length. Such conjugate
ductile shear zones with opposing senses of shear, deforming the original mylonitic structure,
are a natural consequence of progressive flattening pure-shear deformation in the Lurio belt.
9.7.6 Reactivation of the Marrupa-Xixano Complex contact as a brittle Karoo structure
Two separate Karoo Basins occur along the Marrupa-Xixano contact. They consist of rather
elongate depressions, which are fault-bounded on the west. It can be seen from the 1:250,000
Xixano and Negomano sheets that these basins follow the ductile structural trend of the
surrounding Marrupa and Xixano Complex units and are located within a structurally intricate
ductile tectonic zone between the two Complexes where Marrupa Complex and Xixano
Complex rocks are imbricated and juxtaposed. Moreover, the bounding brittle faults west of
the basins appear to be co-linear with the most westerly of the intense mylonites, which define
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the western margin of the ductile imbricate zone. This zone is clearly a zone of mechanical
weakness, which has been reactivated during the crustal extension, which led to formation of
the Karoo basins.
9.7.7 Tectonic contact between the Marrupa and Xixano Complexes
(Sheet 1238 Xixano, UTM 37S 445717, 8653562)
The contact between the Marrupa and Xixano Complexes is relatively poorly exposed in an
area that is generally inaccessible along a length of several hundred kilometres. We therefore
have very limited knowledge of the contact relationships at the outcrop level. However, at
several localities in the Xixano sheet, mylonitic rocks are present along the contact. These form
zones from several metres to several hundred metres wide, demonstrating that this is a major
tectonic contact. This is also illustrated from map-scale observations in Section 9.7.1. Figure
9.60 shows the best outcrop along this contact.Figure 9.60a and b show the most easterly
outcrop of Marrupa Complex before entering the Xixano Complex supracrustal rocks. Here the
contact is sheared and boudinaged and sparse kinematic indicators (asymmetric
porphyroblasts) suggest a top-to-west sense of shear (Figure 9.60b). This suggests that the
Xixano Complex has been emplaced structurally on top of the Marrupa Complex with a
movement direction from southeast to northwest. However, several hundred metres into the
Xixano Complex to the east, no evidence of this dip-slip reverse movement is preserved.
Figure 9.60c and d show asymmetric folding and shallow plunging mineral lineations in
quartzites, which suggest a strike-slip movement. We interpret this strike-slip deformation to
post-date the dip-slip thrust displacement of the Xixano Complex above the Marrupa Complex.
Figure 9.60: Outcrop observations of the Marrupa-Xixano contact at UTM 37S 445717,
8653562.
Several lines of evidence suggest this; firstly, map scale relationships, presented in
section 9.7.3, suggest a flexural slip segmentation of the Xixano Complex units postemplacement, and secondly, the fact that the metasediments are more likely to accommodate
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more deformation than the more competent orthogneisses of the Marrupa Complex and
therefore will have recorded a more long-lived deformation history. The sediments shown in
Figure 9.60c are sub-mylonitic, presumably deformed in the tectonic event, which orthogonally
emplaced the Xixano Complex on top of the Marrupa Complex. The strike-slip kinematic
structure seen in Figure 9.60c post-dates the earlier event. Therefore, the complex crustal
movements, which are demonstrated on these outcrops, are an early mylonite-forming, dip-slip,
northwest-directed overthrusting of the Xixano Complex on top of the Marrupa Complex. This
mylonitic fabric is then later folded by a strike-slip ductile shearing event.
9.7.8 Sinistral shearing on Xixano Complex mylonite
(Sheet 1138 Negomano, UTM 37S 483005, 8753234)
Strike-slip ductile shearing is also seen at locality UTM 37S 483005, 8753234 in the northern
part of the Xixano Complex supracrustal rocks, on the northwest limb of the large synclinal
fold affecting the Xixano Complex. Here, banded gneisses have a mylonitic foliation, which is
deformed into asymmetric folds, and asymmetric porphyroclasts post-dating the mylonitic
formation (Figure 9.61b). En-echelon veins also give a dextral sense of strike-slip shear along
the foliation planes. These veins are themselves sheared dextrally (Figure 9.61a). The presence
of both sinistral and dextral shear senses in this area strongly suggests that these features
represent localised simple-shear in an overall horizontal, pure-shear flattening episode with a
northwest-southeast trend.
Figure 9.61: Sinistral shear sense indicators in the northern part of the Xixano Complex. ABanded gneiss showing the development of brittleductile quartz veins with a sinistral
component of shear. B: Small asymmetric folds developed within the mylonitic foliation
showing a dextral component of shear (UTM 37S 483005, 8753234).
9.7.9 Xixano Complex emplacement-related thrusting
Section 9.7.7 describes a rare example of the nature of the tectonic contact between the
Marrupa and Xixano Complexes in which the top-to-northwest shear sense is unambiguous.
Figure 9.62 shows an example of a shallow-dipping mylonitic zone internal to the Xixano
Complex, which has more ambiguous kinematics. Despite this, it is an important outcrop. This
structure emplaces meta-arenites (A) on top of mylonitic augen gneisses (B). The kinematics
are ambiguous in the mylonite and it is therefore difficult to determine the sense of shear.
However, geometrical relationships between the hanging wall and footwall rocks may suggest
that this is a thrust with top-to-northwest movement.
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Figure 9.62: A shallow-dipping mylonitic zone in the Xixano Complex, which emplaces metaarenites (UTM 37S 438189, 8638844) (A) on top of mylonitic augen gneisses (B). The
supracrustal rocks in the hanging wall have a steeper dip than the shear zone boundaries. This
suggests a top-to-northwest thrust movement. (Inset: Poles to foliation are solid circles. Great
circle is best-fit plane to foliation and open circles are mineral stretching lineation).
9.7.10 Xixano Complex emplacement-related thrust mylonite
This outcrop demonstrates asymmetric folding of a mylonitic foliation (Figure 9.63a). The
original mylonitic foliation is extremely flattened and displays no porphyroblasts or
asymmetries. It is therefore impossible to determine the kinematics on this zone. No mineral
lineations are present. However, local folding of this mylonitic foliation shows the presence of
a relatively open, but asymmetric southeast-verging fold with a north-northeast-southsouthwest trend and a shallow plunge to the south-southwest. This fold geometry is identical to
that of the crustal-scale folding discussed above and in Chapter 12 (see later in Section 9.7.20),
which affects the whole of the Lurio foreland at least to the Tanzanian border.
Figure 9.63: Folded mylonite from the Xixano Complex. The original mylonitic foliation is
oriented north-northeast - south-southwest and is folded into an asymmetric fold, plunging at a
low angle to the south-southwest. The stereonet shows the fold geometry (solid circles: poles to
mylonitic foliation; open circles: dip-slip mineral stretching lineations). The fold has a
vergence asymmetry to the southeast and may have formed as a result of back-thrusting during
northwest-directed emplacement of the Xixano Complex over the Marrupa Complex.
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9.7.11 Thrusting in the Meluco Complex and syn-tectonic pegmatites

(Sheet 1239 Meluco, UTM 37S 556938, 8611508)
Figure 9.64 shows evidence for thrusting within the Meluco Complex. At several localities,
mylonitic shear planes, which dip between 10-25 and strike northeast-southwest are
developed. These often occur in coarse-grained granitic gneisses or in very fine-grained
amphibolitic rocks and, therefore, the development of shear sense indicators is limited.
However, the way in which syntectonic pegmatites, which display mutual crosscutting
relationships, interact with the shear zones is critical to the understanding of the shear zone
kinematics. Figure 9.64a shows a south-southeast-dipping foliation, which is cut by an
undeformed pegmatite, which has an anticlockwise geometrical relationship with regard to the
mylonitic shear-zone foliation. This demonstrates the opening of the pegmatite in a tensional
shear gash as a Mixed Mode I and II fracture, demonstrating a top-to-southeast shear direction.
Progressive ductile deformation of similar pegmatites leads to the development of partially
sigmoidal geometries in the pegmatites. These also display a top-to-southeast shearing
direction, suggesting reverse movement along the foliation. Complex deformation-pegmatite
relationships exist in the core of more discrete reverse shear zones. These are shown in Figure
9.64d. Early pre-/syndeformation pegmatites are sheared completely into parallelism with the
thrust zone foliation (X). These are cut by a second generation of pegmatites, which are folded
within the thrust zone foliation but also display southeast-verging geometries (Y). The latest
phase of pegmatite injection is synkinematic, displaying sinistral southeast-directed en-echelon
pegmatite arrays. We interpret these structures as being coaxial to the northwest-directed
thrusting interpreted to have emplaced the Xixano Complex on top of the Marrupa Complex.
Despite, the fact that these structures are southeast-directed, they probably represent the same
phase of northwest-southeast directed compression and are most likely back-thrusts to the main
northwest-directed nappe stacking event.
9.7.12 Granite mylonite with asymmetric porphyroblasts
An approximately 5-10 km wide zone on the eastern margin of the Marrupa Complex, in
contact with the Xixano Complex, is extensively deformed and is testament to the presence of
a major tectonic break between these two lithologically and tectonically distinct Complexes.
Medium- to coarse-grained felsic orthogneisses of the Marrupa Complex are transformed into
fine-grained granitic to tonalitic mylonites in this deformation zone. The contact zone generally
dips steeply, but in places shows that the Marrupa Complex sits structurally below the Xixano
Complex (Section 9.7.7). The Marrupa mylonitic rocks generally show a very symmetric,
planar texture, from which no shear sense can be determined. This tends to suggest that the
main episode of deformation, which has produced the mylonites acted perpendicularly to the
zone, inducing horizontal flattening on a northwest-southeast trend. This is also suggested by
the lack of mineral stretching lineations on the foliation surfaces, which would also be flattened
by this northwest-southeast-directed deformation. However Figure 9.65a and b show the
development of limited evidence for later sinistral, ductile strike-slip shearing of the mylonitic
foliation.
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Figure 9.64: Examples of reverse displacement suggesting thrusting and thrust related syntectonic mylonites from the Meluco sheet. A- Tension gash pegmatite emplaced in an enechelon array suggesting top-to-southeast displacement. B- Sigmoidal rotation and shearing of
a previously emplaced pegmatite during progressive deformation. C- Rotated and boudinaged
'porphyroclasts' of pegmatite. D- Three generations of pegmatite associated with thrust
emplacement. X: Early shear plane parallel pegmatites that have been sheared into the
foliation. Y: Folded pegmatites that have not yet reached parallelism with the foliation. Z: Late
en-echelon pegmatites.
Figure 9.65: Examples of granitic mylonites from the contact zone between the Marrupa
Complex and the Xixano Complex. The mylonites generally show flattened pure-shear textures,
indicating flattening across the zone, i.e. suggesting an east-west compression. However, some
minor asymmetries, which appear to post-date the flattening texture, are present. These are
rotated porphyroblasts, which suggest a later phase of sinistral shearing.
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9.7.13 Sinistral shear zone in granodioritic gneiss

Figure 9.66 shows the development of north-northeast-south-southwest-trending mylonitic
shear zones within the Xixano Complex. These outcrops lie within massive, medium- to
coarse-grained poorly-foliated quartz dioritic rocks belonging to the Serra Nicaga Suite of
intermediate to basic intrusive rocks. The shear zones tend to be localised along fine-grained
amphibolitic layers or in areas with extensive grain size reduction (Figure 9.66a). Kinematic
indicators in the mylonitic fabric are poor but progressive deformation of the shear zones has
led to the development of asymmetric, sinistral north-northeast-verging small folds. The shear
zones are generally from a few centimetres to tens of centimetres thick but map-scale
interpretation of the geophysical data (see Section 9.5.1) suggests that such structures exist on
a regional scale.
Figure 9.66: North-northeast - south-southwest-trending mylonitic shear zones within the

quartz diorite of the Xixano Complex. A- The intense mylonites are 5-10 cm wide and display a
large grain size reduction in the quartz diorite. B- The mylonites are progressively folded and
cut through by new mylonites displaying a sinistral sense of shear.
9.7.14 Example of reactivated mylonitic fabric
Figure 9.67 shows a granitic mylonite near the western margin of the Xixano Complex. This
occurs within the approximately 10 km wide sinistral mylonitic shear belt that coincides with
the Marrupa-Xixano Complex boundary. In this location the shear zone has been bent due to
subsequent foliation-parallel sinistral strike-slip shearing. Mineral stretching lineations
demonstrate that the mylonite displays a strike-slip shear sense and that this is most likely to be
sinistral when the map-scale geometrical relationships are taken into consideration. However,
the mylonite zone has been the focus for later brittle-ductile reactivation and cut by quartz
veins, which demonstrate compression post-dating the sinistral strike-slip deformation with the
compression axis on a northwest-southeast trend.
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Figure 9.67: North-northeast - south-southwest-trending granitic mylonite near the western

margin of the Xixano Complex which demonstrates strike-slip shear sense kinematics but has
since been reactivated during brittle-ductile deformation producing northwest-southeasttrending quartz veins. (Inset Stereonet: solid circles are poles to foliation, open circles are
mineral stretching lineation, triangles are poles to veins).
9.7.15 Vertical flattening in the Xixano Complex I
Evidence for late Pan-African crustal extension outside the Lurio belt is generally rare but is
seen in so many outcrops over such a wide area that outcrop evidence appears to suggest a
regional-scale extension. For example, Figure 9.68 shows southeast-dipping foliation in the
Xixano Complex, near to the contact with the Marrupa Complex. In general, the kinematics
here record an early top-to-northwest thrust stacking, followed by a north-northeast - southsouthwest foliation-parallel, flexural-slip shearing related to regional-scale fold development.
However, this outcrop displays an intense northwest-southeast mineral stretching lineation on a
plane, which dips southeast with a low angle (Figure 9.68a). Steep extensional fractures filled
by quartz (Figure 9.68b) have a northwest-southeast orientation and appear to suggest a
vertical flattening, or crustal thinning episode.
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Figure 9.68: Evidence for vertical flattening in the Xixano Complex. A dip-slip, strong
southeast-plunging mineral-stretching lineation (A) is associated with upright steep, northeasttrending quartz veins (B) which are orthogonal to the foliation planes. This suggests a subvertical maximum compressive stress and therefore crustal extension. Inset shows stereonet
data: filled circles are poles to foliation, open circles are mineral stretching lineation and
triangles are poles to veins.
9.7.16 Vertical flattening in the Xixano Complex II
Evidence for vertical flattening is also seen as far north as the Tanzanian border. On the
northwestern limb of the regional scale north-northeast - south-southwest-plunging syncline,
there are structures, which extend the crust towards the northwest. Here the foliation dips
generally to the northwest. The rocks here are generally strongly mylonitised and banded and
contain an original strike-slip kinematics, which is probably related to flexural slip on the
regional fold limbs (Figure 9.61 and Figure 9.70). However, there is also some evidence for an
extensional event, which post-dates the strike-slip deformation (Figure 9.70). This is seen in
vertical flattening boudinage (Figure 9.69a), extensional shear bands, which are steeper than
the foliation and extend down towards the northwest (Figure 9.69b) and southwest-northeasttrending small fold hinges, which are parallel to the foliation (Figure 9.69c).
Figure 9.69: North-dipping foliation on the northern limb of the regional-scale north-northeast
- south-southwest-trending syncline in the Xixano Complex. A- Top-to-north extensional shear
from asymmetric porphyroblasts. B- Top-to-north extensional shear from extensional shear
bands. C- Top-to-north shear inferred from small, asymmetric folds.
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9.7.17 Regional stereonet data associated with the Lurio belt

Figure 9.71 shows the combined foliation, mineral lineation and small-fold stereonet data for
the whole of the Lurio belt and the area immediately to the north on the western part of the
Namuno sheet and the Montepuez sheet (the Montepuez Complex). Figure 9.71a, b and c
Figure 9.70: Stereonets of foliation-small fold relationships within the northern limb of the
regional scale north-northeast - south-southwest syncline in the Xixano Complex. Filled circles
are poles to foliation, open circles are mineral stretching lineation, triangles are small-fold
hinges and stars are pegmatite veins. The data shows a conflicting picture with some outcrops
showing strike-slip ductile kinematics and some showing down-dip (top-to-north) extensional
kinematics. Those stereonets with either dip-slip mineral lineation (UTM 37S 482222,
8753826) or small fold hinges parallel to the foliation (UTM 37S 480550, 8754850) suggest
late extension.
show similar plots from different parts of the Lurio belt, which demonstrate that the foliation
strikes consistently west-southwest east-southeast and generally dips moderately or steeply to
the north-northwest. However, the difference between these stereonets lies in the mineral
lineation. Whereas the mineral lineations for the Lurio on the Montepuez sheet (Figure 9.71b)
suggest exclusively strike-slip movement, the data from the area to the north of the Lurio belt
(Figure 9.71a) and the easternmost part of the Lurio belt (Figure 9.71c) on the Mecufi sheet
suggest strike-slip movement but also contain some mineral stretching lineations, which are
down-dip. The mineral stretching lineations in Figure 9.71b agree well with the small-fold
orientation in Figure 9.71d; the folds are produced as a result of strike-slip movement on the
foliation during development of the Lurio belt. However, the mineral stretching lineations on a
north-northwest south-southeast trend represent a different deformation episode within the
Lurio history. These measurements tend to coincide with localities where evidence for ductile
extension of the Lurio belt is present. These mineral lineations are therefore most likely related
to this later event. The crustal extension of the Lurio belt will be discussed in Section 9.7.24.
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9.7.18 Pre-Lurio north-northeast - south-southwest-trending F1 cut by Lurio westsouthwest - east-northeast-trending F2

(Sheet 1339 Montepuez, UTM 37S 606216, 8465032)
Evidence for several folding events is present within the Lurio belt. Figure 9.72 shows a
locality several kilometres north of the main Lurio belt contact and therefore in an area where
some earlier structures have been preserved and where the Lurio structures are not completely
developed. Here the Lurio-aged folds, with shallow westward-plunging hinges (see inset) are
not isoclinal as they occur in the internal parts of the Lurio belt but are rather open folds. These
are observed to re-fold an earlier set of folds, tight isoclinal folds with steeply north-plunging
axial hinges.
9.7.19 Axial planar migmatisation
The relatively upright folds discussed in the previous and the following sections are associated
with late migmatisation (Figure 9.73). This occurs parallel to the relatively upright axial
planes, which strike southwest-northeast and cut through the limbs of the upright folds and an
earlier migmatisation.
9.7.20 Northeast-southwest-trending folding
West-southwest - east-northeast trending isoclinal folds within the Lurio belt are readily
apparent from the aeromagnetic data and have been previously shown at a 1:1,000,000 scale by
Pinna & Marteau (1987). However, the exact geometry of these folds has not been established.
This section describes an example of a well-exposed isoclinal fold with a wavelength of
several hundred metres. It is an asymmetric fold with a steep northern limb and a more gently
dipping southern limb (Figure 9.74). The fold hinge plunges gently to the east-northeast at
approximately 20.
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Figure 9.71: Regional

stereonet data
associated with the
Lurio belt. AContoured poles to
foliation and mineral
stretching lineation for
the northern part of the
Lurio belt and adjacent
Montepuez Complex. BContoured poles to
the southern part of the
Lurio belt. CContoured poles to
the Mecufi sheet. DPlunge of small fold
axial traces for the
Lurio belt.
Figure 9.72: Folding and refolding relationships of structures associated with the Lurio belt.
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Figure 9.73: Example of axial planar migmatisation from the Lurio belt. The migmatisation
bands are relatively discrete bands, which cut through earlier migmatites, folded in the upright
fold hinges. The late migmatisation cuts through the axial planes (see Figure 9.72; Inset and
Figure 9.74) of the upright folds associated with late open to isoclinal folding of the Lurio belt
and its foreland.
9.7.21 Pure-shear flattening conjugate zones
Post-dating the formation of the isoclinal west-southwest east-southeast-trending folds,
which define the regional grain of the Lurio belt, shear zones are developed (Figure 9.75).
Determination of kinematics from foliation bending (Figure 9.75a), asymmetric porphyroclasts
(Figure 9.75b and c), S-C fabrics (Figure 9.75d) and mineral lineation data (Figure 9.76)
demonstrates that these structures are all ductile strike-slip structures,
Figure 9.74: Stereonet data from a single
fold within the Lurio belt where it was
possible to trace the fold continuously along
its wavelength of several hundred metres.
deforming the previously formed and folded mylonitic foliation. However, in some cases these
structures display sinistral kinematics (Figure 9.75a), in other cases dextral (Figure 9.75b, c
and d). Shear zones with such opposing senses of shear are often interpreted as representing the
local simple-shear equivalent of regional-scale pure shear flattening. The development of local
pure shear conjugate shear zones with opposing senses of shear can accommodate large pure
513
shear strains across a flattening belt (Figure 9.77). We interpret these structures to be the latest
stages of compression during the formation of the Lurio belt.
Figure 9.75: Evidence in the Lurio belt for strike-slip ductile shear zones, displaying opposing
senses of shear. This suggests a conjugate set of ductile shear zones representing an overall
pure shear regime, in which the Lurio belt is being flattened after its initial development.
Figure 9.76: Stereonet data of shear zone orientation and mineral lineation data for shear
zones internal to the Lurio belt by locality (Solid circles are poles to foliation, open circles are
mineral stretching lineation and great circles are best fit planes to the shear zones. These
demonstrate strike-slip sinistral and dextral movements. Shear zones with such opposing
senses of shear are often interpreted as representing regional scale pure shear flattening.
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Figure 9.77: Schematic diagram showing the progressive deformation of the Lurio belt during
southeast-northwest-directed compression. The west-southwest - east-northeast-trending, subhorizontal, isoclinal folds are increasingly attenuated. Strain hardening during pure shear
leads to the development of localised zones of simple shear as accommodation structures for
the ongoing deformation. These are conjugate strike-slip ductile shear zones with opposing
senses of shear, which allow continued flattening across the zone. These effectively thinned and
attenuated the whole of the Lurio belt and led to ductile modification of its tectonic borders.
9.7.22 Shear zone kinematics
Within the conjugate shear zones described above in section 9.7.21, which we interpret to be
related to southeast-northwest-directed flattening of the Lurio belt, there are complicated
kinematics. These shear zones are observed on a regional scale in the aeromagnetic data (see
section 9.7.5, Figure 9.59) and are observed to post-date and deform a pre-existing mylonitic
foliation. We therefore interpret the conjugate structures seen in the field to have formed in the
latest stages of development of the Lurio belt. This agrees well with the field observations,
which show that these shear zones often cut and deform a pre-existing mylonitic foliation and
develop a well localized new mylonitic foliation. Figure 9.78a shows the development of
amphibolitic foliation fish displaying a dextral shear sense. Figure 9.78c shows the
development of a dextral S-C fabric. This S-C fabric then appears to be deformed and extended
east-west (flattened on a northwest-southeast axis) by dextral extensional shear bands Figure
9.78d and e. These extensional shear bands, both dextral and sinistral, are seen on several
scales, from several centimetres displacement, to several metres (Figure 9.78f) up to several
kilometres displacement (Figure 9.59). As a part of this complex progressive deformation
sequence, this mylonitic foliation is then itself folded (Figure 9.78g and h), in this case, by
dextral drag folds along the mylonitic foliation. These structures are also seen on a regional
scale in (Figure 9.59).
515
Therefore, we can observe that in the convoluted evolution of the Lurio belt, an initial
folded mylonitic foliation is cut by late stage conjugate shear zones, with opposing senses of
shear, thereby creating a new, localized mylonitic foliation (Figure 9.75). This mylonitic
foliation is then itself extended and flattened with the development of a second generation of
extensional shear bands in addition to the development of asymmetric drag folds. It is these
structures that define the convoluted geometry of the Lurio belt as we now see it.
9.7.23 Extensional shear bands
As well as the observation of extensional shear bands on a regional scale, as postulated in
Figure 9.77, they are also observed on outcrop scale. Figure 9.79a shows a truncated, sheared
mafic lense within a migmatitic gneiss. This has been sheared along a structure, which is
rotated anti-clockwise from the main east-northeast-west-southwest Lurio trend, with a sinistral
sense of shear. Figure 9.79b shows a similar segmentation of a west-southwest - east-northeaststriking mafic band, which has been dissected with a dextral sense of shear. These two
examples demonstrate two opposing senses of secondary extensional shear along the same
main west-southwest - east-northeast shearing plane. This suggests that they formed as a result
of localised simple shear in response to southeast-northwest directed pure-shear flattening of
the Lurio belt along its length.
9.7.24 Crustal extension in the Lurio belt
The Lurio belt was therefore developed accommodating a southeast-northwest-trending
transpressional zone in which east-northeast - west-southwest-trending sub-horizontal, isoclinal
folds developed. These folded a pre-existing mylonitic foliation. These folds were dissected by
a set of later east-west and north-northeast - south-southwest ductile conjugate shear zones,
which convoluted the outcrop pattern of the Lurio belt. However, this was not the final phase
of ductile deformation to affect the Lurio belt. We provide evidence that the whole of the
accreted crust northwards, to at least the Tanzanian border, was thinned during a ductile
extensional event after the development of the Lurio belt. The focus for this extension was the
pre-existing zone of weakness along the Lurio belt. Some evidence for this, which is both
pervasive and focused, is presented in Figure 9.80. The pervasive evidence is subtle but is
shown in Figure 9.80a and b, which display asymmetric porphyroblasts. These are two
examples of many across the Lurio belt, which show large feldspar porphyroblasts in the northdipping foliation. These are surrounded by predominantly biotite-rich pressure shadows which
have an asymmetry which suggests top-to-north shearing, i.e. down-the dip of the plane. This
therefore suggests a crustal thinning event, in which the maximum compressive stress is
vertical, i.e. crustal extension.
The evidence from the asymmetric porphyroblasts is supported by the presence of
extensional shear bands. Unlike the extensional shear bands related to the horizontal flattening
of the Lurio belt presented in section 9.7.23. These structures have the same strike as the
foliation, which dips gently to the north, and are slightly steeper. They are ductile structures,
which displace the mylonitic foliation with a dextral sense of shear, top-to-north (Figure 9.80c
and d). This again suggests a component of vertical flattening with a sub-vertical maximum
compressive strength. i.e. crustal extension. These shear-band structures can also form
conjugate sets (Figure 9.80f), which strike east-northeast west-southwest but with a vertical
acute bisectrix. This also suggests a maximum compressive stress and crustal extension. The
development of asymmetric small-folds within the foliation is also a sign of crustal extension,
where they have a sense of shearing top-to-north (Figure 9.80e). Boudinage, which shows a
vertical flattening, is also indirect evidence for crustal extension. This is rarely observed but
516
Figure 9.78: Detailed shear zone kinematics from a major dextral shear zone within the Lurio
belt. See text for explanation.
517
Figure 9.79: Examples of extensional shear bands within the Lurio belt. These show opposing
senses of shear (A- sinistral, B- dextral) and are interpreted as representing large-scale pureshear flattening across the Lurio belt on shear zones oriented east-west and north-northeast south-southwest.
Figure 9.80e shows a boudin-neck, which has been filled with pegmatitic material. Zircons
have been extracted from this boudin. The zircons date exactly the age of the crustal extension
at ~530Ma.
Extensional shear zones (Figure 9.80h) are very rarely seen. These have gentler dips
than the Lurio mylonitic foliation, which they cut. The shear zones are no more than several
tens of centimetres wide, but display mylonitic fabrics. The pre-existing Lurio foliation in the
footwall is bent downwards as it approaches the shear zone. This suggests a top-to-north
extensional displacement on the shear zone. Small folds within the new mylonitic shear zone
fabric have axes, which are parallel to the strike of the foliation and have an asymmetry, which
suggest top-to-northwest displacement. This also suggests that the shear zones formed during
crustal thinning. A sample collected from this shear zone shows the presence of both orthoand clinopyroxene in asymmetric porphyroblasts suggesting that these extensional structures
were still forming in the granulitic facies.
The presence of top-to-northwest-directed crustal extension and thinning probably
accounts for the wide spread of mineral lineations in Figure 9.71a and c. The strike-slip
mineral stretching lineations, which plunge at shallow angles either to the west-southwest or
east-northeast, represent the early phase of Lurio belt development in its eastern sector, which
resulted in isoclinal folding followed by east-west segmentation. The mineral lineations, which
plunge at shallow angles towards the northwest or north-northwest, are more likely to be the
latest phase of deformation related to the development of the extensional structures. As
discussed in the next sections, though, the western sector of the Lurio belt is characterized by
different structures, which require a separate analysis.
At least the earliest phase of Lurio development in the eastern part of the Lurio belt. This
early deformation is probably a secondary phase, which overprints an earlier phase, which is
only present in the western Lurio belt (Malema sheet). The picture becomes more complicated
farther east in the Lurio belt, where the late deformation of the conjugate shear zones and the
extensional shearing overprints the earlier deformation, which is now only present in the
western Lurio belt.
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Figure 9.80: Examples of ductile crustal extension associated with the Lurio belt. See text for
explanation.
519
9.8
Structures observed on sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi
9.8.1 Introduction
Mapping at 1:250,000 scale of sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi (Figure 9.81)
has generated new information on the regional structural framework and tectonostratigraphic
relationships of the Lurio belt (Figure 9.1 for location of the area under discussion).
Figure 9.81: New geological map of sheets 1437 Malema to the west and 1438 RibuMecuburi to the east.
Integration of field observations from this area with the results of the new geophysical
survey provided key elements for the construction of a consistent tectonic model for northern
Mozambique.
9.8.2 Brief structural overview
Figure 9.81 and Figure 9.82 show the extent of the area that is analysed from a structural
perspective in this section. Figure 9.82 also portrays an example of the available geophysical
coverage that can be used to integrate field observations and to discuss the structural trends of
the region.
The aeromagnetic and radiometric survey (Norconsult, 2006) covers unfortunately only
the northernmost portion of the two sheets. Sheet 1437 Malema is covered by the new highresolution data for three quarters of its surface, whereas sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi only for
the northernmost half. Nonetheless, in spite of the significant contrast in the data quality
between the old and the new datasets, a clear structural picture can be gained from analysis of
Figure 9.82.
The area mapped can be subdivided into two main tectono-structural subdomains based
on the presence of the east-northeast west-southwest-trending Lurio belt that separates the
Nampula Complex to the south from the tectonostratigraphically higher Marrupa Complex to
the north (Figure 9.83). The Lurio belt itself represents a third structural unit. It is cored by
tectonically transposed lenses of granulite, which decrease in abundance to the west and much
of the southern margin of the belt is marked by a characteristically highly sheared quartz520
feldspar gneiss. These lithologies have been assigned to the newly established Ocua Complex
(see chapter 6.14). In the following we will address the main structures that characterise the
region and make an interpretation of them as part of a coherent structural scheme across the
whole of northern Mozambique.
Figure 9.82: Example of the geophysical coverage of sheets 1437 Malema (west) and 1436
Ribu-Mecuburi (east). The figure is a combination of airborne magnetic and radiometric
data for the high-resolution northern part and airborne magnetic for the southern portion.
It is noteworthy to remark that structures from the western sector of the Lurio belt differ
significantly from those observed in its eastern sector (Montepuez region, see above starting
from section 9.7.17). In the east, the geometry of the belt is intense and linear, whereas in the
west it becomes wider and less belt-like in character. This observation applies to the Malema
and Ribu-Mecuburi areas. Furthermore, in sheet 1437 Malema the structural complexity
increases compared to the neighbouring eastern Ribu-Mecuburi area. As discussed below,
and in the chapter dealing with the geodynamic-tectonic framework for northern Mozambique,
the along-strike variation in structural character of the Lurio belt is due to a Pan-African phase
of northwest-southeast-oriented crustal shortening and folding. The Malema area is located at
the closure of a complex system of folds that disrupt the otherwise continuous and linear
character of the Lurio belt as exposed farther east.
Such along-strike increase in structural complexity is also reflected in the difficulty of
tracing the boundaries of the Lurio belt itself. This is a rather straightforward task in its eastern
sector, but in the west the belt's tectonic boundaries become very diffuse and unclear. Whereas
the southern limit is commonly highlighted by a very persistent magnetic low, corresponding
in the field to a very continuous, highly-sheared meta-rhyolitic quartz-ribbon quartz-feldspar
gneiss (thick grey line in the geological maps of Figure 9.81 and black line of Figure 9.83), the
northernmost limit of the belt in the west is not clearly identifiable in the field and does not
correspond to any specific geophysical signature.
521
Figure 9.83: Subdivision of the area into lithotectonic complexes.
9.8.3 The Lurio belt

The Lurio belt is defined on a regional scale as a northeast-southwest-striking shear zone
(Jourde and Vialette, 1980). It forms a very pervasive feature that defines the overall structural
framework of the Malema and Ribu-Mecuburi region. Here the belt is characterized by a
strong planar fabric striking east-northeast west-southwest (Figure 9.84 and Figure 9.85) and
dipping 30-45 NW.
Figure 9.84: Foliation and lineation map of the Lurio belt. Sheet 1437 Malema is to the west
and sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi to the east.
522
The strong east-northeast west-southwest planar fabric of the Lurio belt in the east is
gradually lost in sheet 1437 Malema, where there is a progressive large-scale bending of the
foliation to a northwesterly strike (Figure 9.84). The relative scatter of Lurio belt poles to
foliation around the strong southeast-plunging main cluster shown in Figure 9.85 reflects the
increase of structural complexity in this area. Lurio fabrics and together with them Ocua
Complex lithologies are in fact folded around and transposed by generally northeast-southwest
trending folds and in the hinge area they attain mostly northwest-southeast strikes (Figure 9.84
and Figure 9.85).
The Lurio fabric is defined by a penetrative gneissic protomylonitic to mylonitic
foliation at the outcrop scale and by the strong transposition and lateral attenuation of the
granulites of the Ocua Complex. As discussed below, the dominant foliation is interpreted as
an S1/S2a composite axial planar foliation. The earlier S1 fabric is defined by a pervasive
metamorphic foliation outlined by alternating felsic segregations and mafic layers.
Figure 9.85: Pole to foliations (to the left) and stretching lineation/crenulation axis (to the
right) stereoplots of the Lurio belt in sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi.
Lineations (both stretching lineations and crenulation axes) generally plunge
moderately to the northwest, although a significant dispersion is recorded (Figure 9.85). In
more detail, there are a significant number of northeast- and west/west-southwest-plunging
lineations. This trend is regional and can be observed within the Lurio belt and the Nampula
and Marrupa Complexes (Figure 9.86).
A very characteristic rock type of the Ocua Complex is medium-grained, pale-grey
mylonitic quartz-feldspar gneiss that contains stretched quartz ribbons parallel to the foliation
planes (unit P3OCgr) (Figure 9.87a). This lithology forms an almost continuous marker in these
two sheets and has been used as the southernmost boundary of the Lurio belt. The foliation
dips very consistently at a moderate angle to the northwest in the entire area and contains a
very coarse lineation plunging steeply northwest, commonly down dip (green pencil in Figure
9.87b). The nature of the lineation is generally very unclear, resembling stretching lineations
or, more convincingly, crenulation axes.
523
Figure 9.86: Lineation map: sheets 1437 Malema ( west) and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi (east).
Figure 9.87:a): Ribbon quartz pale-grey sheared quartz-feldspar gneiss (UTM 37S 296886,
8341001), with the foliation defined by alternating K-feldspar-plagioclase layers and stretched
quartz ribbons. b): northwest-plunging intersection lineation (green pencil) and westsouthwest- plunging crenulation axis (blue pencil) preserved on a foliation plane of the
sheared leucogneiss (UTM 37S 289553, 8360338). Stereonets plot poles to foliation (solid
dots) and lineations (intersection and stretching lineations) measured for the sheared
leucogneiss.
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The overall structure of the area under discussion is controlled by a polyphase folding
history developed in response to several shortening events. Individual folds and fold trains
shape the regional structural grain and their superposition led to complex interference patterns
recognisable at a variety of scales. The folding history of the whole area, starting from the
youngest folding phase, is as follows:
9.8.4 F2a and F2b folding phase
The dominant regional foliation in the Lurio belt is an S1/S2a composite transposed fabric
derived from the isoclinal folding and transposition/attenuation of an S1 foliation around westsouthwest - east-southeast trending folds (F2a). F2a folds are tight to isoclinal, generally
subhorizontal (Figure 9.88a-c) and commonly upright (great circles in stereonet of Figure
9.88). Only a few exposures could be documented within the belt due to the scarcity of
outcrops, although these folds are readily apparent from the aeromagnetic data and have also
been shown previously at a 1:1.000.000 scale by Pinna and Marteau (1987).
They are very common also in the Nampula and Marrupa Complexes (see below),
although there they generally have a more open geometry. Locally within the Lurio belt these
folds are significantly flattened and disrupted along their limbs leading to significant
transposition. The example in Figure 9.88a shows slightly asymmetric tight folds with
subhorizontal axial planes. Their recumbent attitude is due to subsequent folding around
slightly younger coaxial open folds (F2b). F2a fold axes plunge gently west/west-southwest and
form coarse intersection lineations on the foliation planes (blue pencil in Figure 9.87b and
Figure 9.88b). Figure 9.88c shows an F2a isoclinal fold deforming and transposing Lurio S1
foliation planes. The stereonet of Figure 9.88 plots the orientation of fold axial planes (great
circles), fold axes (crosses) and stretching lineations (solid dots) measured in the belt. It is clear
that most of the east-northeast west-southwest-trending folds have moderate to steep
northwest - north-northwest dipping axial planes that correspond in orientation to the overall
planar attitude of the Lurio foliation, thus confirming the composite axial planar origin of the
regional belt foliation.
F2b folds are the most common structural feature in the whole area and outcrop at all
scales. They represent the result of continuous shortening and its accommodation by folding of
the S1/S2a transposed fabric about east-northeast - west-southwest trending axes.
525
Figure 9.88: Stereonet plotting F2-fold axial planes (great circles) and linear features
associated with them (solid dots). Red crosses plot northwest-plunging fold axes positively
identified in the field. a): Asymmetric F2a folds rotated to a recumbent attitude by later F2b
folds (UTM 37S 419522, 8435342). b): White dashed lines highlight crenulation axes of the
folds shown in a) as seen on a northwest-dipping foliation plane (UTM 37S 419522, 8435342).
c): F2a isoclinal fold transposing S1 fabric (UTM 37S 420988, 8435616). d): F1 northwestplunging fold and associated axial planar cleavage (UTM 37S 289845, 8360579). e): F1
northwest-plunging isoclinal fold. f): F1 northwest-plunging folds and associated shallow
northwest-dipping axial-plane cleavage (UTM 37S 458545 8368222).
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Figure 9.89: Fold axis contour plot. An east-northeast - west-southwest-trending maximum

represents the dominant fold axis orientation in the region. Northwest-plunging axes are
believed to represent either F2a axes passively rotated around F2b folds or possibly F1 axes (see
below).
They trend very consistently east-northeast-west-southwest and are thus subparallel to
F2a folds (Figure 9.89). We interpret the northwest-moderately plunging axes in Figure 9.89 to
represent either F2a axes that are passively rotated around F2b folds and are still recognisable in
their hinge area or earlier, preserved F1 axes, as discussed in more detail below. F2b folds are
generally upright although they tend to become progressively more inclined to the northwest
when approaching the Lurio belt.
Folding must have taken place under amphibolite-facies conditions as suggested by
abundant quartz-plagioclase leucosomes that inject within polyphase migmatitic rocks along
their F2b axial plane directions and by the assemblage hornblende-garnet that wraps around
primary granulite assemblages within the Ocua Complex granulites in structural sites
geometrically linked to the folding phase. F2b folds occur as isolated folds or as continuous fold
trends. A secondary S2b axial plane cleavage, defined by quartz-plagioclase leucosomes, can be
very pervasive at the outcrop scale within high-melt proportion migmatites (Figure 9.90b and
d, Figure 9.91a and d). Figure 9.90 and Figure 9.91 show field examples of F2b folds
F2a and F2b are coaxial and we interpret them as due to different phases of the same progressive
shortening event. They are distinguished based on differing geometry. F2a folds are tight to
isoclinal and are generally typical of the Lurio belt. Within the belt, probably due to the
presence of an older, inherited mechanical weakness zone, they localised an important amount
of strain. F2b folds, which are found in the whole of the area described in this explanation, are
instead open and there is evidence suggesting that they postdate F2a.
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Figure 9.90: Subhorizontal F2b upright, open to tight folds, in partially migmatitic rocks,
locally characterized by the development of pervasive, axial plane cleavages injected by
leucosomes. a): Amphibolitic layer folded around a west-southwest-plunging axis (UTM 37S
339123, 8346226). b): Leucosome-injected axial plane cleavage of tight upright folds striking
southwest-northeast (UTM 37S 399065, 8444578). c): Train of upright, slightly asymmetric
folds striking southwest-northeast (UTM 37S 406474, 8440008). d): Leucosome injected
parallel to pervasive axial plane cleavage striking southwest-northeast (UTM 37S 478646,
8342170).
528
Figure 9.91: Subhorizontal F2b upright, open folds, locally leading to the development of
pervasive, leucosome-injected, axial plane cleavage. a): Upright west/west-northwest
east/east-southeast-trending axial plane cleavage in banded biotite gneiss (UTM 37S 375126,
8349512). b): Early isoclinal fold (F2a structure) refolded by east-west-trending F2b folds
(UTM 37S 375126, 8349512). c): Train of upright F2b folds (UTM 37S 375126, 8349512). d):
Rootless isoclinal folds separated by leucosome injections along upright F2b axial planes
(UTM 37S 369359, 8343265).
The whole Lurio belt structure, shaped by F2a folds, is itself folded around F2b axes.
This conclusion is supported by the interpretation of geophysical patterns in the southernmost
part of sheet 1437 Malema (Figure 9.92a) and by the mapping of a few outcrops of the Ocua
Complex ribbon-quartz quartz-feldspar gneiss, which, south of Malema, flattens out around an
axis plunging gently W/west-southwest and even dips locally to the southeast (Figure 9.92b).
In more detail, Figure 9.92a shows that the southernmost boundary of the Lurio belt
529
(highlighted by the strongly sheared quartz-ribbon quartz-feldspar gneiss and by the strong
magnetic low) is folded by F2b axes (white dashed lines). Immediately south of it, within the
Nampula Complex, there is evidence for an earlier isoclinal fold (probably an F2a structure,
shown by the yellow dashed axial trace) locally refolded by the F2b fold. To the west of this
fold closure, the Lurio belt structural grain becomes very weak and difficult to define and the
geophysical signature also becomes less pronounced. We interpret this to be due to folding
that, in the hinge zone, flattens out the fabric and weakens the map view of the strong linear
trend farther east.
Figure 9.92: a): Interpretation of the geophysical data covering the southwest-corner of sheet
1437 Malema. The southwest-plunging closure of a large-scale S2b fold is shown by the
continuous white line, which corresponds to the southern boundary of the Lurio belt as defined
by the spatially continuous aeromagnetic low and the presence of the quartz-ribbon quartzfeldspar gneiss. White dashed lines are F2b axial traces. The yellow dashed line represents an
earlier F2a axial trace locally reworked by the F2b fold. b): Outcrop of subhorizontal quartzribbon quartz-feldspar gneiss near the closure of the F2b shown in part a) (UTM 296248,
8342594).
9.8.5 Megascopic example of an F2b fold closure in Malema
More evidence about the nature of F2b structures can be gathered by detailed analysis of the
new geophysical data for the southwest corner of sheet 1437 Malema. Figure 9.93 is a
combination of radiometric total count and aeromagnetic data and shows the western
termination of a large F2b synform. The "bluish" rock body (a combination of Ocua and
Marrupa lithologies) defines the closure of the fold around a gently southwest-plunging axis.
Southwest of the closure there are several southwest-northeast-trending magnetic lineaments
that correspond to granite dykes (west-southwest - east-northeast-trending yellow lines). It is
interesting to note that they strike parallel to the orientation of the fold axial plane trace and
intrude only in the outer part of the hinge where, as may be expected, due to folding of the
multilayer system, a tensional field developed along the outer arc of the fold. The
accompanying dilation was exploited by synkinematic granite magmas to intrude and form
structurally controlled dykes.
The same area displays northwest-southeast-trending upright folds and associated cleavage
(dashed white lines) that are at odds with the regional orientation of the structural grain.
Several possible alternatives are considered:
1. The most likely possibility is that the folds are the very same F2a folds that characterise
the Lurio belt farther east, and that are simply passively folded and bent as rigid
material lines around the nose of the F2b synform. Interference figures are not
530
developed at the map scale probably due to the different amplitude and wavelength of
the two generations of folds in this area, although detailed interpretation of the
geophysical dataset shows small-scale northwest-southeast trending folds crenulated
around northeast-southwest trending axes, thus strengthening this interpretation.
2. These structures could otherwise be older features, totally unrelated to the folding
history discussed here and would be preserved in a "strain shadow" formed by the fold
closure. They would be remnants of an earlier structural history, not preserved
elsewhere due to strong subsequent structural overprinting. Folds described as
characteristic for the D1 event are also found in the Malema region (F1, see section
9.8.6), but differ significantly in terms of geometry, given their tight to isoclinal shape
and the northwest-dipping axial planes, as opposed to northwest-southeast trending
open, upright folds described here.
3. These folds are younger than any other structures observed in the area. However, we
consider this possibility very unlikely, as similar structures were not observed
elsewhere in the area and their formation would require a quite remarkable regional
stress-field re-orientation leading to a northeast-southwest-oriented shortening
direction. As discussed below, other localized occurrences of northwest upright
trending folds and associated cleavage are interpreted as resulting from the kinematic
superposition and interference between F1 (see next section) and F2a and F2b folds (see
section 9.8.7). This third explanation is therefore considered to be unrealistic.
Figure 9.93: Combination of aeromagnetic and radiometric data with a virtual illumination
source in the northwest for the northernmost portion of sheet 1437 Malema. The bluish rock
body highlights the closure of a large-scale F2b synform. Yellow lines are east-northeast - westsouthwest-trending granitic dykes parallel to the southwest-plunging F2b fold axis.
531
9.8.6 D1 deformation and F1 folding phase

Stretching lineations in the area are defined by hornblende, biotite or coarse quartz crystals. As
discussed above, they display a scattered distribution but can nonetheless be grouped into two
coarse clusters. The first cluster is spatially coincident with the F2a and F2b west/westsouthwest-plunging fold axes. As mentioned above, given the high degree of S1 transposition
into S2a and S2b, there are objective difficulties in distinguishing coarse mineral and stretching
lineations from crenulation axes and thus intersection lineations. Many readings believed to
represent stretching lineations (solid dots in Figure 9.88 and Figure 9.89) may thus well be
crenulation axes.
A second, rather distinct but scattered group of lineation measurements plots in the
fourth quadrant with a gentle to moderate plunge to the northwest. This orientation corresponds
to the "classic" stretching direction generally attributed to the Lurio belt, combined with top-tosoutheast kinematics (see also Figure 9.84 and Figure 9.86). However, no clear kinematic
indicators were observed in sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi to be associated
with this lineation direction. We found no evidence of significant across- or along-strike simple
shear associated with the initial development of the Lurio belt. There is only minor evidence of
localised, post-F2 conjugate shear zones, which accommodate the latest strain increments
within the Lurio belt (see also sections 9.7.5, 9.7.21 and 9.8.8). These are discrete shear zones
and their strike-slip strain is geographically very limited in extent. This implies that the
tectonic models that allow for major thrusting or belt-parallel shearing in the Lurio belt must be
re-evaluated in the light of our new findings.
The northwest-plunging lineations are a peculiar characteristic of the Lurio belt only in
the Malema and Ribu-Mecuburi areas. As shown in Figure 9.71b the easternmost sector of
the belt lacks significant northwest-plunging lineations and crenulation axes and is instead
dominated by F2a and F2b related fold axes, in addition to linear structures formed in response
to the accommodation of pure shear conjugate shear zones (e.g. Figure 9.75 and Figure 9.76)
during post F2 stages. Northwest-plunging linear features are interpreted there to be the result
of the later top-to-northwest extension that is believed to have affected the entire region. A
similar interpretation can be put forward for the western sector of the belt as well. However, as
mentioned above, northwest-plunging linear elements found in Malema and Ribu-Mecuburi
can also be interpreted as being mostly crenulation axes of a different, earlier fold generation
(F1). Evidence for D1 is not preserved extensively and only very scarce structural evidence in
support of it could be found (red crosses in the stereonet of Figure 9.88). Figure 9.88d shows
an outcrop containing an F1 fold. It is a mesoscopic, inclined open fold, plunging northwest.
The Lurio S1 foliation is axial planar to the fold. Figure 9.88e shows another example of a
northwest-plunging fold, with isoclinal geometry and partially transposed limbs. Figure 9.88f
shows another clear field example of a 35 northwest-dipping cleavage that is axial planar to
northwest-plunging folds. The origin of these folds, their associated cleavages, and the
explanation for how their different orientation fits into regional structural models are not clear.
Their relative timing with respect to S1 is unclear but D1 might be genetically associated with
the metamorphic layering and differentiation. D1 predates the development of deformation
phase D2 (a+b) that shaped the present day Lurio belt. It is important to stress, however, that D1
structures were found only in the westernmost part of the Lurio belt and seem to be missing
farther east, probably due to the stronger overprint of the Lurio belt during the latest stages of
northwest-southeast compression and pure shear accommodation and to the development of
significant localised simple shear in the conjugate strike-slip shear zones. Unfortunately field
evidence to constrain the D1 phase of deformation kinematically is lacking and any further
532
discussion of the nature and geometry of this deformation episode at present remains
speculative.
As shown in Figure 9.86, northwest-plunging linear fabrics are actually very common
in the area, and an understanding of their origin is crucial for any structural model of the
region. As suggested for the Lurio belt farther east, some of the northwest-plunging lineations
could also be kinematically linked to a post F2b phase of top-to-northwest extension. However,
no extensional kinematics were observed in the Malema and Ribu regions, making therefore
such suggestion only a working hypothesis for the western sector of the Lurio belt.
9.8.7 Interference pattern between F1 and F2a/F2b
One of the most important features that enables two fold systems of different generations to be
distinguished is the special patterns of the traces of folded layering as seen on a rock outcrop
surface, or on maps and geophysical datasets. The kinematic superposition of two phases of
fold-forming deformation produces a variety of three-dimensional geometric forms on any
initial set of planar layers, and differently oriented two-dimensional sections through the
different types of layer morphology lead to different types of two-dimensional traces of the
layers, termed fold-interference patterns.
Figure 9.94 shows some of the interference patterns recognised at the outcrop scale and
on the new geophysical maps. We interpret these patterns as being due to the superposition of
upright subhorizontal F2a and F2b folds on the gently northwest-dipping F1 folds. Resulting
interference patterns are of the so-called type II, or mushroom type according to the
classification of Ramsay (1967), with the first fold axial surfaces becoming strongly folded.
The model in Figure 9.94 shows different possible interference figures that vary according to
the two-dimensional observation surface considered, and some of the equivalents observed in
the field and in the geophysical data sets. Type II interference figures are observable within the
Lurio belt and in its immediate vicinity and seem to be more common in the western sector of
the belt, where, as discussed above, F1 structures are still preserved, as opposed as to the east.
The very distinctive large, fold structure so clearly visible on the geological map as
well as in the topography of the Ribu-Mecuburi area is thus interpreted as a type II
interference figure (Figure 9.94b).
It is worth noting that, as shown in Figure 9.94a and Figure 9.94b, the folds in the core of the
"mushroom" refolded structure have an overall northwest-trend and are generally upright.
Mecuburi metaconglomerates are found preserved in similarly oriented structural sites. The
Alto Benfica metasedimentary rocks farther southwest are themselves within northwesttrending open folds, possibly suggesting their selective preservation only in the
533
Figure 9.94: Chosen examples of type II interference patterns derived from the kinematic
superposition of F1 and F2a and F2b folds in the central-western sector of the Lurio belt. The
model shows the expected interference patterns for differently oriented cross sections and some
of the field examples suggested as their equivalents.
534
core of the interference pattern figures, structurally and topographically slightly more
depressed than the surroundings. Nonetheless, it cannot be excluded that some of the
northwest-southeast-trending fabrics are older and are inherited from previous tectonic phases.
According to our interpretation, elliptical structures visible on regional maps or at the
outcrop scale, such as those of Figure 9.94c, f and h, are not "eye structures" derived from the
intersection of high-strain sheath folds, but are instead due to the geometric patterns resulting
from the intersection between the complex three dimensional interference figures and the
topography.
9.8.8 Conjugate shear zones
Like the eastern part of the Lurio belt, the Malema and Ribu-Mecuburi areas also contain
sets of conjugate ductile shear zones that are interpreted as accommodation structures, related
to the latest increments of the regional northwest-southeast shortening. Figure 9.95 shows
some of the structures that could be identified from the geophysical data (Norconsult
Consortium, 2006). Dextral east-west- to east-northeast/west-southwest-trending ductile shear
zones deflect the Lurio belt regional foliation and led to the development of asymmetric folds.
Foliation asymmetry and vergence of asymmetric folds can be used to establish the kinematics
of the shear zones. North-northeast - south-southwest-trending sinistral shear zones form the
conjugate equivalent to the dextral faults and help to constrain a roughly northwest-southeastoriented greatest compressive horizontal stress, which is the same as the reconstructed
shortening direction farther east.
Figure 9.95: Large-scale examples of sets of conjugate ductile shear zones (black dashed
lines). Their kinematics can be constrained thanks to the asymmetric sigmoidal bending of the
external foliation in the shear planes and to the development of asymmetric folds (red lines).
Sheet 1437 Malema is to the west and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi to the east.
9.8.9 Structures in the Nampula Complex
Sinistral-shear corridor/flexural flow model?: Figure 9.96 is a foliation map of the Nampula
Complex south of the Lurio belt for sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi. The
regional foliation trends generally east-west, although with several exceptions. The most
535
significant difference is the area of northwest-southeast foliation orientation that is observed

within lithologies of the Mecuburi Complex in the eastern part of sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi.
The Mecuburi Complex lies nonconformably on the Nampula Complex.
The Nampula Complex, immediately south of the Lurio belt, is dominated by the
presence of subhorizontal F2b upright folds that strike east-northeast-west-southwest (solid dots
in Figure 9.97). The geometry of the folds changes progressively from open in the east
(Ribu-Mecuburi) to close and tight farther west (western Ribu-Mecuburi and Malema).
This is interpreted to be due to the fact that, given the east-northeast-west-southwest strike of
the Lurio belt and the slightly discordant east-west trend of the Nampula Complex (Figure
9.97) in the sheets under discussion, there is a stronger structural influence of the Lurio belt on
the Nampula Complex in the west. As mentioned above, folds within the Lurio belt are
generally tighter than those in the Nampula and Marrupa Complexes, and the observed
gradient suggests a gradual transition from one fold style to the other.
Figure 9.96: Foliation map of the Nampula and Mecuburi Complexes, located to the south of
the Lurio belt, whose southernmost boundary is here shown by the red line.
Figure 9.97: Crosses are poles to foliation of
the Nampula Complex; solid dots are F2b fold
axes. The great circles show the overall trend
of the Lurio belt and of the Nampula
Complex within sheets Ribu-Mecuburi and
Malema.
536
The Nampula Complex is locally quite strongly sheared. Field observations suggest a
consistent sinistral kinematics along the southern margin of sheets Ribu-Mecuburi and
Malema. Although no direct age constraints exist on this shearing episode, we tentatively
suggest it to be synkinematic to the regional-scale F2b folds. As discussed in section 9.7.4 and
in Chapter 11, we have observed systematic shear sense inversion across the hinges of F2b
folds, a fact that suggests flexural flow of a multi-layer system as the dominant folding
mechanism. The Lurio belt and the contiguous Nampula Complex are themselves part of the
large F2b fold system that affects the whole of northern Mozambique (see Chapter 12). A major
antiform (cored by the Nampula Complex) is inferred to occur immediately to the south of the
Lurio belt (see Chapter 12) and we tentatively suggest that the shear corridor that affects the
Nampula Complex in the area under discussion reflects local oblique shearing (linked to the
folding process) along the limb of such large-scale fold. The northernmost part of the type II
interference figure in sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecuburi (Figure 9.94b, but also of the interference
figure of Figure 9.94a, immediately south of sheet 1437 Malema) shows a progressive bending
of the fold axial planes from north-south to northwest-southeast, consistent with an increased
amount of sinistral shearing component to the north. This requires sinistral shearing to be, at
least in part, post F1 + F2a, b superposition.
9.8.10 Structures in the Marrupa Complex
Figure 9.98: Combination of airborne aeromagnetic and radiometric data with a virtual
illumination source to the northwest. White lines outline the "Nipepe Klippe".
The Nipepe klippe: Mapping of the northeastern corner of sheet 1437 Malema showed the
presence of granulitic gneisses lithologically similar to those of the Ocua Complex. They
537
occupy the core of the newly established Nipepe klippe (Figure 9.98), while their envelope is
composed of high-grade migmatitic paragneisses mainly consisting of fine- to mediumgrained, biotite-bearing quartzo-feldspathic gneiss with some garnet. Two separate units, a
larger eastern one and a smaller western body make up the klippe. They are both discordant to
their substratum, lithologically as well as structurally. The internal structural grain of the larger
eastern unit strikes north-south and is discordant with the east-northeast-west-southwest trend
of the underlying rocks. The new geophysical data allowed establishment of a close link
between the Nipepe rocks and the Xixano nappe system farther east. Based on lithological and
radiometric similarities, we propose that the Nipepe structure is a klippe of the once much
larger Xixano nappe. As discussed in the Chapter 12, the present-day structural architecture of
northern Mozambique is due to a Pan-African top-to-west, west-northwest-oriented nappestacking episode that led to the imbrication of several distinct nappes. The Nipepe klippe is
interpreted as a preserved erosional remnant of the Xixano Complex that can be used to
pinpoint the minimum western lateral extent of the nappe. The klippe is preserved within the
core of an F2b synform.
9.9
Structures observed on sheets 1535-1536 Insaca-Guru, 1635 Milange and 1636

Mocuba
Mapping at 1:250,000 scale of the Milange, Insaca-Guru and Mocuba sheets, has generated a
new understanding of the geological evolution in this area, and considerable revision of the
existing geological maps. Provisional maps showed the rocks in these areas as belonging to
three well-defined tectonostratigraphic units the Nampula, Unango and Lurio Complexes.
Granulite-facies rocks of this latter complex were previously grouped into the Lurio
Supergroup, but to avoid confusion with the Lurio belt, these have been assigned to the
newly-defined Ocua Complex. The distribution of rock types within the complexes has been
extensively revised (Figure 9.99) and the nature of the boundaries between them have been
reconsidered in the light of structural data and interpretation of new geophysical data.
The Unango, Ocua and Nampula Complexes are located from the northwest to the
southeast of the area, respectively. In addition, previously unmapped, metamorphosed, but
unmigmatised quartz-rich sediments, including metamorphosed pseudo-conglomerates (Alto
Benfica Group) were recorded (see Chapter 6.11, and Section 9.10.1 below), which provide an
important time-marker in the structural evolution of the area.
Figure 9.99: Location map, showing the main geological components and structural features.
538
9.10 Regional Structural trends observed in the area

9.10.1 Nampula Complex
Protoliths of the Nampula and Unango Complexes are of Mesoproterozoic age, though the
protolith age of the Ocua Complex may be entirely Neoproterozoic. U-Pb SHRIMP dates of
zircons from orthogneisses within the Nampula Complex, which occupies the most southeasterly part of the area, yielded dates of 111721 and 1098 Ma (see Chapter 11), showing that
deposition of the volcano-sedimentary rocks into which the orthogneiss plutons were intruded,
now represented by the Molocue Group, occurred prior to this. On previous maps (BRGM
1982; Pinna et al. 1993), outcrops of paragneisses in an east-west-trending band north of the
main Mocuba-Milange road were assigned to the Chiure Group, with the inference that they
were tectonically distinct from the gneisses in the Nampula Complex. During the fieldwork
reported here, no structural discontinuities were identified between the para- and orthogneisses in this area, so that both have been incorporated into the Nampula Complex. Some
localities previously indicated as Chiure Group were found to consist of non-migmatised
metaconglomerates that we have ascribed to a new Alto Benfica Group (see below and
Chapter 6.11).
The Nampula Complex underlies most of the southeastern parts of the Mocuba,
Milange and Insaca-Guru sheets. Main foliation surfaces are parallel to compositional
banding, and are commonly seen to be related to isoclinal folds with limbs that were parallel to
the earliest axial planar cleavage; this is evidenced from rarely preserved trails of heavy
minerals in quartzite (Figure 9.100).
Figure 9.100: Weathered quartzite, with tight micro-folds of what may be original sedimentary
layering indicated by thin dark layers rich in heavy minerals (UTM 36S 753211, 8180963).
This folding was accompanied by amphibolite-facies metamorphism that locally
attained granulite grade (e.g. in the southeastern part of sheet 1636 Lugela-Mocuba and around
Namarri), and partial anatexis that gave rise to the generation of extensive leucosomes, now
present as stromatic layers parallel/sub-parallel to compositional banding. Foliations, axial
plane surfaces and associated linear data formed during this phase of deformation have
subsequently been re-folded by northwest-southeast trending sets of fold axes, which give a
general northwest-strike to the Nampula Complex in the southeastern parts of sheets 1635
539
Milange and 1636 Lugela-Mocuba (Figure 9.101). These folds have a locally developed axial
planar cleavage and clearly deform earlier, isoclinal fold hinges (Figure 9.102) and the earliest,
stromatic leucosome that is now parallel to compositional banding (Figure 9.103).
Figure 9.101: Stereoplot, with contours, to show distribution of poles-to-planar data in the
Nampula Complex in the southeastern parts of sheets 1635 Milange and 1636 Lugela-Mocuba.
The data support field evidence that folding has occurred around northwest-plunging axes.
Figure 9.102: Early isoclinal fold closure (here highlighted by amphibolite) deformed by later
folding, and subsequently cut by a thin, granitic dyke (UTM 37S 188460, 8251529). Blue pen
for scale.
540
Figure 9.103: Second-generation folds with northwest-trending fold axes and new axial planar
cleavage deform pre-existing stromatic leucosome banding parallel to compositional layering
(UTM 36S 803280, 8242032).
The timing of this northwest-southeast-trending folding is constrained by the Alto
Benfica metasedimentary rocks, quartz rich sediments including pseudoconglomerates, which
probably lie unconformably upon the Nampula Complex basement. These rocks do not seem to
have experienced extensive migmatisation, but on previous maps were assigned to the Chiure
Group of paragneisses within the Nampula Complex. Zircons from this group have been dated
using the U-Pb SHRIMP method (see Chapter 11); the youngest date is 610 Ma, providing an
upper limit on their age of deposition. A stereoplot of planar data from these metasedimentary
rocks indicates they were also deformed by northwest-plunging folds (Figure 9.104),
constraining the earliest timing of the northwest-folding event to younger than 610 Ma. The
present-day distribution of these meta-sedimentary rocks is restricted, suggesting that they
represent remnants of much more widely distributed deposits, now possibly preserved in downfaulted basins generated during extensional tectonics in this earliest phase of deformation.
U-Pb SHRIMP zircon metamorphic ages of 53528 and 4885 Ma have been obtained
for some Nampula Complex rocks (see Chapter 11). It is likely that patchy charnockitisation
and late (i.e. post main foliation) growth of K-feldspar augen in the augen gneisses of the
Nampula Complex occurred at this time, accompanied by the development of discontinuous
leucosomes locally emplaced within northwest-trending fold axial planes across the complex.
Metamorphism of the quartz-rich sediments to sillimanite grade probably also occurred in this
period.
541
Figure 9.104: Stereoplot of planar data from the Alto Benfica Group metaconglomerates. Note
that the data show northwest-plunging folds, similar to those seen in the Nampula Complex
(Figure 9.101), on which the metaconglomerates apparently lie unconformably.
The U-Pb SHRIMP dates of zircons from Nampula Complex rocks suggest that
regional metamorphism was synchronous with the intrusion of biotite-orthogneiss (5083 Ma),
during the Pan-African episode. Weak foliations were present close to the edges of many
granite plutons that were, in general, undeformed and had evidently not experienced
migmatisation (i.e. the earlier part of the structural evolution). Orientations of these foliation
(poles to planes) and lineation data (Figure 9.105) show that most foliations trend northeastsouthwest, suggesting that the final major phase of deformation in the area, formation of
northeast-southwest trending folds and axial-planar flattening, was, at least in part, coeval with
Pan-African granite intrusion. In contrast, compositional banding within the granite bodies
dominantly trends northwest-southeast; this may reflect the orientation of the main foliation in
the bedrock at the time of initial granite emplacement, and/or be influenced by the geometry of
the granitic bodies. Linear data is plotted in Figure 9.105, but is too sparse to allow inferences
to be drawn.
As mentioned above, the final major phase of deformation in the area comprised the
formation of northeast-southwest-trending folds, axial-planar flattening and fabric
transposition; at map scale this is evidenced by a dominance of northeast-trending foliations, in
zones with the same trend, across some areas, one of which is shown in Figure 9.106.
Northeast-trending foliations commonly overprint and reorient pre-existing foliations and
lineations: the stereoplots indicate that pre-existing foliation surfaces have been reoriented by
northeast-southwest-trending folds. Lineations have also been folded, with just a few
measurements of northeast- or southeast-plunging lineations that may represent lineations
formed during this latter deformation. The localised occurrence of lineations related to the
northeast-southwest deformation may indicate that the structures are anastomosing, and/or late
reactivation and excision along these discontinuities.
542
Figure 9.105: Stereoplot of planar and linear data from late-tectonic granite bodies within the
area. Foliations dominantly trend northeast-southwest suggesting folding by the latest
deformation; banding commonly trends northwest-southeast, perhaps indicating the geometry
of the granite bodies (flow banding) and/or inherited orientation from the complexes into
which they intrude.
543
Figure 9.106: Sketch map indicating the area from which data was taken for these plots.
Stereonet data for foliation planes and lineations within this area indicate refolding along
northeast-southwest trending axes, and possible generation of some stretching lineations
during this deformation.
9.10.2 Unango Complex
The Unango/Nampula Complex boundary is deduced to be tectonic in origin, as an
abrupt change of lithology and metamorphic grade (from lower to upper amphibolite facies)
occurs across it. In Figure 9.99 it can be seen that pods of mafic/ultramafic rock, assigned to
the Ocua Complex, the most prominent of which is southwest of Milange, occur along it.
These are deduced to have been formed as a consequence of repeated tectonic movements
along this structure, the most recent of which seems to have been along a northeast/eastnortheast southwest/west-southwest trend. Foliation and lineation data from the Unango
Complex are dominated by a pattern that suggests refolding around northeast-southwest
trending axes (Figure 9.107a & b)
544
Figure 9.107: Top: Stereoplot of poles to foliations within the Unango Complex, with density
contour imposed. The distribution indicates that folding along northeast-southwest trending
axes dominates the orientations. Bottom: Stereoplot of all lineation data in the Unango
Complex, with density contours imposed. Data gives strong indication of earlier fabrics being
refolded by north-northeast- to east-northeast-trending folds; some fold hinge and mineral
lineation data perhaps formed during this latest deformation.
Rootless isoclinal folds preserved in amphibolite at location UTM 37S 185879, 185879
are refolded by northwest-plunging folds (Figure 9.108). At UTM 37S 251572, 8321313,
northeast-/east-northeast-plunging folds deform a northwest-striking foliation along which
extended, fragmented amphibole lenses are aligned, indicating that formation of a northwest545
southeast trending foliation during folding along these axes was followed by later
northeast/east-northeast - southwest/west-southwest folding (Figure 9.109). Some outcrops
exhibit extensive accumulations of leucosome around extended and deformed paleosome
material, the latter of which commonly incorporates dissociated fold hinges; these areas of
agmatites also appear to have been deformed by the latest phase of northeast-/east-northeasttrending folds.
Figure 9.108: A (now) rootless fold hinge within a band of amphibolite, showing refolding
around a northwest-plunging fold axis. Location UTM 37S 185879 8339255.
Figure 9.109: Northwest-southeast-trending foliation, elsewhere seen to be axial planar to

folds with northwest-plunging axes, is here deformed by folds with northeast-plunging axes.
(Left) UTM 37S 251572, 8321313. (Right) UTM 37S 247934, 8319366.
U-Pb data on zircon and monazite collected further north in the Complex suggest that
metamorphism of the Unango Complex rocks occurred between 570 and 520 Ma (see Chapter
11), and is therefore slightly older than that recorded in the Nampula Complex.
546
9.10.3 Ocua Complex

Previous maps show rocks assigned to the Lurio belt extending continuously on a northeastsouthwest trend across these sheets, separating the Unango and Nampula Complexes. These
granulite-facies rocks were previously grouped into the Lurio Supergroup, but to avoid
confusion with the Lurio belt, granulitic rocks here and to the northeast have been allocated
to the newly-defined Ocua Complex. In this area, the Ocua Complex rocks are characterised by
the coexistence of either orthopyroxene + quartz or orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene garnet; a
typical texture is seen in Figure 9.110.
Figure 9.110: Typical texture in two-pyroxene mafic granulite from the Ocua Complex. Scale
bar at top of image. Note clinopyroxene crystal in centre of view; alteration of pyroxene and
feldspar in surrounding rock (UTM 36S 799366, 8206097).
The distribution and extent of the Ocua Complex, as deduced from field and
geophysical data, is significantly different from that shown for the Lurio belt on pre-existing
maps (Pinna and Marteau 1997; see Figure 9.99). Occurrence of the Ocua Complex is
restricted to discontinuous lenses in the northwest of the area; the most southerly outcrops in
any given position are commonly bound by a northeast-southwest-trending structure to the
south, which elsewhere is also the boundary between the Unango and Nampula Complexes
(see discussion above). Geophysical data was useful in constraining the location of these
boundaries as they are commonly marked by low aeromagnetic signatures.
In the Ocua rocks, a set of isoclinal folds associated with pervasive northwest-plunging
lineations is the earliest phase of deformation identified, overprinted by northeast- and
southwest-plunging open to close folds that are locally axial planar to northeast-southwest
oriented foliations and local shear zones with a similar trend. Three phases of leucosome
formation are evident in these rocks, seen clearly at UTM 36S 805656, 8222922 and shown in
Figure 9.111. A first phase of leucosome formation is parallel to the layering in the rock, a
second-phase is defined by coarse-grained leucosomes that form irregular patches, and the
final, third phase clearly crosscuts the foliation and has decussate pyroxene blades within it.
547
Figure 9.111: Two-pyroxene layered, mafic granulite with three phases of leucosome
formation UTM 36S 805656, 8222922.
Stereonet plots for data from the Ocua Complex appear to show mixed orientations of
foliations and lineations, reflecting the re-orientation of earlier foliations and lineations by
subsequent phases of deformation. Clusters of poles to foliation and banding suggest
dominance of east-west- and northeast-southwest-striking foliation planes (Figure 9.112a),
indicative of east- to northeast-trending folding, probably associated with the latest phase of
ductile deformation in which the sets of discontinuities evident on the maps were formed.
Lineation data for the Ocua Complex (Figure 9.112b) are dominantly located in the
northwest and southwest quadrants of the stereonet, probably as the result of reorientation of
some lineations by the latest phase of northeast-southwest-trending deformation. Lineations in
the southwestern quadrant may have been re-orientated by the earlier northwest-phase of
deformation that affected these rocks (that is, have initially been formed in a deformation phase
that preceded the northwest-trending folds) or be related to the latest phase of northeastsouthwest trending deformation.
548
Figure 9.112 Top: Planar data (plotted as poles to foliations) for the Ocua Complex. Bottom:
Linear data for the Ocua Complex.
549
10 GEOCHEMISTRY
10.1 Introduction
Northern Mozambique is mainly underlain by Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic metaigneous rocks. Rocks of metasedimentary origin are locally present, and in some areas PanAfrican plutons make up a significant part of the bedrock. During the field investigation, a
comprehensive set of samples of the mapped rock units were collected for petrological,
geochemical and geochronological studies. Of these samples, a set of 551 samples have been
analysed by XRF for major and trace elements. The samples were collected from the entire
mapping area and are considered representative for the individual rock complexes and suites
described in this report. However, from some of the complexes less than 10 samples are
analysed, and some caution should be applied during interpretation of the data. Analyses of
samples collected for characterisation of potential mineral resources are discussed in Chapter
13.
10.2 Data analysis
Following a preliminary classification, the samples were grouped according to field
characteristics and composition. 77 samples are sedimentary rocks (including some samples of
sand) and represent a variety of compositions; e.g. quartzite, aluminous schist, arkose, marble
and iron ore (see chapter 10.3.8). Kimberlite and various ultramafic rocks are represented by
13 samples, and there are 22 samples collected from ore occurrences or strongly altered rocks.
The analyses obtained from the remaining 438 samples have been assigned to 13 complexes or
groups and to four suites of Pan-African plutonic rocks (Table 10.1). The data are considered
to reflect largely igneous compositions although alteration may have affected mobile elements
to some extent in some of the gneiss complexes.
It is apparent form Table 10.1 that the samples from individual complexes span a broad
compositional range from ca 40 to 78 wt% SiO2. A few samples of mainly mafic to
intermediate dykes have been assigned to the complexes in which they occur. The same is the
case for some samples of texturally variable amphibolites that may represent strongly
tectonised gabbros, dykes or metavolcanic rocks. A considerable number of samples are from
major gneiss complexes that underlie significant portions of northern Mozambique, i.e. the
Unango, Marrupa, Xixano, Nampula and Ocua Complexes. In the following, each of these
complexes is described separately. The other complexes are represented by less than 20
samples each, and are described together (10.3.6). A set of 52 samples that are assigned to
various Pan-African plutonic suites, are treated separately (10.3.7). Finally, a comparative
summary of the entire data set is provided (10.4).
General descriptions of the individual rock types and complexes are provided in
Chapter 6. For information concerning the age of the rocks in the respective complexes, groups
and suites, the reader is referred to the detailed treatment in Chapter 11.
550
Complex/Suite
General
classification
SiO2
(wt %)
60.9 77.5
K2O
(wt %)
4.5 7.7
Niassa Suite
14
Malema Suite
16
52.4 75.0
1.9 6.2
Murrupula Suite
shoshonitic I- to A-type
54,8 74.9
2.0 5.7
Neoproterozoic
plutons,
undifferentiated
Txitonga Group
17
shoshonitic I- and A-type
46.2 76.8
0.1 6.7
High/variable Zr, Ba, Sr

and LREE
47.0 75.9
0.4 5.9
Variable composition.
Ocua Complex
25
39.8 75.3
0.2 8.5
Montepuez
Complex
Lalamo Complex
43.3 76.0
0.1 4.7
36.1 76.4
0.01 5.4
intermediate
Moderate contents of
trace elements
Variable contents of
trace elements
M'Sawize Complex
45.0 63.5
0.3 1.2
Muaquia Complex
44.9 78.2
0.1 3.5
Xixano Complex
47
39.7 77.7
0.1 5.6
Meluco Complex
66.8 68.7
4.0 4.9
Nairoto Complex
60.3 70.4
1.2 3.3
Marrupa Complex
81
Mafic, low-K to
intermediate and acid
high-K rocks
Low- to medium-K, calcalkaline, mainly I-type
Medium-K to high-K
calc-alkaline, I-type
Low-K mafic and
medium- to high-K calcalkaline acid.
Low-K calc-alkaline, Itype
Low-K to medium-K
calc-alkaline, I-type.
Low-K calc-alkaline and
high-K calc-alkaline;
mainly I-type
High-K calc-alkaline,
mainly I-type
Medium to high-K calcalkaline, I-type
Low-K calc-alkaline to
shoshonitic, I- and A-type
42.3 78.9
0.3 6.1
Unango Complex
125
43.1 78.4
0.8 6.9
Nampula Complex
44
49.7 77.2
0.6 7.3
Ponta
Complex
Messuli
19
Mainly high-K calcalkaline to shoshonitic, Iand A-type

Low-K calc-alkaline to
shoshonitic, I- and A-type
Other characteristics
intermediate
trace elements
Abundant mafic rocks.
Tonalite and granite
dominant
Variable contents of
trace elements
trace elements
Mainly intermediate to
felsic; variable contents
of trace elements
Very wide range in
composition, tonalite
absent
Wide range in
composition,
Two samples
Table 10.1: Summary of compositional features for the main groups of rocks. Some of the
complexes are represented by relatively few samples. The rock groups are arranged according
to the tectonostratigraphic order of the complexes with the intrusive suites placed at the top.
551
Figure 10.1: Simplified geological map of northern Mozambique showing the distribution of
the rock complexes referred to in the text.
10.3 Results
10.3.1 Nampula Complex
The Nampula Complex forms the lowermost tectonostratigraphic unit in the southeastern part
of the mapped area (Figure 10.1). It is situated to the southeast of the Lurio belt and consists of
Mesoproterozoic (ca. 1115 1030 Ma) orthogneisses and associated metasupracrustal rocks. A
younger group of Pan-African plutonic rocks, the Murrupula Suite intrudes rocks of the
Nampula Complex (see section 10.3.7). A total of 44 samples, including two mafic rocks
shown as amphibolite, have been analysed covering a broad compositional spectrum (Table
10.2).
552
Nampula Complex
SiO2
K2O
Granite
69.2 77.2
4.9 7.3
Granodiorite
61.9 74.4
2.5 5.3
Syenite, quartz syenite
61.0 68.0
5.5 6.6
Monzodiorite, monzonite,
47.6 59.9
1.4 7.7
quartz-monzonite
Tonalite
50.7 74.4
0.3 1.2
Gabbro, diorite, quartz-diorite
45.8 57.5
0.2 1.3
Amphibolite
50.2 50.9
0.4 1.0
Table 10.2: Summary of compositional features for the main groups
Nampula Complex.
Mg#
0.08 0.32
0.16 0.45
0.10 0.36
0.39 0.53
10
8
5
6
0.34 0.43
4
0.33 0.59
9
0.52 0.61
2
of rocks constituting the
Mafic gabbro to diorite and a few tonalitic samples with a wide range in SiO2 constitute
a set of low-K calc-alkaline rocks (Figure 10.2, Figure 10.3). These rocks have low contents of
large-ion-lithophile elements (LILE) and high-field-strength elements (HFSE) such as Sr, Zr,
Rb and Ba (Figure 10.5, Figure 10.6). A group of compositionally variable monzonitic to
quartz monzonitic rocks is mafic to intermediate and distinctly higher in alkalies than the
dioritic rocks. According to Frost et al. (2001), this group of rocks are magnesian and alkalicalcic to shoshonitic (Figure 10.4).
The intermediate to acid rocks are more abundant and comprise generally high-K calkalkaline to shoshonitic granodiorite, granite and quartz syenite. The granodiorites are
metaluminous, calc-alkaline to alkali-calcic and comprise two sub-groups having low (<65%)
and high (>70%) contents of SiO2, respectively. In each of the groups there is considerable
compositional variation from magnesian to ferroan (Figure 10.4). The granites and quartz
syenites make up distinct groups of ferroan rocks (Figure 10.4). In the classification diagram of
Whalen et al. (1987), the monzonitic rocks and the granodiorites plot partly in the I-type, but
mainly in the A-type field (Figure 10.7). Two samples of granodiorite plotting at very high
Zr+Nb+Ce+Y are extremely enriched in Zr and Ba. The granites plot as fractionated I-type or
as A-type rocks together with the quartz syenites.
553
Nampula Complex
Gabbro, diorite, q-diorite

Amphibolite
Tonalite
Monzodi, monz, q-monz
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
K2O
Shoshonitic
4
High-K calk-alkaline
Medium-K calk-alkaline
1
Low-K calk-alkaline
0
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
Figure 10.2: K2O (wt %) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). Compositional fields adapted from
Pecerillo and Taylor (1976).
300
Nampula Complex
250
1
Q=Si/3-(K+Na+2Ca/3)

Amphibolite
Tonalite
Monzodior, monzonite, q-monz
Granodi to granite
Syenite
Granite
200
150
100
50
12
11
10
0
-350
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
100
P=K-(Na+Ca)
Figure 10.3: Nomenclature diagram after Debon & LeFort (1983). The diagram illustrates
that the rocks of the Nampula Complex belong to compositionally clearly different groups. This
diagram is used throughout this report. Units are in gram-atoms x 103 of each 100 gram of
rock. The fields shown are: 1) granite, 2) adamellite (=monzogranite), 3) granodiorite, 4)
tonalite, 5) quartz syenite, 6) quartz monzonite, 7) quartz monzodiorite, 8) quartz diorite, 9)
syenite, 10) monzonite, 11) monzogabbro, 12) gabbro.
554
15
1.0
12
0.9
ferroan
0.8
D
C
B
-3
Nampula Complex

Amphibolite
Tonalite
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
-6
-9
-12
FeOt/(FeOt+MgO)
Na2O + K2O-CaO
0.7
magnesian
0.6
0.5
-15
0.4
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
SiO2
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
Figure 10.4: Modified alkali-lime index (left) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). The lines subdivide
between calcic (A), calc-alkaline (B), alkali-calcic (C) and shoshonitic (D) rocks. Both
monzonitic and quartz-syenitic rocks have high contents of alkalies and plot in the shoshonite
field. Classification diagram (right) showing the subdivision of the rocks in magnesian (below)
and ferroan (above). In the Nampula Complex, only quartz syenites and most of the granites
are above the line and classify as ferroan. Diagrams from Frost et al. (2001).
Nampula Complex
1400
1200

Amphibolite
Tonalite
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
1200
1000
1000
800
Sr
Zr
800
600
600
400
400
200
200
0
40
44
48
52
56
60
SiO2
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
Figure 10.5: Sr and Zr (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). Monzonitic rocks show substantial
variation in Sr, whereas Zr contents are moderate to high. Syenitic rocks and two samples of
tonalite have very high levels of Zr.
555
2400
300
Nampula Complex
Amphibolite
Tonalite
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
250
Ba
1600
150
1200
100
800
50
400
0
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
SiO2
Figure 10.6: Rb and Ba (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). Both elements have low values for
gabbros and tonalites. For other rock types there is considerable variation in abundance of
these elements.
1000
500
300
200
A-type
100
FeOt/MgO
Rb
200
2000
50
30
20
Fract. I-type
10
5
3
2
I-type
1
200
100
300
500
2000
3000
5000
1000
Zr+Nb+Ce+Y
Figure 10.7: Total FeO/MgO vs Zr+Nb+Ce+Y (ppm). Note that a number of tonalitic samples
are below detection limit for Y and/or NB and are not shown in the diagram. Granodioritic
rocks plot both in the field of I-type and A-type granites, about 50% of the granites have
compositions similar to fractionated I-type rocks, whereas other granites plot in the A-type
field together with syenitic rocks. Monzodioritic to monzonitic rocks plot as mainly as A-type
granites. Legend as in Figure 9.6. Diagram from Whalen et al. (1987).
10.3.2 Unango Complex

This complex is widely distributed and occupies a major part of the bedrock in northeastern
Mozambique (Figure 10.1). The complex includes a wide variety of Mesoproterozoic (~1065
975 Ma) igneous rocks ranging in composition from mafic gabbro to leucogranite. The rocks
556
have been metamorphosed in the amphibolite to granulite facies and commonly appear as
highly foliated charnockite complexes. Mafic enclaves occur in many places. Paragneisses are
subordinate and form narrow slivers and rafts associated with the orthogneisses. The Unango
Complex has been intruded by Neoproterozoic alkaline plutons, and by two different suites of
Pan-African plutons. Among the latter, the Malema Suite occurs mainly in the southern part of
the Unango Complex, whereas the Niassa Suite forms a group of distinct, subcircular plutons
in the Lichinga area (see section 10.3.7). Based on their field occurrence and chemical
composition, the rocks of the Unango Complex have been subdivided into seven groups,
including amphibolites and dykes. The meta-igneous rocks are compositionally diverse,
however, intermediate to acid rocks are by far the most common.
Unango Complex main rock types SiO2
K2O
Granite
65.9 78.4
3.0 6.2
Granodiorite
60.4 70.3
1.6 5.1
56.7 66.3
4.4 8.2
Monzodi, monzonite, q-monzonite
47.6 59.9
1.4 7.7
41.5 58.9
0.2 2.3
Amphibolite
43.1 46.3
0.8 1.0
Dykes
49.1 63.4
2.2 3.9
Unango Complex.
Mg#
0.01 0.30
39
0.15 0.50
24
0.03 0.35
11
0.07 0.49
30
0.41 0.73
13
0.46 0.51
3
0.02 0.46
4
The mafic rocks of the Unango Complex, including gabbro, diorite and amphibolite, are
metaluminous, low- to medium-K calc-alkaline rocks (Figure 10.8, Figure 10.9) with
substantial variation in Mg# (>0.4). Compared to the more evolved rocks, these are present in
subordinate amounts.
A conspicuous feature of the complex is the absence of tonalite and low- to medium-K
granodiorite. In contrast, there are abundant intermediate monzodioritic to monzonitic rocks.
These rocks are alkali-calcic to shoshonitic, and a considerable proportion of the samples are
ferroan (Figure 10.11). The group exhibits significant variation in minor (Figure 10.12) and
trace element contents (Figure 10.13, Figure 10.14). A number of samples have very high
contents of e.g. Sr, Zr and Ba. Note that the three samples of dykes are alkali-calcic and ferroan
and plot close to the monzonitic rocks in most diagrams.
Granodioritic rocks are generally metaluminous to weakly peraluminous and high-K
calc-alkaline with Mg# at 0.15-0.50. The rocks are generally more evolved than the
monzodioritic to monzonitic rocks, and have lower contents of K2O and total alkalies, and
higher CaO at similar SiO2. (Figure 10.8, Figure 10.10). Using the classification of Frost et al.
(2001), the rocks are calc-alkaline to alkali-calcic and mainly magnesian although a few
sample stand apart having a clearly ferroan signature (Figure 10.11). The trace elements are
characterized by moderate contents of LREE and HFS-elements. The rocks have moderate to
fairly high contents of Sr (<600 ppm) and moderate to low Zr (Figure 10.13), whereas the
contents of Rb and Ba vary considerably (Figure 10.14). Trace element contents are consistent
with normal I-type composition although one sample with anomalously high Zr (sample 31223,
UTM 36S 814130, 8481778) plot in the A-type field (Figure 10.15).
The granites form a diverse group of high-K calk-alkaline rocks with notable variation
in Mg# (0.010.30). The rocks are metaluminous to weakly peraluminous with alumina
557
saturation index ranging from 0.92 to 1.13. The majority of the rocks are ferroan (Figure
10.11). Trace element contents are variable and a great proportion of the samples have
moderate to low contents of LIL (e.g. Rb, Sr, Ba) and HFS elements (Figure 10.13, Figure
10.14). About 50% of the samples have elevated contents of Zr and/or light rare earth (LRE)
elements and plot in the A-type field of Figure 10.15. The remaining samples plot in the field
of fractionated I-type granites consistent with the ferroan nature of the rocks.
The rocks classified as syenites and quartz syenites (Figure 10.9) are shoshonitic and
mainly ferroan (Figure 10.11) with very high contents of alkalies and low CaO (Figure 10.8,
Figure 10.10). The rocks display variable contents of TiO2 and P2O5 (Figure 10.12), but the
spread in these elements is less pronounced than for the monzonitic rocks. The LIL- and HFSelements also show great variation in abundance (Figure 10.13, Figure 10.14). As for the
monzonitic rocks, several samples have strongly elevated contents of e.g. Sr, Zr and Ba.
The compositionally distinct groups are quite well illustrated in Figure 10.15. The
diagram shows that the granodioritic rocks plot mainly in the field of I-type granites, about
50% of the granites have compositions similar to fractionated I-type rocks, whereas other
granites plot in the A-type field together with syenitic rocks. Note that the monzodioritic to
monzonitic rocks plot in the fields of both the fractionated I-type and the A-type granites. Dyke
rocks have consistently high contents of HFS-elements and plot in the A-type field.
8
Unango Complex

Amphibolite
Dykes
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
K2O
Shoshonitic
4
1
Low-K calk-alkaline
0
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
Pecerillo & Taylor (1976).
558
300
Unango Complex
Amphibolite
Dykes
4
Granodi to granite
Syenite
Granite
Q=Si/3-(K+Na+2Ca/3)
250
200
150
100
50
12
10
11
0
-350
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
100
P=K-(Na+Ca)
Figure 10.9: Nomenclature diagram for the Unango Complex. Among the 125 samples there is
a group of mafic gabbro and diorite. Low-K calc-alkaline intermediate to acid rocks are not
present. Notably in this complex is the significant proportion of intermediate to acid high-K to
shoshonitic rocks ranging in composition from mafic monzodiorite to syenite and quartz
syenite. Diagram after Debon & LeFort (1983). See Figure 10.3 for explanation of the
compositional fields of the diagram.
16
14
Unango Complex
Amphibolite
Dykes
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
14
12
12
10
CaO
Na2O + K2O
10
8
6
4
0
44
48
52
56
60
64
SiO2
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
Figure 10.10: Total alkalies (left) and CaO (right) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). Note the high
contents of total alkalies and the corresponding low CaO content of the syenitic rocks and
monzonitic rocks compared to granite and granodiorite at similar SiO2.
559
15
1.0
12
0.9
9
6
FeOt/(FeOt+MgO)
Na2O + K2O - CaO
0.8
D
0
C
B
-3
Unango Complex
-9
-12
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
magnesian
0.5
0.4
-15
40
0.7
0.6

Amphibolite
Dykes
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
-6
ferroan
40
80
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
SiO2
between calcic (A), calc-alkaline (B), alkali-calcic (C) and shoshonitic (D) rocks.
Classification diagram (right) showing the subdivision of the rocks in magnesian (below) and
ferroan (above). Granodioritic and more mafic rocks plot almost entirely to the magnesian
field. A large proportion of monzonitic and syenitic rocks are ferroan. Diagrams from Frost et
al. (2001)
3.5
Unango Complex
1.8

Amphibolite
Dykes
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
3.0
2.5
1.6
1.4
1.2
TiO2
2.0
P2O5
1.0
1.5
0.8
0.6
1.0
0.4
0.5
0.2
0.0
0.0
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
40
SiO2
Figure 10.12: TiO2 and P2O5 plotted against SiO2 (wt %).
560
44
48
52
56
60
SiO2
64
68
72
76
80
Unango Complex
2400
1600

Amphibolite
Dykes
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
Zr
Sr
1400
1200
800
1000
600
800
400
600
400
200
200
0
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
40
80
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
SiO2
Figure 10.13: Sr and Zr (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). One syenite sample falls outside
the range of the diagrams and is not plotted. Apart from one sample the granitic rocks have
distinctly lower Sr contents than granodiorites. Syenitic and monzodioritic to monzonitic rocks
have variable contents in Sr and other trace elements that are mainly partitioned in rockforming minerals (Rb and Sr, see below). The Zr abundances are equally variable for these
rock types. Granodioritic rocks contain less than 250 ppm Zr. Among the granites, a number of
samples stand apart having more than 400 ppm Zr.
4800
Unango Complex
300

Amphibolite
Dykes
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
250
200
4400
4000
3600
3200
Ba
Rb
2800
150
2400
2000
1600
100
1200
800
50
400
0
0
40
44
48
52
56
60
SiO2
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
SiO2
Figure 10.14: Rb and Ba (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). Both elements exhibit great
variation in abundance for all the intermediate to acid rocks. This is particularly the case for
the syenitic and monzodioritic to monzonitic rocks.
561
80
1000
500
300
200
A-type
FeOt/MgO
100
50
30
20
Fract. I-type
10
5
3
2
I-type
1
200
100
300
500
2000
3000
5000
1000
Zr+Nb+Ce+Y
Figure 10.15: Total FeO/MgO vs Zr+Nb+Ce+Y (ppm). Granodiorites are classified as I-type
rocks, whereas granites plot as fractionated I-type and A-type. Monzonitic rocks are mainly Atype. Syenitic rocks and acid dykes are uniformly A-type. Diagram from Whalen et al. (1987).
10.3.3 Marrupa Complex
The Marrupa Complex occupies a substantial area in north-central Mozambique. The complex
consists predominantly of late Mesoproterozoic (ca. 1026 968 Ma) intermediate to acid
amphibolite-facies orthogneisses and minor paragneiss (Table 10.4). Mafic and monzonitic
rocks are less common and there is only one sample of syenite in the data set. The magmatic
rocks were subjected to Pan-African metamorphism (see Chapter 11) and were intruded by
Pan-African plutons that occur mainly in the southern parts of the complex (the Malema Suite).
Marrupa Complex
SiO2
K2O
Granite
65.2 78.9
3.8 6.1
Granodiorite
62.5 71.3
2.1 5.2
57.5
6.4
56.4 65.3
2.9 5.7
Tonalite
66.0 73.9
0.9 1.7
42.3 59.9
0.2 2.1
Amphibolite
47.9 49.2
0.3 0.6
Marrupa Complex.
Mg#
0.09 0.44
33
0.27 0.50
25
0.44
1
0.26 0.50
7
0.25 0.44
5
0.42 0.78
7
0.44 0.58
2
The Marrupa Complex features a fairly small proportion of mafic rocks. Together with
tonalitic rocks they make up a group of essentially low-K calcic to calc-alkaline, magnesian
rocks (Figure 10.16, Figure 10.17, Figure 10.18). Metaluminous tonalites and more mafic
rocks make up about 15% of the samples. Monzodioritic to monzonitic rocks are represented
by a few samples, and there is only one syenite. These rocks are alkali-calcic to shoshonitic
562
and straddle the boundary between magnesian and ferroan (Figure 10.18). Weakly
peraluminous granites and granodiorites are clearly the predominant rocks in the complex. The
granodiorites appear to make up two subgroups. There is one group that consists essentially of
magnesian medium-K calc-alkaline rocks, and another including magnesian to ferroan, high-K
calc-alkaline rocks that plot mainly in the monzogranite field of Figure 10.17.
The trace element contents for the rocks of the Marrupa Complex are highly variable
for many elements (Figure 10.19, Figure 10.20). The Sr contents illustrate this quite well,
showing the wide range of values for all rock groups. The mafic to intermediate rocks
including tonalites have fairly low contents of Rb, Ba and Zr as well as LREE. As expected,
the magnesian granodiorites have lower Rb contents than other granodiorites; however, the
range in Rb and Ba contents is substantial for these rocks. In general, the trace element
contents are consistent with the main components and suggest that the Marrupa Complex
comprise different rock types including normal and fractionated I-type granites in addition to
rocks with a clear A-type affinity (Figure 10.21).
8
Marrupa Complex
Amphibolite
Tonalite
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
K2O
Shoshonitic
4
1
Low-K calk-alkaline
0
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
Pecerillo and Taylor (1976).
563
300
Marrupa Complex
250
Q=Si/3-(K+Na+2Ca/3)

Amphibolite
Tonalite
Granodi to granite
Syenite
Granite
200
150
100
50
12
10
11
0
-350
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
100
P=K-(Na+Ca)
Figure 10.17: Nomenclature diagram for the Marrupa Complex. Among the 79 samples there
is a small group of mafic gabbro and diorite and a few low-K calc-alkaline tonalites. The highK granodiorites plot in the monzogranite field. Granodiorites and granites are the
predominant rocks in the complex. Monzonitic rocks are represented by a few samples, and
there is only one syenite. Diagram after Debon & LeFort (1983). See Figure 10.3 for
explanation of the compositional fields of the diagram.
1.0
15
0.9
0.8
FeOt/(FeOt+MgO)
Na2O + K2O - CaO
D
C
B
-3
Marrupa Complex
A

Amphibolite
Tonalite
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
-9
-15
ferroan
0.7
magnesian
0.6
0.5
0.4
40
44
48
52
56
60
SiO2
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
SiO2
between calcic (A), calc-alkaline (B), alkali-calcic (C) and shoshonitic (D) rocks. The
monzonitic rocks and syenite have moderately high contents of alkalies and plot in the alkalicalcic to shoshonite fields. Note the calcic and magnesian nature of the tonalitic samples.
ferroan (above). Diagrams from Frost et al. (2001).
564
80
Marrupa Complex
Amphibolite
Tonalite
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
800
1000
600
800
400
Sr
Zr
600
400
200
200
0
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
40
80
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
SiO2
Figure 10.19: Sr and Zr (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). For Sr, two samples plot outside
the range of the diagram and are not shown.
2800
300
Marrupa Complex
2600

Amphibolite
Tonalite
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
250
200
2400
2200
2000
1800
Ba
Rb
1600
150
1400
1200
1000
100
800
600
50
400
200
0
0
40
44
48
52
56
60
SiO2
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
SiO2
Figure 10.20: Rb and Ba (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). One granite sample with very
high Rb content plots outside the range of the diagram and is not shown.
565
80
200
A-type
FeOt/MgO
100
50
30
20
Fract. I-type
10
5
3
2
I-type
1
200
100
300
500
2000
3000
5000
1000
Zr+Nb+Ce+Y
Figure 10.21: Total FeO/MgO vs Zr+Nb+Ce+Y (ppm). Legend as in Figure 10.18. The
tonalitic and magnesian granodioritic rocks plot mainly in the field of I-type granite although
some granodiorites are in the A-type field. The granites plot in all the fields of the diagram,
however, about 30% of the granites plot in the A-type field together with monzonitic and
syenitic rocks. Diagram from Whalen et al. (1987).
10.3.4 Xixano Complex
The Xixano Complex extends north-south to the east of the Marrupa Complex and is
interpreted to tectonically overlie both the Marrupa and Nairoto Complexes (Figure 10.1). In
contrast to these complexes, it contains a considerable proportion of mafic to intermediate
rocks that define a marked low on radiometric maps (see e.g. Chapter 8.7). The complex
consists of granulite-facies orthogneisses and supracrustal rocks including both metasedimentary and metavolcanic lithologies. Some of the latter are included in Table 10.5 that
summarizes the compositional features of the analysed samples from the Xixano Complex.
Xixano Complex
SiO2
K2O
Granite
68.8 77.7
3.9 5.7
Granodiorite
69.7 72.7
2.5 4.5
49.8
2.0
Tonalite
57.8 72.1
0.2 1.3
41.2 50.4
0.1 0.3
Amphibolite
43.9 60.2
0.1 0.4
Metavolcanic rocks
51.1 76.4
0.1 0.4
Xixano Complex.
566
Mg#
0.03 0.48
11
0.22 0.33
3
0.49
1
0.21 0.52
8
0.40 0.72
8
0.22 0.72
4
0.22 0.72
7
The Xixano Complex is mainly composed of mafic to acid low-K magnesian rocks with
very few samples of intermediate composition (Figure 10.22, Figure 10.23). Predominant rocks
types are calcic, mafic gabbro and diorite and low-K tonalite. The evolved rocks are mainly
high-K calc-alkaline granite and granodiorite and plot in the ferroan field of Figure 10.24.
Some samples of metavolcanic rocks are compositionally similar to the intrusive rocks. Apart
from one sample of monzodiorite, monzonitic and syenitic rocks are notably absent in the
Xixano Complex. The diagrams also show some samples of metavolcanic rocks. Apart from
one shoshonitic sample, the volcanic rocks are compositionally very similar to the gneisses of
intrusive origin.
The contents of LIL- and HFS-elements are low in the mafic rocks. This is particularly
the case for Rb and Ba (Figure 10.25, Figure 10.26). Among the more evolved rocks there is a
wide scatter in the contents of all trace elements. In the classification diagram of Whalen et al.
(1987), the granitic rocks plot in the field of fractionated I-type granite and into the A-type
field (Figure 10.27).
8
Xixano Complex
7

Amphibolite
Tonalite
Granodi to granite
Granite
Metavolcanic rocks
K2O
Shoshonitic
4
1
Low-K calk-alkaline
0
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
Figure 10.22: K2O (wt %) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). The complex is mainly composed of
mafic to acid low-K calk-alkaline rocks with very few rocks of intermediate composition.
Together with granites, these rocks are predominant in the complex. Meta-volcanic rocks have
compositions that mimic the intrusive rocks in composition.
567
300
Xixano Complex
Amphibolite
Tonalite
Granodi to granite
Granite
Metavolcanic rocks
Q=Si/3-(K+Na+2Ca/3)
250
200
150
100
50
12
10
11
0
-350
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
100
P=K-(Na+Ca)
Figure 10.23: Nomenclature diagram for the Xixano Complex (46 samples). Gabbro, diorite
and tonalite predominate. The evolved rocks have mainly granitic composition. Some samples
of metavolcanic rocks are compositionally similar to the intrusive rocks. Apart from one
sample of monzodiorite, monzonitic and syenitic rocks are absent in the Xixano Complex.
Diagram after Debon & LeFort (1983). See Figure 10.3 for explanation of the compositional
fields of the diagram.
15
1.0
0.9
0.8
FeOt/(FeOt+MgO)
Na2O + K2O - CaO
C
B
A
-3
ferroan
magnesian
0.7
Xixano Complex
0.6

Amphibolite
Tonalite
Granodi to granite
Granite
Meta-volcanic rocks
-9
0.5
-15
0.4
40
44
48
52
56
60
SiO2
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
between calcic (A), calc-alkaline (B), alkali-calcic (C) and shoshonitic (D) rocks. Note the low
contents of total alkalies for the mafic to intermediate rocks. Classification diagram (right)
showing the subdivision of the rocks in magnesian (below) and ferroan (above). In the Xixano
Complex, granitic rocks and some the evolved tonalites plot above the line and classify as
ferroan. Diagrams from Frost et al. (2001).
568
1000
800
Xixano Complex
Amphibolite
Tonalite
Granodi to granite
Granite
Meta-volcanic rocks
800
700
600
500
Sr
Zr
600
400
400
300
200
200
100
0
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
40
80
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
SiO2
Figure 10.25: Sr and Zr (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). One sample plots outside the
range of the Sr diagram and is not shown. With very few exceptions, the samples of the Xixano
Complex have low to moderate contents of Sr and Zr.
300
Xixano Complex
2000

Amphibolite
Tonalite
Granodi to granite
Granite
Meta-volcanic rocks
1800
250
1600
1400
200
Ba
Rb
1200
150
1000
800
100
600
400
50
200
40
44
48
52
56
60
SiO2
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
Figure 10.26: Rb and Ba (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). Note the generally low values for
mafic rocks and tonalites. The granodiorites and granites exhibit highly variable contents of
these elements.
569
1000
500
300
200
A-type
FeOt/MgO
100
50
30
20
Fract. I-type
10
5
3
2
I-type
1
200
100
300
500
2000
3000
5000
1000
Zr+Nb+Ce+Y
Figure 10.27: Total FeO/MgO vs Zr+Nb+Ce+Y (ppm). Legend as in Figure 9.26. The granitic
and granodioritic rocks plot mainly in the field of fractionated I-type granite and into the Atype field. The same is the case for the volcanic rocks. Tonalites plot in the I-type field.
Diagram from Whalen et al. (1987).
10.3.5 Ocua Complex
The Ocua Complex is situated to the northwest of the Nampula Complex and forms a northnortheast south-southwest-trending belt (the Lurio belt) of strongly deformed rocks (Figure
10.1) that in the west become interlayered with rocks assigned to the Marrupa and Unango
Complexes. The complex includes a variety of lithologies such as mafic to felsic granulites and
a number of different ortho- and paragneisses. The Ocua Complex was penetratively deformed
during the Pan-African orogeny and is cut by intrusive rocks belonging to the syn- to
posttectonic, Pan-African Malema suite.
Among the 25 samples that were analysed from the Ocua Complex, gabbros, diorites,
amphibolites and low-K tonalites clearly make up the greatest proportion. The rocks are calcic
and mainly magnesian. Apart from a variable Fe/Mg-ratio, the syenites have similar major
element composition characterized by high K2O. However, the samples have contrasting trace
element patterns with one sample having relatively low Sr and Ba and high Zr, whereas the two
other samples have low Zr and extremely high Sr and Ba contents. Granites and granodiorites
are characterised by low Sr values and highly variable contents of Zr and Ba.
570
Ocua Complex
Amphibolite
Tonalite
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
K2O
Shoshonitic
4
1
Low-K calk-alkaline
0
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
Figure 10.28: K2O (wt %) plotted against SiO2 (wt %).

300
Ocua Complex
250
1
Q=Si/3-(K+Na+2Ca/3)

Amphibolite
Tonalite
Granodi to granite
Syenite
Granite
200
150
100
50
12
11
10
0
-350
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
100
P=K-(Na+Ca)
Figure 10.29: Nomenclature diagram for the Ocua Complex (25 samples). Gabbro, diorite and
tonalite predominate together with seven samples of amphibolitic rocks. There are few evolved
granitic rocks. Monzonitic and syenitic rocks are also represented by some samples. Diagram
after Debon & LeFort (1983). See Figure 10.3 for explanation of the compositional fields of
the diagram.
571
15
1.0
0.9
0.8
FeOt/(FeOt+MgO)
Na2O + K2O - CaO
D
C
B
-3
ferroan
0.7
Ocua Complex
magnesian

Amphibolite
Tonalite
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
0.6
-9
0.5
-15
0.4
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
SiO2
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
between calcic (A), calc-alkaline (B), alkali-calcic (C) and shoshonitic (D) rocks.
ferroan (above). Diagrams from Frost et al. (2001).
1000
3600
900
Ocua Complex
3200

Amphibolite
Tonalite
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
2800
2400
700
600
Sr
Zr
2000
800
500
1600
400
1200
300
800
200
400
100
0
0
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
40
SiO2
Figure 10.31: Sr and Zr (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %).
572
44
48
52
56
60
SiO2
64
68
72
76
80
300
2200
Ocua Complex
Amphibolite
Tonalite
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
250
200
2000
Ocua Complex
Amphibolite
Tonalite
Syenite, q-syenite
Granodi to granite
Granite
1800
1600
1400
Ba
Rb
1200
150
1000
800
100
600
400
50
200
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
SiO2
Figure 10.32: Rb and Ba (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %).

200
FeOt/MgO
100
A-type
50
30
20
Fract. I-type
10
5
3
2
I-type
1
200
100
300
500
2000
3000
5000
1000
Zr+Nb+Ce+Y
Figure 10.33: Total FeO/MgO vs Zr+Nb+Ce+Y (ppm). Legend as in Figure 9.32.
573
10.3.6 Other complexes

The complexes that remain to be described are represented by fewer samples and are therefore
treated collectively. This includes the following complexes and groups (see Figure 10.1): Ponta
Messuli, Nairoto, Meluco, Muaquia, M'Sawize, Lalamo and Montepuez Complexes, as well as
the Txitonga Group.
In general, the rocks assigned to these complexes are compositionally variable and
include mafic to intermediate, calcic and low- to medium-K calc-alkaline gabbro, diorite and
tonalite. The more evolved rocks are medium- to high-K calc-alkaline granodiorite and granite,
and a couple of samples are shoshonitic quartz monzonite to quartz syenite.
The Ponta Messuli Complex consists mainly of orthogneiss intruded into Palaeoproterozoic,
high-grade migmatitic gneiss (see Chapter 11). Only two samples were analysed from the
complex, which is situated to the west of the Txitonga Group in the extreme northwest of the
mapped area. One of these (sample 36068, UTM 36S 717251, 8710574) is a fairly mafic,
porphyritic calk-alkaline granodiorite similar to those of the Unango Complex; the other is an
amphibolitic lithology (sample 38427, UTM 36S 686905, 8633817).
Nairoto and Meluco Complexes
The complexes occur in northeastern Mozambique structurally subjacent to the Xixano and
Lalamo Complexes (Figure 10.1). Based on their overall lithological composition and age
determinations (see Chapter 11), these complexes are broadly correlated with the Marrupa
Complex. The Nairoto Complex is represented by 6 samples that cover a wide compositional
spectrum from mafic gabbro to granite. However, fairly evolved, weakly peraluminous, calcalkaline, magnesian rocks appear to dominate. The four samples from the Meluco Complex are
granodiorite and granite that tend to have somewhat higher alkali contents, with one K2O-rich
sample plotting in the quartz syenite field of Figure 10.35. They are also apt to have slightly
lower TiO2 and P2O5 (Figure 10.37) and are classified as alkali-calcic, ferroan rocks (Figure
10.36). The magnesian rocks of the Nairoto Complex are classified as normal I-type granitoids,
whereas the Meluco Complex plot as fractionated I-type with one Zr-rich sample present in the
A-type field (Figure 10.40).
Muaquia and M'Sawize Complexes
These complexes are geographically situated in the central part of northeast Mozambique and
are surrounded by the tectonostratigraphically subjacent Unango Complex in the north and
west, and the Marrupa Complex in the south and east (Figure 10.1). Geochemical data from the
Muaquia and M'Sawize Complexes exist for 9 and 6 samples, respectively. Both complexes
cover the entire spectrum from mafic to acid compositions, however, in the M'Sawize
Complex, mafic to intermediate metaluminous samples are more common than weakly
peraluminous acid zones (Figure 10.34, Figure 10.35). A couple of the evolved samples of the
Muaquia Complex are alkali-calcic and ferroan; otherwise the rocks are calcic and magnesian
in character (Figure 10.36). Mafic to intermediate rocks have highly variable TiO2, P2O5 and
Sr, low Rb, Ba, Zr and LREE (Figure 10.37, Figure 10.38, Figure 10.39) and are classified as Itype to fractionated I-type rocks (Figure 10.40).
Lalamo and Montepuez Complexes
These complexes are located in the eastern part of the mapping area and occupy a high
tectonostratigraphic position beneath the Ocua Complex in the south (Figure 10.1). Rocks of
igneous origin are subordinate to high-grade supracrustal rocks, including quartzite, meta-
574
arkose and marble. Isotope analyses of marbles from the Montepuez Complex are consistent
with a late Mesoproterozoic depositional age, whereas age determinations suggest a
Neoproterozoic origin for the igneous rocks of the Lalamo Complex (see Chapter 11).
The Lalamo Complex (19 samples) and the Montepuez Complex (9 samples) share
important compositional traits and are considered together in the following. Mafic to
intermediate rocks are metaluminous, calcic to low-K calc-alkaline, gabbro, diorite,
amphibolite and mafic tonalite with magnesian signature (Figure 10.35, Figure 10.36). They
have low to moderate contents of TiO2, low P2O5, and generally low contents of LIL- and
HFS-elements (Figure 10.37, Figure 10.38, Figure 10.39). About 50% of the samples are
weakly peraluminous tonalites, granodiorites and granites that are mainly calc-alkaline to
alkali-calcic with a large range in Fe/Mg-ratios. Trace element abundances are highly variable,
and the rocks plot in the I-type to A-type fields of Figure 10.40.
Txitonga Group
The Txitonga Group overlies the Ponta Messuli Complex in northeast Mozambique (Figure
10.1). The complex consists mainly of metasedimentary rocks, and only four samples of
igneous composition have been analysed (Figure 10.35, Figure 10.36). Two of these are mafic
(gabbro and amphibolite) with very high contents of TiO2 (Figure 10.37). One sample is a
K2O-rich, shoshonitic A-type granite with high contents of Zr and LREE, and finally there is a
sample of highly fractionated, peraluminous granite (Figure 10.40).
Txitonga Group
Montepuez Complex
Lalamo Complex
M'Sawize Complex
Muaquia Complex
Meluco Complex
Nairoto Complex
Shoshonitic
K2O
2
1
Low-K calk-alkaline
0
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
Figure 10.34: K2O (wt %) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). The rock groups are mainly composed
of mafic to acid low-K to high-K calc-alkaline rocks with relatively few rocks of intermediate
composition.
575
300
Txitonga Group
Montepuez Complex
Lalamo Complex
M'Sawize Complex
Muaquia Complex
Meluco Complex
Nairoto Complex
Q=Si/3-(K+Na+2Ca/3)
250
200
150
100
50
12
10
11
0
-350
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
100
P=K-(Na+Ca)
Figure 10.35: Nomenclature diagram for various complexes and groups in northern
Mozambique. The complexes generally include compositionally diverse rock types. Gabbro,
diorite and tonalite predominate among the mafic to intermediate rocks. Granodiorite and
granite are present in about equal proportions. There are few evolved monzonitic and syenitic
rocks (see text for details). Diagram after Debon & LeFort (1983). See Figure 10.3 for
explanation of the compositional fields of the diagram.
15
0.9
0.8
FeOt/(FeOt+MgO)
Na2O + K2O - CaO
Txitonga Group
Montepuez Complex
Lalamo Complex
M'Sawize Complex
Muaquia Complex
Meluco Complex
Nairoto Complex
1.0
C
B
-3
0.7
0.6
-9
0.5
-15
0.4
40
44
48
52
56
60
SiO2
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
SiO2
Figure 10.36: Classification diagram (left) showing modified alkali-lime index. The lines
subdivide between calcic (A), calc-alkaline (B), alkali-calcic (C) and shoshonitic (D) rocks.
Diagram (right) showing the subdivision of the rocks in magnesian (below) and ferroan
(above). Diagrams from Frost et al. (2001).
576
80
0.5
3.0
Txitonga Group
Montepuez Complex
Lalamo Complex
M'Sawize Complex
Muaquia Complex
Meluco Complex
Nairoto Complex
2.5
0.3
P2O5
TiO2
2.0
0.4
1.5
0.2
1.0
0.1
0.5
0.0
0.0
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
40
80
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
SiO2
Figure 10.37: Harker diagrams for TiO2 (left) and P2O5 (right).
\
1200
Txitonga Group
Montepuez Complex
Lalamo Complex
M'Sawize Complex
Muaquia Complex
Meluco Complex
Nairoto Complex
600
1100
1000
500
900
800
400
Zr
Sr
700
600
300
500
400
200
300
200
100
100
0
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
40
SiO2
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
SiO2
Figure 10.38: Sr and Zr (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %).
577
80
200
4000
Txitonga Group
Montepuez Complex
Lalamo Complex
M'Sawize Complex
Muaquia Complex
Meluco Complex
Nairoto Complex
3600
160
3200
2800
120
Ba
Rb
2400
2000
80
1600
1200
40
800
400
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
SiO2
56
60
64
68
72
SiO2
Figure 10.39: Rb and Ba (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %).

Txitonga Group
Montepuez Complex
Lalamo Complex
M'Sawize Complex
Muaquia Complex
Meluco Complex
Nairoto Complex
1000
500
300
200
FeOt/MgO
100
50
A-type
30
20
Fract. I-type
10
5
3
2
I-type
1
200
100
300
500
2000
3000
5000
1000
Zr+Nb+Ce+Y
Figure 10.40: Total FeO/MgO vs Zr+Nb+Ce+Y (ppm). Diagram from Whalen et al. (1987).
578
76
80
10.3.7 Neoproterozoic plutons

Samples for reconnaissance analysis have been collected from a number of plutons that occur
in various parts the mapped areas. The plutonic rocks have been assigned to three suites
(Murrupula, Malema and Niassa Suites) and one group of undifferentiated Neoproterozoic
plutons. Important geochemical properties for each of the units are listed in Table 10.1. The
number of samples from each pluton is invariably low, and the data must be used with some
care when it comes to classification and comparison between individual plutons and suites.
Descriptions of the rocks are presented in Chapter 6, and geochronological data obtained from
a number of different plutons are summarised in Chapter 11.
The Niassa Suite comprises plutons and ring complexes hosted by the Unango
Complex in northeastern Mozambique. The rocks assigned to the Malema Suite are situated in
the southern part of the mapped area and intrude the Unango, Marrupa, and Ocua Complexes.
The Murrupula Suite includes several variably sized plutons intruding the Nampula Complex
to the south of the Lurio Belt. The plutonic rocks of these suites are generally regarded as lateto post-tectonic with respect to the Pan-African orogeny.
Finally, a group of plutons occurring mainly in the Xixano and Marrupa Complexes
that are not assigned to individual suites, are here treated collectively as Neoproterozoic
intrusions. Most of these rocks are also regarded as Pan-African. However, within the group
there are two dated samples representing plutons that appear to have intruded prior to the PanAfrican event. One of these is the Monte Chissindo syenite that forms a small pluton intruding
the Unango Complex close to its northwestern boundary with the Karoo Supergroup. The only
available sample from the pluton (sample 31997, UTM 36S 733103, 8625759) is a Na-rich,
strongly undersaturated syenite (SiO2=51,3 %; Na2O+K2O=12,5%). The sample has very high
Sr and Ba, moderate LREE and is depleted in Zr. A U-Pb zircon crystallization age of 799 r 8
Ma (see Chapter 10) shows that the pluton pre-dates the Pan-African orogney in northern
Mozambique. A similar case obtains for sample 33306 (UTM 37S 485350, 8515258) that
represents a weakly foliated megacrystic granite from a pluton intruding supracrustal rocks in
the southern part of the Xixano Complex. The granite is alkali-calcic (SiO2=70,5 %;
Na2O+K2O=8,5%) with moderate contents of LILE and HFSE. Zircons from this sample yield
an age of 739 r 8 Ma for intrusion of this pluton (see Chapter 11).
In terms of major element composition, the Niassa Suite stands apart in being
predominantly acid (SiO2 > 61,7%) and composed of metaluminous to weakly peraluminous
syenite, quartz syenite and some evolved granite (Figure 10.41). The suite has low contents of
CaO and exhibits distinctly shoshonitic to highly alkaline, ferroan composition with uniformly
high contents of K2O (Figure 10.42, Figure 10.43).
The Malema Suite includes metaluminous quartz diorite, abundant monzodiorite and
monzonite, and some samples transitional between quartz syenite and granite. Compared to the
Niassa Suite, the Malema rocks are generally lower in K2O and higher in CaO, and they tend to
have higher FeO/MgO-ratios. Thus, the intermediate to acid rocks have a less alkaline but
stronger ferroan character than the Niassa Suite (Figure 10.43).
The Murrupula Suite is mainly composed of metaluminous to weakly peraluminous
granodiorite, granite and quartz syenite (Figure 10.41, Figure 10.42). The suite has lower
contents of K2O, and higher CaO, MgO and P2O5 than the Niassa and Malema Suites. The
579
rocks of the Murrupula Suite are therefore somewhat less alkaline and straddle the boundary
between magnesian and ferroan rocks (Figure 10.43).
The rocks plotted as Neoproterozoic plutons are composed of metaluminous, MgO-rich
gabbro, quartz-diorite to quartz-monzonite, a couple of samples are syenitic, and then there is a
group of fairly evolved metaluminous to weakly peraluminous granodiorite to granite (Figure
10.41, Figure 10.42). The diverse nature the mafic to intermediate rocks of this group is
confirmed by the variation in alkali-lime- and Fe/Mg-ratios (Figure 10.43). However, the acid
rocks (SiO2 > 68%) are compositionally fairly similar to the Murrupula Suite.
The trace element data for the suites also show some characteristic features. The Niassa
and Malema Suites have highly variable contents of LIL- and HFS-elements. This is
particularly the case for the rocks of intermediate to acid composition (Figure 10.44, Figure
10.45). The Murrupula suite and the undifferentiated group of Neoproterozoic plutons exhibit
much less elemental variation and include very few samples that are extremely enriched in e.g.
Zr, Ba and LREE. These differences in composition are also readily seen in Figure 10.46. The
rocks are predominantly A-type. However, this property is clearly more pronounced for the
Niassa and Malema Suites. The undifferentiated group of plutons is transitional between
fractionated I-type and I-type, whereas the more magnesian Murrupula Suite plots as I- to Atype.
The major and trace element composition of the Murrupula Suite and the
Neoproterozoic plutons is generally regarded as diagnostic of a syn- to postcollisional setting.
However, despite the low number of samples, the slightly more magnesian character of the
Murrupula suite may be significant and would be consistent with magma generation in a
mature continental arc. The clearly more alkaline and ferroan Niassa and Malema Suites are Atype granites developed during the post-collisional stage, and some of the more evolved
alkaline complexes (syenites) may even be products of anorogenic magmatism.
Niassa Suite
Malema Suite
Murrupula Suite
Neoproterozoic plutons
6
Shoshonitic
K2O
4
2
1
Low-K calk-alkaline
0
44
48
52
56
60
64
SiO2
Figure 10.41: K2O (wt %) plotted against SiO2 (wt %).
580
68
72
76
80
300
Niassa suite
Malema suite
Murrupula Suite
Q=Si/3-(K+Na+2Ca/3)
250
200
150
100
50
12
10
11
0
-350
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
100
P=K-(Na+Ca)
Figure 10.42: Nomenclature diagram for the plutonic rocks (56 samples). The strongly
undersaturated sample is from Monte Chissindo (only one sample was collected from this
pluton in this study). See Figure 10.3 for explanation of the compositional fields of the
diagram.
15
1.0
0.9
FeOt/(FeOt+MgO)
Na2O+K2O-CaO
ferroan
0.8
D
C
B
-3
magnesian
0.7
0.6
-9
Niassa Suite
Malema Suite
Murrupula Suite
Niassa Suite
Malema Suite
Murrupula Suite
0.5
-15
0.4
40
44
48
52
56
60
SiO2
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
SiO2
between calcic (A), calc-alkaline (B), alkali-calcic (C) and shoshonitic (D) rocks. Classification diagram (right) showing the subdivision of the rocks in magnesian (below) and ferroan
(above). Diagrams from Frost et al. (2001).
581
80
2000
1600
Niassa Suite
Malema Suite
Murrupula Suite
1600
1400
1200
1000
Zr
Sr
1200
800
800
600
400
400
200
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
SiO2
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
Figure 10.44: Sr and Zr (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). Three samples of the Murrupula
Suite have very high Sr contents plot outside the diagram. The same is the case for one sample
with a high Zr content.
4800
400
Niassa Suite
Malema Suite
Murrupula Suite
350
4000
300
3200
Ba
Rb
250
200
2400
150
1600
100
800
50
0
40
44
48
52
56
60
SiO2
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
SiO2
Figure 10.45: Rb and Ba (ppm) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). Two samples of the Murrupula
Suite with very high Ba contents plot outside the diagram and are not shown.
582
80
Niassa Suite
Malema Suite
Murrupula Suite
1000
500
300
200
FeOt/MgO
100
A-type
50
30
20
10
Fract. I-type
5
3
2
I-type
1
200
100
300
500
2000
3000
5000
1000
Zr+Nb+Ce+Y
Figure 10.46: Total FeO/MgO vs Zr+Nb+Ce+Y (ppm).

10.3.8 Rocks of sedimentary origin
A number of samples of sedimentary rocks have been collected from the rock complexes in the
investigated areas. These include marbles, quartz/quartzite and Fe-rich ore samples collected for
specific purposes (see Chapter 13). The remaining 39 samples are representative for the general
composition of metasedimentary rocks that are spatially associated with the igneous rocks. These
samples have been plotted in selected classification diagrams to illustrate their compositional
variation. Sedimentary deposits are prone to alteration and re-deposition during long-term evolution of
depositional basins. Although considerable precaution must be exercised in applying these diagrams to
high and very high-grade rocks, the observed compositional variation is probably a reflection of huge
variation in source lithologies and depositional regimes.
The Unango and Nampula samples plot mainly as shales and wackes, whereas the Lalamo and
Montepuez Complexes are arkosic (Figure 10.47). The greatest range in composition is shown by the
arkose, greywacke and shale of the Xixano and Muaquia Complexes. The Ocua and Txitonga samples
plot mainly as shale; other samples show wide scatter.
In the classification diagrams (Figure 10.48) the samples also exhibit considerable scatter from
oceanic arc, via continental arc and active continental margins to passive margins. The Txitonga
Group as well as the Ocua, Unango and Nampula Complexes plot as arc-related sediments. The
Xixano and Muaquia Complexes show a wide range from continental arc to passive margin, the
arkosic Lalamo and Montepuez Complexes and the Geci Group (one sample) plot as passive margin
deposits. Finally, the Marrupa, Mecuburi, and Nairoto rocks are related to passive margin to active
continental margin settings.
583
Geci Gr
Ocua/Txitonga Cplx
Lalamo/Montepuez Cplx
Muquaia/Xixano Cplx
Marrupa, Mecuburi, Nairoto Cplx
Nampula, Unango Cplx
1.8
1.4
Fe-shale
Fe-sand
log (Fe2O3 / K2O)
1.0
0.6
Litharenite
Shale
0.2
Sublitharenite
Quartz arenite
Wacke
-0.2
Arkose
Subarkose
0.8
1.2
-0.6
-1.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
1.0
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
log (SiO2 / Al2O3)
Figure 10.47: Classification of meta-sedimentary rocks from various rock complexes in

northern Mozambique. The SiO2 content and the SiO2/Al2O3-ratio reflect the abundance of
quartz and the sediment maturity. Ferromagnesian minerals tend to be unstable during
weathering, and the Fe2O3/K2O-ratio reflects relative mineral stability and allows a good
classification of arkoses. Diagram taken from Rollinson (1993).
2.0
0.8
Geci Gr
Ocua/Txitonga Cplx
Lalamo/Montepuez Cplx
Muquaia/Xixano Cplx
Marrupa, Mecuburi, Nairoto Cplx
Nampula Unango Cplx
1.6
0.6
Al2O3 / SiO2
TiO2
1.2
OA
0.8
0.4
OA
CA
CA
0.2
ACM
0.4
ACM
PM
PM
0.0
0.0
Fe2O3 + MgO
10
11
12
13
14
10
11
12
13
Fe2O3 + MgO
Figure 10.48: Discrimination diagram for sandstones. The abbreviations OA (Oceanic arc),
CA (Continental arc), ACM (Active continental margin) and PM (Passive margin) are placed
in approximate accordance with the fields shown in Fig. 5.29 in Rollinson (1993).
584
14
10.4
Summary of the geochemical data
10.4.1 Previous work

Prior to summarizing the new data obtained from northern Mozambique, it is pertinent to
briefly consider the major element data published by Pinna et al. (1993). Unfortunately, the
sample locations are not available, and the data cannot be considered within the framework of
the tectonostratigraphic scheme used in this report. However, to enable a general comparison,
the data are assigned to four major groups of rocks (cf. Pinna et al. 1993), and plotted in some
of the standard diagrams used in this report (Figure 10.49, Figure 10.50). The data include a
wide range of rock types. It is clear from the diagrams that the general compositional features
are similar to those found in the present study. Pinna et al. (1993) considered the igneous rocks
in this part of the Mozambique Belt to have formed in a variety of immature to mature
continental arc settings associated with the progressive evolution of a Neoproterozoic collision
orogen in eastern Africa.
M_biq (Pinna et al. 1993)
Unango Group
Lurio Supergroup
Chiure Supergroup
Nampula Supergroup
K2O
Shoshonitic
4
3
Low-K calk-alkaline
0
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
Figure 10.49: K2O (wt %) plotted against SiO2 (wt %). The data set includes 345 samples from
northern Mozambique published by Pinna et al. (1993).
585
M_biq (Pinna et al. 1993)

Unango Group
Lurio Supergroup
Chiure Supergroup
Nampula Supergroup
15
12
1.0
9
0.9
0.8
FeOt/(FeOt+MgO)
Na2O+K2O-CaO
C
-3
B
A
-6
0.7
0.6
-9
0.5
-12
-15
0.4
40
44
48
52
56
60
SiO2
64
68
72
76
80
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
SiO2
Figure 10.50: Classification diagram (left) showing modified alkali-lime index. The lines
subdivide between calcic (A), calc-alkaline (B), alkali-calcic (C) and shoshonitic (D) rocks.
Diagram (right) showing the subdivision of the rocks in magnesian (below) and ferroan
(above). Data from northern Mozambique published by Pinna et al. (1993). Diagrams from
Frost et al. (2001).
10.4.2 Compositional features and origin of the main rock groups

Based on the descriptions provided above, this section aims to provide a summary of
compositional features, including a brief comparative analysis of the individual complexes.
The lack of isotope data prevents anything but general conclusions based on the overall
compositions of the rocks included in the respective complexes. More data, including
radiogenic isotopes and REE, would be required if more exact models for each pluton and
complex were to be achieved.
The Unango Complex, represented by a vast number of analyses, covers an exceptional
variety of igneous rocks. However, intermediate to acid, calcic to medium-K calc-alkaline
rocks are virtually absent. Such rocks do exist in the Nampula Complex, but otherwise the
compositional span of this complex is well within that of the Unango Complex. The same is
the case for the Marrupa Complex, however, in this complex, monzonitic to syenitic rocks are
present in subordinate amounts.
The Unango, Marrupa and Nampula Complexes underlie a substantial part of northern
Mozambique and their origin may obviously be related to different geodynamic and tectonic
scenarios. The compositional spectrum observed in these complexes is consistent with
petrogenesis in increasingly mature continental arcs and/or during a post-collisional stage
following terrane accretion in this part of the Mozambique Belt. The distinction between these
geodynamic settings is not always straightforward. A post-collisional scenario has commonly
been invoked to explain granitoid magmatism in the Pan-African terranes in Africa (e.g.
Liegeois et al. 1998, Kster & Harms 1998). This setting is considered to represent a
transitional period between a collision and a post- to anorogenic stage, and is thought to
586
include a complex interplay of geological processes, e.g. large horizontal movements on shear
zones, oblique docking of crustal terranes, delamination of the lithosphere and rifting (Bonin,
2005). Consequently, the enriched lithospheric mantle and various crustal source rocks for the
magmatism may have been generated and/or modified by processes taking place during the
development and destruction of previously active margins. Similar source regions to those
inferred for the post-collisional granitoids can result from accretion of arc complexes that may
ultimately be juxtaposed towards the leading edge of a continental margin (e.g. Eklund &
Shenabov, 2005). This would create a stabilized collage consisting of an assortment of various
arc-generated and continental rocks that may become modified during subsequent shifts in
tectonic conditions. In general, such conditions would allow for mixing of various mantle- and
crust-derived magmas that combined with fractionation processes, can create a range of alkalicalcic to shoshonitic rocks (Barnes et al. 2005, Yang et al., 2006).
The term 'post-collisional' commonly alludes to continent-continent collision (e.g.
Bonin, 2005). However, the igneous rocks described from northern Mozambique lack strongly
peraluminous S-type rocks that are known from several collisional orogenic belts (e.g. the
Variscan orogen and the Himalayas). The significance of this is uncertain, but it indicates that
large-scale thickening leading to extensive dehydration melting of continental crust has not
been a major process at the crustal levels preserved in the investigated areas.
The Xixano and Ocua Complexes have compositions that clearly differ from the
complexes discussed above. Metaluminous, mafic gabbro, diorite and tonalite are the dominant
rock types, whereas granitic rocks are represented by a few samples. A few syenites occur in
the Ocua Complex. However, among the highly deformed rocks in this complex these may be
hard to distinguish from younger, Pan-African plutons. The general composition of these
complexes suggests a more primitive setting in an island arc or an immature continental arc
with derivation of the rocks from subduction-modified mantle sources and reprocessing of
previously formed underplated crustal rocks.
Among the remaining complexes, the low number of analysed samples dictates
precaution in interpreting their origin. With some few exceptions, the complexes lack the
shoshonitic and highly potassic rocks that are prevalent in the Unango Complex. The Nairoto
and Meluco Complexes have compositions similar to the Marrupa Complex. However,
monzonitic rocks are not present. The same is the case for the Lalamo and Montepuez
Complexes.
The Muaquia and M'Sawize Complexes comprise low-K mafic to intermediate rocks
and some granodiorite to granite. This pattern is very similar to that of the Xixano and Ocua
Complexes. The three samples of the Txitonga group stand apart from the other complexes in
many elements and cannot be directly compared to any of them. In general, all these complexes
have compositional features that, regardless of some internal differences, can be fitted to an
arc-type tectonic setting with mafic magmas ultimately being derived from a variably enriched
mantle source. The differences that do exist can be explained in terms of influence of melting
of lower crustal rocks combined with intracrustal assimilation and fractionation processes.
587
10.5 Conclusions
The low- to medium-K, calcic to alkali-calcic rocks present in the various complexes, and that
dominate in the Xixano and Ocua Complexes, are generally thought to have formed in
immature to mature arc settings.
The metaluminous to weakly peraluminous, calc-alkaline to alkali-calcic, magnesian
quartz-dioritic, granodioritic to granitic rocks were most likely formed in an active continental
arc setting. Associated mafic rocks that may represent fairly juvenile additions to the crust
occur in subordinate amounts. Some of the more fractionated granites may be genetically
related to the granodiorites and have a similar origin.
The more alkaline monzonitic to syenitic rocks, as well as some of the shoshonitic Atype granites, may have originated as postcollisional to post-orogenic plutons during
stabilization of the crust following terrane accretion.
The undersaturated nepheline syenite of Monte Chissindo (~799 Ma) (see Chapters 11
and 13) may be regarded as a mantle-derived intrusive suite that developed during a post- to
anorogenic stage prior to the incipient development of the Pan-African orogeny.
Among the Pan-African intrusive suites, the alkaline and ferroan Niassa and Malema
Suites are A-type granites developed during the postcollisional stage, and some of the more
evolved alkaline complexes (syenites) may even be products of anorogenic magmatism. The
Murrupula Suite and the Neoproterozoic plutons may have been generated in a mature
continental to postcollisional setting.
588
11 GEOCHRONOLOGY
New U-Pb, Rb-Sr, and Re-Os geochronological data have been collected in the different
geological complexes mapped in northeastern Mozambique. In addition, a chemostratigraphic
study, including carbon, oxygen and Rb-Sr isotope data, was made on carbonate rocks. The
objective of the chemostratigraphic study is to constrain the sedimentology and geochronology
of carbonate sequences.
The mapped area in northeastern Mozambique has been divided into a number of large
scale lithotectonic units, referred to as complexes (Figure 11.1; Figure 11.2). Their lithologies
are described in Chapter 6. The relationships between the geological complexes are
summarized in a tectonostratigraphic column, which forms the basis for the geologic map and
legend. A copy of the tectonostratigraphic column is shown in Figure 11.3. In this chapter,
geochronological data are reported for each complex, following the tectonostratigraphic
column (Figure 11.3). Pan-African plutons are reported together with data on the complex they
intrude, instead of being reported as a separate group of rocks.
Before presenting new data, this chapter offers a short summary of recent
geochronological data, published and unpublished, available in the mapping area and from
contiguous areas. Geochronological data are summarized at the end of this chapter and are
discussed in their broad Pan-African geotectonic context in Chapter 12.
11.1 Previous geochronology
Whole-rock (WR) and mineral Rb-Sr isotopic data in northeastern Mozambique are reported
mainly by Costa et al. (1992) and Pinna et al. (1993). Geochronology derived from whole-rock
Rb-Sr data collected at a regional scale is now generally considered to be unreliable.
Consequently, whole-rock Rb-Sr data are not compiled in this report. Biotite-whole-rock data
from granitoids and K-feldspar-muscovite data from pegmatites from the Nampula Complex
are reported by Costa et al. (1992). These ages range from 454 7 to 411 6 Ma (Ordovician to
Devonian).
Pioneering zircon U-Pb data (approximately 1300 Ma) were reported by Holmes (1951)
from the Mozambique Belt. Later, Lulin (1984) derived an upper intercept age of 830 130 Ma
for a deformed alkaline pluton in the Unango Complex, the Monte Naumale syenite. Zircon UPb data on granitoids from the Nampula Complex and granulites from the Mugeba Complex,
overlying the Nampula Complex, were published by Costa et al. (1994) and Krner et al.
(1997). These data are summarized in Table 11.1. More recently, U-Pb zircon data were
reported from a collection of 24 samples distributed over different complexes in northeasetrn
Mozambique by Jamal and DeWit (2004) and Jamal (2005). These data are summarized in
Table 11.2 and Figure 11.4.
Sm-Nd and 40Ar/39Ar data were collected on 12 samples of the Ponta Messuli Complex
and Txitonga Group by I. de Sousa Saranga, DNG. This work was not published before his
unfortunate death in 2004. A summary of the available information is reported in Table 11.3
and Table 11.4, following information provided by courtesy of DNG.
589
Figure 11.1: Distribution of the main tectonostratigraphic units in northeastern Mozambique.
590
Figure 11.2: Sketch-map of northeastern Mozambique in its Pan-African context, with a

genetic interpretative legend (see Chapter 12 for explanation). The Gondwana reconstruction
follows Torsvik et al. (2002, vector digital map available at www.geodynamics.no). The
location of the Mugeba and Monapo Complexes, quoted in the text and tables are indicated.
591
Figure 11.3: Generalized tectonostratigraphic column for northeastern Mozambique, with

colour coding following Figure 11.2. Neoproterozoic cover sequences are in purple.
Attribution of the Txitonga Group to a Neoproterozoic cover sequence or the Upper PanAfrican Nappe system is uncertain. All contacts are tectonic, except the contact between the
Nampula and Mecubri/Alto Benfica Group, which is possibly an unconformity.
592
1.9
1.6
5.2
2.2
4.8
2.9
65.7
62.3
72.6
70.3
76.0
61.7
Granodioritic gneiss
Tonalitic gneiss
Granitic gneiss
Tonalitic gneiss
Leucogneiss
37
37
37
37
37
1297 1
1028
1040
1048
1067
1115
1148
7
1
1
1
1
1
615
613
7
1
SiO2 K2O Xenocryst Intrusion

Metamorphism
(%) (%) (Ma) 2V (Ma) 2V (Ma) 2V
8131579
8133450
8219065
8190378
8227136
Lithology
64.5 2.4
Mocuba
Sheet
Granulite
Granulite
Zone
8142531 37
8142531 37
(1) Krner et al. (1997); (2) Costa et al. (1994)
Mugeba Complex
674GT1
326289
674GT2
326289
Nampula Complex
673GJ6
673GJ8
288462
672CJ3
282019
587GJ3
421639
618GJ7
372846
586GC1
396647
Sample
Table 11.1: Published U-Pb geochronological data from the Mugeba and Nampula Complexes
SHRIMP
Evapor
Evapor
Evapor
Evapor
Evapor
SHRIMP
Evapor
method
(2)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
Ref
Zo Sheet
Complex
Lithology
Dated Intrusion
ne
(Ma)
98DJ13
477974 8447509 37 Ribu
Ocua
Hbl-Bt gneiss
Zrn
922
20
99DJ67
607986 8501710 37 Montepuez
Ocua
Grt-Cpx gneiss
Zrn
936
22
98DJ27A
501084 8549926 37 Montepuez
Montepuez
Leucosome (syn-S2)
Zrn
586
4
98DJ27
501084 8549926 37 Montepuez
Montepuez
Psamite gneiss
Zrn
942** 14
99DJ79
607919 8623373 37 Meluco
Lalamo
Aplite (post-S2-S3)
Ttn
591
9
99DJ18
607919 8623373 37 Meluco
Lalamo
Monzonitic gneiss
Zrn
753
10
99DJ61
606489 8353051 37
Monapo*
Aplite (not foliated, post-S2)
Zrn
559
9
99DJ59
606489 8353051 37
Monapo*
Leucogneiss (Syn-S2)
Zrn
635
3
99DJ39
416014 8508875 37 Namuno
Xixano
Granitic gneiss (syn-D3)
Zrn
564
4
98DJ02
466452 8507328 37 Namuno
Xixano
Kfs granite syenite
Zrn
607
7
99DJ19
611307 8600245 37 Quissinga-P
Meluco
Zrn
944
21
99DJ84
569635 8612321 37 Meluco
Meluco
Leucosome (Syn-S1)
Zrn
947
21
98DJ31
593833 8539147 37 Montepuez
Nairoto
Pegmatite (post-S2)
Zrn
498
53
99DJ05
502172 8599578 37 Meluco
Nairoto
Psamite gneiss
Zrn
976
5
99DJ76
593833 8539147 37 Montepuez
Nairoto
Amphibolite
Zrn
1019
36
99DJ77
593833 8539147 37 Montepuez
Nairoto
Bt gneiss
Zrn
1044
44
00DJ121
418076 8405688 37 Ribu
Marrupa/Ocua Foliated syenite gneiss
Zrn
531
7
00DJ37
355562 8601202 37 Mecula
Marrupa
Monzonitic granite gneiss
Zrn
815
39
00DJ59
300100 8462558 37 Marrupa
Marrupa
Hbl-Bt migmatitic gneiss
Zrn
978
8
98DJ40
600404 8444002 37
Nampula
Aplite (not foliated, post-S3)
Zrn
493
4
00DJ91
340859 8343355 37 Malema
Nampula
Foliated monzonite
Zrn
495
13
98DJ43
600404 8444002 37
Nampula
Bt migmatitic gneiss
Zrn
1041
25
98DJ41
591984 8474672 37 Montepuez
Nampula
Felsic granulite
Zrn
1079
17
98DJ34
593757 8486722 37 Montepuez
Nampula
Syenite gneiss
Zrn
1079
35
*Monapo Complex overlies the Nampula Complex south of the mapping area.
** The date of 942 14 Ma probably represents the age of a detrital zircon crystal if sample 98DJ27 is interpreted as a paragneiss.
Sample
10
8
5
15
8
11
14
57
599
564
602
698
611
668
562
568
536
520
576
579
557
621
Metamorphism
(Ma)
606 4
581
562 3
543
10
10
6
10
4
14
562
11
SHRIMP
SHRIMP
ID-TIMS
SHRIMP
SHRIMP
SHRIMP
SHRIMP
SHRIMP
SHRIMP
ID-TIMS
SHRIMP
SHRIMP
ID-TIMS
SHRIMP
SHRIMP
SHRIMP
SHRIMP
ID-TIMS
SHRIMP
ID-TIMS
ID-TIMS
SHRIMP
SHRIMP
ID-TIMS
method
Table 11.2: Summary of U-Pb geochronological data reported by D. Jamal (2005). The most robust data, used for geological interpretation, are
in bold characters.
Amphibolite
Bt gneiss
Schist
Granitic gneiss
Schist
Quartz diorite
Hbl Pyroxenite
Grt gneiss
Epidote gneiss
Grt Charnockite
Pyroxene granulite
Granitic gneiss
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
Zo Lithology
ne
445
3
450.3 1.8
446
2
496
1.6 475
492
467
676
1.6 475
466
4
4
40Ar/39Ar age (Ma)

Biotite
Muscovite
522
477
507
Amphibole
465
1.1
Tremolite
Qtz, Bt, Grt, Opaque, Ttn, Hbl, Zrn, Ep

Qtz, Bt, Ep, Ms, Grt, Opaque, Chl
Opx, Cpx, Qtz
Opx, Hbl, Qtz, Cpx, Mag, Chl
Qtz, Ms, Kfs, Pl, Opaque, Bt, Grt, Sericite, Chl
Pl, Hbl, Bt, Qtz, Kfs, Pyroxene, Opaque, Ms, Sericite
Hbl, Qtz, Pl, Mag, Bt, Sericite, Chl
Specific minerals
Zo Lithology
Sm
(ppm)

174IS99 685853 8622165 36 Grt gneiss
4.668
205IS99 686184 8621886 36 Epidote gneiss 4.510
212IS99 686154 8621948 36 Grt Charnockite 5.065
Sample E
147Sm
144Nd 2%
143Nd
144Nd
23.779 0.1187 0.0024 0.511409

21.856 0.1248 0.0025 0.511351
23.447 0.1306 0.0026 0.511425
Nd
(ppm)
0.000014
0.000012
0.000012
2V
-23.97
-25.11
-23.66
HNd
0 Ma
-4.47
-7.13
-7.15
2390
2712
2781
TCHUR
HNd
1950 Ma (Ma)
2639
2933
3008
TDM
(Ma)
Table 11.4: Summary of whole-rock Sm-Nd isotopic data from the Ponta Messuli Complex and Txitonga Group (de Sousa Saranga, unpublished
data)
Txitonga Group
126IS99 689823 8633479
239IS00 691864 8645174
247IS00 692805 8650485
256IS00 687975 8651561
269IS00 705303 8665367
065IS99 690048 8626286
170IS99 685576 8621276
174IS99 685853 8622165
205IS99 686184 8621886
212IS99 686154 8621948
218IS99 691216 8620163
223IS99 689255 8620422
Sample E
Table 11.3: Summary of 40Ar/39Ar geochronological data from the Ponta Messuli Complex and Txitonga Group (de Sousa Saranga, unpublished
data)
Figure 11.4: Geological map with a summary of the most robust zircon and titanite U-Pb data
by Jamal (2005), as selected in Table 11.2.
11.2 New geochronological results
New U-Pb geochronological data were collected on zircon and monazite from 61 samples by
laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICPMS) and high-resolution
secondary ion mass spectrometry (HR-SIMS). HR-SIMS data were collected with two distinct
596
instruments, a Cameca 1270 instrument (data labelled HR-SIMS or SIMS in the text, tables
and figures) and a SHRIMPII instrument (data labelled SHRIMP). For most samples,
cathodoluminescence (CL) images are collected for zircon and back-scattered electron (BSE)
images are collected for monazite in a scanning electron microscope (SEM) before analysis
(Figure 11.6). Analytical methods are summarized in Appendix 1, and U-Pb zircon and
monazite data are tabulated in Appendix 4, together with key petrographic information and
data on the location of the samples. A summary of the data is provided in Table 11.5. The
summary includes U-Pb dates for magmatic and metamorphic events, and a time bracket for
detrital or xenocrystic zircons. The U-Pb geochronological data are reported on the geological
maps in Figure 11.5.
New chemostratigraphic data, including geochemical data, carbon, oxygen and Rb-Sr
isotopes data, were collected on marbles from the Montepuez area and limestone from the Geci
Group. Data on 56 samples of the Montepuez marbles and 17 samples of the Geci Group are
reported in Appendix 4. Analytical methods are summarized in Appendix 1.
Re-Os data on sulphides were collected in 3 samples from the Caguru gold field, by
isotope dilution- negative ion thermal ionisation mass spectrometry (ID-NTIMS). Rb-Sr data
on phlogopite in two samples of kimberlite from the Maniamba graben were also collected by
isotope dilution. Re-Os and Rb-Sr analytical methods are summarized in Appendix 1, and data
are reported in Appendix 4.
597
Figure 11.5: Geological map with summary of zircon and monazite U-Pb data, as listed in
Table 11.5. Information on the samples and coordinates is provided in Appendix 4.
598
Sheet
Lithology
Alto Benfica Group

EGC31
Mocuba
Metaconglomerate
Txitonga Group
31818
Lupilichi
Granite porphyry
Ocua Complex
33312
Mecufi
Boudin-neck pegmatite
26878
Ribu
Leucogneiss
33304
Mecufi
Syenitic gneiss
26811
Malema
Granitic gneiss
33305
Mecufi
Paragneiss
33298
Montepuez
Felsic granulite
26810
Ribu
Paragneiss
33310
Mecufi
Banded gneiss, felsic
M'Sawize Complex
31978
Mavago
Tonalitic gneiss
Lalamo Complex
40667
Meluco
Xixano Complex
33266
Namuno
Foliated granite
33274
Namuno
Banded granulite
33306
Namuno
Phenocryst granite
36053
Xixano
Enderbite
33420
Namuno
Granitic gneiss
33410
Namuno
Metarhyolite
Mugeba Complex
674GT1
Granulite
674GT2
Granulite
Meluco Complex
40760
Quissinga-P Granitic gneiss
Sample
Moderate
71.0 5.5
70.5 0.8
70.5 5.0
Moderate
Intense
Unfoliated
Moderate
Moderate
Weak
66.9 5.8
64.5 2.4
73.8 4.7
75.6 3.4
71.3 3.4
Moderate
8.5
4.5
2.0
0.4
4.1
59.5 0.4
57.7
65.4
59.0
71.3
71.6
75.9 5.1
970
978
880
626
24 768
34 832
21
3315 8
19
40
22
946
739
742
799
818
573
696
640
535
538
599
749
715
12 585
615
613
17 397
735
8
16
44
10
13
15
10
6
20 583
578
576
587
557
20
492
13
7
1
19
4
19
10 568
7 548
23
3 540
12
Xenocryst/Detrital
Intrusion
Metamorphism
SiO2 K2O Zrn
Zrn/Mnz
Zrn
Zrn
(%) (%) (Ma) 2V (Ma) 2V (Ma) 2V (Ma) 2V
Weak
Weak
Intense
Intense
Intense
Intense
Intense
Intense
Intense
Weak
Moderate
Deformation
Table 11.5: Summary of U-Pb geochronological data, including published data, in stratigraphic order
9
6
545
ICPMS
SHRIMP
Evapor
ICPMS
HR-SIMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
SIMS
SIMS
ICPMS
SIMS
ICPMS
SHRIMP
method
(1)
(1)
Ref
Marrupa Complex
26892
Malema
26802
Ribu
33509
Cuamba
26859
Malema
33205
Mecula
33406
Marrupa
33503
Cuamba
33498
Cuamba
33405
Marrupa
33253
Marrupa
34284
Majune
33206
Mecula
Unango Complex
31225
Lichinga
40416
Gurue
31260
Lichinga
33499
Cuamba
33586
Gurue
33598
Milange
31997
Macaloge
33572
Milange
31965
Metangula
31259
Lichinga
22782
Majune
33507
Cuamba
35228
Macaloge
31863
Metangula
31229
Lichinga
31870
Macaloge
31261
Lichinga
31971
Macaloge
40403
Majune
Table continued
Sample
Sheet
Weak
Moderate
Unfoliated
Intense
Unfoliated
Moderate
Weak
Weak
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Unfoliated
Unfoliated
Unfoliated
Weak
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Unfoliated
Unfoliated
Weak
Mylonitic
Intense
Moderate
Weak
Moderate
Weak
Weak
Granite
Quartz mangerite
Granite
Granite
Granitic gneiss
Amphibolite
Syenitic gneiss
Banded granulite, felsic
Granitic gneiss
Dolerite
Charnockite
Quartz Mangerite
Granitic mylonite
Leucogneiss
Granitic gneiss
Granodiorite
Banded granulite
Leucogranite
Quartz monzonite
Deformation
Syenitic gneiss
Granitic gneiss
Quartz mangerite
Granitic gneiss
Granite
Leucosome
Granitic gneiss
Leucogneiss
Granitic gneiss
Granitic gneiss
Granitic gneiss
Granitic gneiss
Lithology
5.1
4.5
5.1
4.9
6.0
1.4
5.0
0.3
4.8
3.0
5.2
8.2
3.9
5.3
3.8
3.2
4.3
78.3
72.1
66.5
68.4
78.4
4.2
5.0
5.1
5.2
4.1
5.0
5.7
4.7
5.3
4.9
4.1
3.0
70.9
58.4
61.8
72.1
75.0
47.7
51.3
67.3
71.2
52.8
70.2
62.4
56.4
69.3
58.3
64.0
75.4
73.4
73.6
78.9
71.5
67.6
68.9
69.8
20
1092 14 827
735
20
975
988
995
1001
1004
1006
1013
1030
1036
1048
1065
507
513
514
517
519
753
799
968
1005
1016
1025
1026
504
521
532
545
547
548
4
4
35
12
6
12 548
8
569
33 530
20
21
33 553
24 444
9
10
10
10
8
16
11
15
52
9 478
14
13
558
10
19
10
12
9
13
5
9
26 525
11
29
Xenocryst/Detrital
Intrusion
Metamorphism
SiO2 K2O Zrn
Zrn/Mnz
Zrn
Zrn
(%) (%) (Ma) 2V (Ma) 2V (Ma) 2V (Ma) 2V
14
ICP-MS
SHRIMP
ICPMS
ICPMS
SHRIMP
SHRIMP
SIMS
SHRIMP
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
ICPMS
method
Ref
Sheet
Lithology
Unango Complex
22780
Lichinga
Metapelitic gneiss
33512
Cuamba
Garnet gneiss
Nampula Complex
33570
Gurue
Granitic gneiss
40710
Mecufi
Granitic gneiss
33373
Montepuez
Phenocryst granite
673GJ6
673GJ8
Tonalitic gneiss
40781
Mecufi
Granitic gneiss
672CJ3
Mocuba
Granitic gneiss
33296
Montepuez
Augen gneiss
587GJ3
Tonalitic gneiss
33568
Milange
Augen gneiss
618GJ7
Leucogneiss
33564
Milange
Leucogneiss
586GC1
31779
Metangula
Granite
31874
Ponta Messuli Metapelitic gneiss
Sample
Table continued
64.8 5.9
Weak
Moderate
Weak
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
64.1
74.8
64.2
65.7
62.3
67.4
72.6
72.9
70.3
51.7
76.0
74.4
61.7
Moderate
Weak
Unfoliated
5.1
5.1
5.7
1.9
1.6
7.3
5.2
6.1
2.2
2.0
4.8
1.2
2.9
73.4 2.0
67.3 2.4
53
1062 54
2199 21 2074 11
1297 1
936
2596 8
9
8
1950 15 1946 11
3
12
19
7
1
9
1
9
1
16 493
1
9 520
1
1056 11
508
511
516
1028
1040
1042
1048
1058
1067
1087
1115
1123
1148
1025 62 525
536 6 527
Xenocryst/Detrital
Intrusion
Metamorphism
SiO2 K2O Zrn
Zrn/Mnz
Zrn
Zrn
(%) (%) (Ma) 2V (Ma) 2V (Ma) 2V (Ma) 2V
Moderate
Moderate
Deformation
ICPMS
SIMS
SHRIMP
ICPMS
ICPMS
SHRIMP
Evapor
ICPMS
Evapor
ICPMS
Evapor
SHRIMP
Evapor
SHRIMP
Evapor
ICPMS
SIMS
method
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(2)
(1)
Ref
Figure 11.6: Examples of Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of zircon and back-scattered

electron (BSE) image of monazite, with location of analyses by LA-ICPMS and HR-SIMS. (A)
CL image of a magmatic zircon with prismatic zoning from tonalitic gneiss 31978 (M'Sawize
Complex). B) BSE image of a monazite with visible zoning from granitic gneiss sample 33503
(Marrupa Complex). Very few monazite crystal imaged in this study show visible zoning on
BSE images. C) CL image of a metamorphic zircon with concentric zoning from the garnetbearing granulite 33274 (Xixano Complex). D) CL image of a zircon from the garnet-bearing
granulite 33298 (Ocua Complex). The zircon shows a fractured, high-U, Neoproterozoic
detrital zircon core, surrounded by a 540 Ma metamorphic rim.
602
11.3 Ponta Messuli Complex
Figure 11.7: Geological map of the northwesternmost part of Niassa Province with the
location of geochronological samples. The map locates samples from: (i) The Ponta Messuli
Complex and the Txitonga Group dated with the U-Pb method, (ii) The Caguru gold field
dated with the Re-Os method, (iii) The TX3 Kimberlite (Maniamba Graben) dated with the RbSr method, (iv) The three whole-rock samples analysed by I de Sousa Saranga for Sm-Nd
isotopes, and (v) The Serra Geci, from which samples of the Geci Group were collected for the
chemostratigraphic study.
The Ponta Messuli Complex is exposed along the shores of Lago Niassa in the northern part of
Niassa Province. It consists of high-grade migmatitic gneiss, and orthogneiss, commonly augen
gneiss (see Chapter 6.2). Two samples from the Ponta Messuli Complex were dated. Sample
31874 is a granulite facies migmatitic gneiss of metapelitic composition (sheet 1134, Ponta
Messuli). It contains an assemblage of cordierite + sillimanite + spinel. The sample contains
zircon with complex zoning, including core and rims. HR-SIMS analyses were performed in 9
zircon grains and LA-ICPMS analyses in monazite. Three analyses in zircon cores range from
2199 21 to 2074 6 Ma and date detrital material. Two analyses from weakly concentrically
zoned zircon, at 1950 15 Ma, and 12 analyses of monazite at 1946 11 Ma (Figure 11.8)
reflect a metamorphic event, presumably the conspicuous migmatitization event recorded in
this sample. Five analyses from cores or composite zircon grains, ranging from 2012 80 to
1977 6 Ma are difficult to interpret. They may represent detrital or metamorphic material
(Figure 11.8). The origin of the 2012-1977 zircon population is not well established. The
maximum age of deposition of the sediment is estimated at 2074 11 Ma, as indicated by the
youngest detected zircon of unambiguously detrital origin. Zircon and monazite in sample
31874 demonstrate the existence of a Palaeoproterozoic metasedimentary basement in the
Ponta Messuli Complex, which was affected by high-grade metamorphism at approximately
1.95 Ga.
603
Figure 11.8: Concordia diagrams for sample 31874.
Sample 31779 is from weakly deformed granite, from the Cobue area (sheet 1234
Metangula), known as the Cobue granite. It defines an intrusive age of 1056 11 Ma (22 LAICPMS analyses, Figure 11.9) and is interpreted as an intrusive pluton within the
Palaeoproterozoic basement.
Figure 11.9: Concordia diagram for sample

31779
Whole-rock Sm-Nd isotopic data are available for 3 samples from the Ponta Messuli
Complex (Saranga, unpublished data; Table 11.4). The samples are garnet-biotite gneiss,
biotite-epidote gneiss and a charnockitic gneis, mapped by Saranga as part of units of
amphibolite and granitic gneiss. The three samples yield Archaean Sm-Nd depleted-mantle
model ages (TDM) ranging from 3.01 to 2.64 Ga. The data indicate that the extraction of the
protoliths to these gneisses from the depleted mantle took place during the Archaean. The data
suggest the presence of an Archaean crustal component in the crust from which the
Palaeoproterozoic Ponta Messuli Complex was derived (sedimentary material or magmatic
basement).
Geochronological data on the Ponta Messuli Complex are summarized in a probability
density diagram in Figure 11.10. The Ponta-Messuli Complex is characterized by
Palaeoproterozoic high-grade metamorphism dated at 1950 15 Ma, by Palaeoproterozoic
detrital zircons ranging from 2.20 to 2.07 Ga, and by 1056 11 Ma granite magmatism. It is
604
also characterized by Archaean Sm-Nd model ages (TDM). No high-grade Pan-African

metamorphism is apparent from the data.
Figure 11.10 Probability density curve summarizing the timing of magmatic (blue) and
metamorphic (red) events in the Ponta Messuli Complex, as well as the age of detrital zircons
11.4 Nampula Complex
The Nampula Complex comprises a sequence of Mesoproterozoic supracrustal gneiss, known
as the Molcu Group, associated with voluminous orthogneisses, dominantly felsic (see
Chapter 6.3). Two suites of Mesoproterozoic orthogneisses are described, the Mocuba Suite
and the Culicui Suite. The Culicui Suite is younger than the Mocuba Suite. Abundant syn- to
post-tectonic Pan-African granitoid plutons, dykes and sheets, are reported, intruding the
Nampula Complex. They are referred to as the Murrupula Suite. Pan-African and pre-PanAfrican felsic gneisses may be difficult to distinguish from each other in the field. As a general
rule, the Pan-African gneisses lack evidence for pervasive migmatitization.
11.4.1 Zircon U-Pb data
New zircon U-Pb data were collected from 7 samples from the Nampula Complex. The
sampling includes 1 sample from the Mocuba Suite, 3 samples from the Culicui Suite and 3
samples from the Murrupula Suite.
Figure 11.11: Concordia diagram for sample 33564, Mocuba Suite.

Sample 33564 is a migmatitic leucogneiss attributed to the Mocuba Suite, from sheet
1635, Milange. Zircon commonly shows a core-rim structure. Seventeen rims and 9 cores were
analysed in 20 zircon crystals by SHRIMP (Figure 11.11). All data, from both rims and cores,
define a single discordia line, with intercepts of 1117 21 Ma and 535 28 Ma (MSWD =3.7).
The six oldest analyses on cores yield a weighted mean 207Pb/206Pb age of 1123 9 Ma
605
(MSWD =0.5). This age is regarded as the best estimate for the timing of the magmatic
crystallisation age of the protolith of this gneiss. One single analysis of a zircon rim is
concordant at 520 8 Ma. This rim provides the best estimate for the timing of migmatitization
recorded in the sample. The scatter of analytical points collected by SHRIMP along a
concordia line is unusual and indicates that, at the scale of the sampling with the SHRIMP, i.e.
about 30 m, the zircon lattice contains a mixed composition intermediate between points at
1117 and 535 Ma. This feature can be interpreted in different ways. One interpretation is We
interpret this to mean that the 1117 Ma magmatic zircon partially recrystallized at 535 Ma
following a process described by Hoskin and Black (2000). The rim resulted from
recrystallization of the core at 535 Ma and inherited part of the radiogenic lead of the core.
Figure 11.12: Concordia diagram for sample 33568, Culicui Suite.
Figure 11.13: Concordia diagram for samples 33296 and 40781, Culicui Suite.
Sample 33568 is a low-K, migmatitic augen gneiss assigned to the Culicui Suite, from
sheet 1635, Milange. The zircon displays a core-rim structure. Twenty five SHRIMP analyses
were performed on 21 zoned cores and 4 rims. Twenty three analyses in rims and cores define
a discordia line with an upper intercept age of 1087 16 Ma and a lower intercept age of 483
39 Ma. The upper intercept age is strongly controlled by zircon core with magmatic zoning,
and is regarded as the best estimate for magmatic crystallization of the gneiss. Four analyses
performed on the rim are concordant and define a "concordia age" of 493 8 Ma. The age of
493 8 Ma is interpreted as the timing of Pan-African amhibolite facies metamorphism
recorded in this sample (Figure 11.12).
606
Samples 33296 and 40781 are K-rich granitoids attributed to the Culicui Suite. Sample
33296 is an augen gneiss (Sheet 1339, Montepuez) and sample 40781 a granitic gneiss (Sheet
1340, Mecufi). They yield intrusion ages of 1058 9 Ma and 1042 9 Ma respectively on the
basis of LA-ICPMS analyses on zoned magmatic zircon (Figure 11.13). In sample 33296, a
thin metamorphic rim is common. Three analyses giving an age of 1010 15 Ma may overlap
this rim.
Figure 11.14: Concordia diagrams for samples 40710 and 33570, Murrupula Suite.

33373, Murrupula Suite.
Three samples of the Murrupula Suite were dated. All of them are K-rich granitic rocks.
Samples 40710 (sheet 1340, Mecufi) and 33570 (sheet 1536, Gurue) were collected close to the
northern boundary of the Nampula Complex. Sample 40710 is a weakly deformed leucocratic
granitic gneiss containing high-U prismatic zircon. Twenty two LA-ICPMS analyses yield an
intrusion age of 511 12 Ma (Figure 11.14). Sample 33570 is a biotite-rich moderately foliated
granitic gneiss. SHRIMP analyses in oscillatory-zoned magmatic zircon define a "concordia
age" of 508 3 Ma for intrusion of this pluton (Figure 11.14). Sample 33373 is an unfoliated
phenocryst granite (sheet 1339, Montepuez). Oscillatory zoned magmatic zircon gives an age
of 516 19 Ma for the intrusion of this pluton (12 LA-ICPMS analyses; Figure 11.15).
11.4.2 Synopsis
Available geochronological data from the Nampula Complex, including data inside and outside
the investigated area, are summarized in a probability density diagram in Figure 11.16. Figure
607
11.16 includes data by Jamal (2005), Costa et al. (1994) and Krner et al. (1997) (Table 11.2
and Table 11.5), but not recent data produced by the Council for Geoscience (CGS) in the Alto
Molcu-Murrupula sheets. Available data do not constrain the timing of deposition of the
Molcu Group. This group is Mesoproterozoic. Field observations suggest that it is coeval
with, or older than the Mocuba Suite, and consequently that it is possibly older than 1.1 Ga.
The timing of intrusion of the Mocuba Suite ranges from 1148 1 Ma to 1123 9 Ma. It
appears to overlap with the timing of the Mamala Formation, a unit mapped to the south of the
investigated area and dominated by felsic rocks interpreted as metarhyolite (Sacchi et al.,
1984). The Culicui Suite includes a wide spectrum of plutonic rocks, including high-K and
low-K intermediate to felsic plutonic rocks. This suite does not corresponds to a single
magmatic pulse, but to a protracted magmatic event ranging from 1087 16 to 1028 7 Ma.
The Pan-African Murrupula Suite is bracketed between 516 19 and 495 13 Ma. The
youngest dated rocks of the suite, between 511 12 and 495 13 Ma (40710, 33570, 00DJ91)
were collected close to the northern boundary of the Nampula Complex. These plutonic rocks
show a pervasive ductile fabric, indicating their pre- to synkinematic character. The data on
these rocks demonstrate that the northern part of the Nampula Complex, in the footwall of the
Lurio belt, was affected by ductile deformation, at least locally, between 510 and 495 Ma.
Figure 11.16: Probability density curve summarizing the timing of magmatic (blue) and
metamorphic (red) events in the Nampula Complex, from data in Table 11.2 and Table 11.5.
Geochronological data on the Pan-African metamorphism are not abundant. Four zircon
dates derived from samples showing an amphibolite facies mineral assemblage range from 536
57 to 493 8 Ma. The age of 493 8 Ma, derived from sample 33568 from the southwesern
part of the Nampula Complex (Milange area), is robust. It indicates that the Nampula gneissic
basement underwent peak metamorphism significantly later than any of the gneiss complexes,
which are exposed north of the Lurio belt. This suggests that the Nampula Complex was
exhumed very late in the tectonic evolution of the Pan-African orogen.
608
11.5 Unango Complex
Figure 11.17: Concordia diagrams for

sample 33512, Unango Complex
The Unango Complex consists mainly of Proterozoic orthogneiss, including charnockitic

gneiss and granitic to granodioritic gneiss, associated with slivers of paragneiss and migmatites
(see Chapter 6.4). Metamorphism ranges from amphibolite to granulite facies. The Unango
Complex is intruded by Neoproterozoic pre-Pan-African alkaline plutons and by Pan-African
plutons. Pan-African plutonism includes two main magmatic suites. The first suite, referred to
as the Malema Suite, consists of syn- to posttectonic plutons mainly occurring in the southern
part of the Unango Complex, close to the boundary with the Nampula and Ocua Complexes,
and is spatially associated with the Lurio belt. The second suite, referred to as the Niassa Suite,
consists of subcircular late- to posttectonic plutons exposed mainly in the Lichinga area, along
a NNW-SSE trend.
11.5.1 Zircon and monazite U-Pb data
New U-Pb data were generated on 21 samples during this study. These are 3 samples of
paragneiss, 10 samples of Meso- to Neoproterozoic orthogneiss, 7 samples of Neoproterozoic
intrusives, and 1 sample of mylonite.
Sample 33512 was collected in a felsic layer in a banded granulite, in a quarry in the
Cuamba area (Sheet 1436, Cuamba), interpreted as a metasedimentary sequence. Garnet is
609
observed in all layers and forms clusters of phenoblasts up to 2 cm in diameter. It shows an

equilibrium granulite facies assemblage of two pyroxenes and garnet. The zircon are rounded
and divided into two populations. A first population shows a detrital core with variable zoning
and CL contrast, surrounded by a thin rim. Seven HR-SIMS analyses in the core range from
2596 8 to 1062 54 Ma. A second population of neoformed zircon is characterized by sector
zoning. Six analyses in this zircon define a concordia age at 536 6 Ma. Monazite, analysed by
LA-ICPMS (21 analyses), yields an equivalent to slightly younger crystallization age of 527 8
Ma. This sample is interpreted as a metasediment with a varied Neoarchaean to
Mesoproterozoic provenance, deposited after 1062 54 Ma. Neocrystallized zircon and
monazite record formation of the granulite-facies assemblage at 536 6 or 527 8 Ma.
Figure 11.18: concordia diagrams for sample 22780, Unango Complex

Sample 22780 is a metapelitic gneiss from the Lichinga area (sheet 1335, Lichinga)
showing an amphibolite to granulite facies assemblage of garnet + sillimanite. The sample
contains minor amounts of zircon, mainly of detrital zircon cores, and monazite. The zircon
was not analysed. LA-ICPMS analyses of the monazite define a poor discordia line with an
upper-intercept age at 1025 62 Ma and a lower intercept age at 542 16 Ma (Figure 11.18).
The age of the young monazite population is better estimated by 14 concordant analyses
situated close to the lower intercept. They give an age of 525 9 Ma (Figure 11.18), interpreted
as the timing of Pan-African high-grade metamorphism in the Lichinga region. The existence
of a discordia line indicates that laser ablation was sampling a mixture with variable
proportions of two domains, a domain crystallized at 1025 Ma, minor in volume, and a domain
crystallized at 525 Ma, though these domains are not characterized by a visible contrast on
BSE images. Monazite is generally a metamorphic mineral in metapelitic rocks (Smith and
Barreiro, 1990). Nevertheless detrital monazite may be present (e.g. Williams, 2001).
Consequently, two interpretations are possible for the 1025 62 Ma intercept. Either the date of
1025 62 Ma reflects metamorphism or it represents the age of detrital monazite. The first
interpretation gives evidence for Mesoproterozoic metamorphism in the Unango Complex and
implies that the sediment was deposited before 1025 Ma. The second interpretation implies that
the sediment was deposited after 1025 Ma. Consequently, sample 22780 does not provide any
conclusive constraints on the Mesoproterozoic evolution of the Unango Complex. Additional
analyses on detrital zircon are required.
Ten samples of Meso- to Neoproterozoic orthogneiss were dated by LA-ICPMS. They
represent various facies and composition, and range in age from 1065 16 to 975 33 Ma.
Sample 40403 (sheet 1336, Majune) is weakly foliated quartz monzonite showing a well
610
preserved rapakivi texture around some of the K-feldspar phenocrysts. It gives an age of 1065
16 Ma (14 LA-ICPMS analyses, Figure 11.19). Sample 31971 (sheet 1235, Macalogue) is a
weakly deformed leucogranite with K-feldspar megacrysts, providing an intrusion age of 1048
8 Ma (33 LA-ICPMS analyses, Figure 11.19).
Figure 11.19: Concordia diagram for samples 40403 and 31971
Figure 11.20: Concordia diagram for samples 31261 and 31870.

Sample 31261, (sheet 1335, Lichinga) is a felsic granulite showing cm-scale
compositional banding. Zircon in this rock shows oscillatory zoning typical for magmatic
crystallization, and defines a single age population at 1036 11 Ma (19 LA-ICPMS analyses,
Figure 11.20). This rock is best interpreted as an orthogneiss crystallized at 1036 11 Ma. The
age of granulite facies metamorphism cannot be extracted from the data, and it is possible that
the orthopyroxene pertains to the magmatic assemblage of the rock. Sample 31870 (sheet 1235,
Macaloge) is a weakly foliated to unfoliated phenocryst granodiorite giving an age of 1030 10
Ma (25 LA-ICPMS analyses, Figure 11.20).
Sample 31229 (sheet 1335, Lichinga) is an amphibole-bearing granitic gneiss and
yields an age of 1013 10 Ma (22 LA-ICPMS analyses, Figure 11.21). Sample 31863 (sheet
1234, Metangula) is a coarse-grained leucogneiss (78% SiO2) containing cm-scale mylonitic
layers made of mica gneiss. The sample contains U-rich zircon giving an intrusion age of 1006
9 Ma (27 LA-ICPMS analyses, Figure 11.21). No evidence for the mylonitization event
observed in this sample is recorded by the zircon U-Pb systematics.
611

Samples 33507 and 22782 are two examples of poorly-deformed plutonic rocks of the
charnockite series. Sample 33507 is a mesoperthitic quartz mangerite from sheet 1437,
Cuamba, and sample 22782 a K-feldspar phenocryst charnockite from sheet 1336, Majune.
Sample 33507 yields an intrusion age of 1001 33 Ma (12 analyses; Figure 11.22) and sample
22782 and intrusion age of 995 21 Ma (14 analyses; Figure 11.22). A single analysis collected
from a recrystallized zircon core in sample 33507 yields a younger, concordant date at 553 13
Ma. This analysis gives evidence for a Pan-African overprint in this sample and provides an
estimate for the timing of the overprint.
Sample 31259 is a dolerite dyke (53% SiO2), hosted in migmatite, from the Lichinga
area (sheet 1335, Lichinga). The rock is not foliated and displays the typical texture of a
shallow dolerite with automorphic plagioclase phenocrysts (3 mm) in a fine-grained matrix.
The rock is rich in biotite and rich in Zr (488 ppm), and, consequently, the zircon may belong
to the magmatic assemblage of the mafic rock. Zircon extracted from the sample displays
magmatic oscillatory zoning and gives an age of 988 20 Ma (19 LA-ICPMS analyses; Figure
11.23). This age is interpreted as the intrusion age of the dolerite dyke.
612
Figure 11.24: Concordia diagram for metamorphic zircon and monazite from sample 31965.
Sample 31965 is a biotite-muscovite granitic gneiss from the northwestern part of the
Unango Complex (Sheet 1234, Metangula). The sample has a gneissic fabric and shows
evidence for recrystallization at grain boundaries, reflecting a late mylonitic overprint. The
main population of oscillatory-zoned zircon yields a somewhat imprecise magmatic intrusion
age of 975 33 Ma (12 LA-ICPMS analyses; Figure 11.23). This sample contains metamorphic
zircon, forming high-U rims or neoformed crystals. Three concordant analyses in this zircon
cluster at 525 14 Ma ("concordia age"; Figure 11.24). Monazite yields an equivalent
207
Pb/206Pb age of 530 26 Ma (6 LA-ICPMS analyses; Figure 11.24). Monazite and zircon
analyses date the amphibolite-facies metamorphic overprint in this sample at 530-525 Ma. One
concordant analysis at 491 13 Ma may reflect younger metamorphism, possibly linked to the
mylonitic overprint observed in this sample.
613
Figure 11.25: Concordia

diagram for sample 33572
One sample arguably represents a Neoproterozoic high-grade metasedimentary or

metavolcanic sequence in the Unango Complex. Sample 33572 is of banded gneiss from the
Milange area (sheet 1635, Milange), close to the boundary between the Unango Complex, the
Nampula Complex and a rock package attributed to the Ocua Complex. The sample is a low-K,
fine-grained, felsic layer in the banded sequence, containing a granulite-facies assemblage of
hornblende + biotite + orthopryoxene + garnet and characterized by high magnetic
susceptibility (magnetite-bearing). Zircon is rounded and displays a core-rim structure. The rim
is wide and has a bright CL contrast (low-U: 2 to 58 ppm). Eleven SHRIMP analyses in the rim
are concordant and yield a "concordia age" of 569 9 Ma (Figure 11.25). The zircon core is
commonly metamict, with a mottled appearance on CL images, and shows abundant cracks and
inclusions. Six SHRIMP analyses of the core define a discordant cluster with an average
238
U/206Pb age of 827 20 Ma (Figure 11.25). One analysis of a core displaying magmatic
oscillatory growth zoning yields a near-concordant 207Pb/206Pb age of 1092 14 Ma (Figure
11.25). This sample can be interpreted in different ways. If the rock is interpreted as an
orthogneiss, presumably derived from a bimodal volcanic sequence, the zircon cluster at 827
20 Ma represents crystallization of the magmatic protolith of the rock, and the zircon at 1092
14 Ma inheritance. If the rock is, instead, interpreted as a paragneiss, zircons at 827 20 and
1092 14 Ma are detrital. In both cases the formation of this rock is of Neoproterozoic age
(827 20 Ma). The age of 569 9 Ma reflects high-grade metamorphism, probably formation
of the granulite-facies assemblage recorded in this sample. Attribution of this sample to the
Unango Complex is arguable. The Neoproterozoic age, granulite-facies grade, and low-K
nature of this banded gneiss, are reminiscent of paragneiss units commonly observed in the
Ocua Complex.
Sample 33598 is an equigranular amphibolite showing evidence for migmatitization.
Leucosomes form cm-scale pods and layers parallel to the foliation of the outcrop. This sample
was collected close to sample 33572 in an area attributed to the Unango Complex (sheet 1635,
Milange). Zircons are generally rounded, sector-zoned, and free of inclusions. Some crystals
contain a high-U, probably metamict, core. Twenty-three SHRIMP analyses in the sectorzoned zircon are concordant and provide a "concordia age" at 548 5 Ma (Figure 11.26). One
analysis in a high-U (1830 ppm) core is discordant and yields a 238U/206Pb age of 753 12 Ma
(Figure 11.26). Migmatitic amphibolite is a favourable substrate for growth of metamorphic
zircon (Bussy et al., 1995). The age of 548 5 Ma from the main population of sector-zoned
zircon is interpreted as the timing of metamorphism and migmatitization in this sample. The
614
age of 753 12 Ma may reflect the magmatic crystallization of the protolith of this
amphibolite. Nevertheless, as a consequence of the discordant nature of this analysis, the age of
753 12 Ma should be interpreted with the greatest caution.

Sample 31997 was collected from an undersaturated syenite pluton, known as the
Monte Chissindo syenite, situated close to the northwestern boundary of the Unango Complex
(sheet 1235, Macaloge). The rock is undersaturated, and characterized by mesoperthitic
feldspar phenocrysts, and presence of scapolite and carbonate. The rock shows a pervasive
mylonitic fabric and widespread evidence for recrystallization at grain boundaries. It contains
abundant rounded low-U zircon, showing complex internal zoning. Sixteen HR-SIMS
analyses, uncorrected for common Pb, yield a regression line intersecting the concordia curve
at an age of 799 8 Ma (when anchored at a common Pb value corresponding to modern
common Pb). The age of 799 8 Ma reflects magmatic crystallization of the pluton.
Five samples of Pan-African plutonic rocks were selected for dating. Sample 33586 is a
silica-rich, highly foliated, granitic gneiss collected at the contact between the Unango and
Nampula Complexes (sheet 1536, Gurue). The sample contains high-U, oscillatory- to sectorzoned, prismatic zircon of typical magmatic origin, surrounded by a thin overgrowth. Thirteen
SHRIMP analyses in the core of the zircon yield a "concordia age" of 519 6 Ma (Figure
11.27), interpreted as the intrusion age of the granite protolith. Samples 33499 and 40416
represent two small intrusive bodies belonging to the Malema Suite, situated in the southern
part of the Unango Complex (sheets 1436 Cuamba, and 1536 Gurue). Sample 33499 is a
weakly foliated biotite + hornblende granite. LA-ICPMS data on prismatic zircon yield an
intrusion age of 517 12 Ma for the granite (27 analyses; Figure 11.27). Sample 40416 is an
unfoliated quartz mangerite close to the boundary between the Unango and Nampula
Complexes. Prismatic zircon yields a "concordia age" of 513 4 Ma, dating the intrusion of
this pluton (16 SHRIMP analyses; Figure 11.28). Sample 31225 represents a typical example
of sub-circular undeformed pluton of the Niassa Suite in the Lichinga area (sheet 1335,
Lichinga). Sample 31225 yields a "concordia age" of 507 4 Ma (10 LA-ICPMS analyses;
Figure 11.28) for the intrusion of the pluton. There is evidence for inheritance in the sample as
several zircon analyses scatter between about 540 and 740 Ma.
615
Figure 11.28: Concordia diagram for sample 40416 and 31225.

In the northwestern part of the Unango Complex, close to the boundary with the
Maniamba graben, southwest-northeast-trending shear zones are reported, and a number of
samples show evidence for mylonitization. Sample 35228 was collected in an approximately
100 m wide SW-northeastern-trending steep mylonite zone (Sheet 1235, Macaloge). Structural
analysis at the outcrop suggests sinistral displacement along the shear zone. The sample is a
felsic microlayered mylonite, showing a granulated matrix with a grain size of 20-100 m
(Figure 11.29). The rock contains plagioclase and K-feldspar phenoclasts 200 m - 2 mm in
diameter. The matrix contains well-preserved muscovite and biotite suggesting amphibolitefacies conditions during deformation. Two type of zircons are reported: prismatic zircons and
rounded zircons. The prismatic zircons have magmatic oscillatory zoning. They give an age of
1004 24 Ma (17 LA-ICPMS analyses; Figure 11.29) and are interpreted as phenoclasts
inherited from the granite protolith. The rounded zircon have a poor "fir-tree" to concentric
zoning and are characterized by low Th contents (Th/U <0.02). The rounded zircon is dated at
433 9 Ma by means of 2 LA-ICPMS analyses and 444 5 Ma by means of 8 HR-SIMS
analyses (Figure 11.29). The low Th content is characteristic of metamorphic zircon
crystallized in amphibolite or eclogite facies conditions (Bingen et al., 2004). The low-Th
zircon with rounded habit is interpreted as a new phase crystallized during shearing of the rock.
Its best age of 444 5 Ma (Ordovician-Silurian transition) is regarded therefore as an estimate
for the timing of mylonitization in this sample.
616
Figure 11.29: Concordia diagrams and a microphotograph for sample 35228. The
photomicrograph (Field of view: 5.4x4.4 mm) shows phenoclasts of feldspar embedded in a
cataclastic matrix. Neoformed pyrite is present in the matrix. Low-Th zircon crystallized at 444
5 Ma in this sample. It is interpreted as a new phase crytallized during cataclasis.
Consequently, it dates the cataclastic event.
11.5.2 Synopsis
Geochronological data in the Unango Complex are summarized in Figure 11.30 and Figure
11.31. The main pulse of Proterozoic magmatism took place between 1065 16 and 975 33
Ma. This magmatism is widespread and includes a variety of rock types, mainly felsic plutonic
rocks. It notably includes rocks of the charnockite series. No basement for this magmatism is
apparent from the geochronological data. One sample of metasediment contains detrital zircons
ranging in age from 2.60 to 1.06 Ga. The data imply that the sediment deposited after 1062 54
Ma, and suggests that the slivers of metasediments recorded in the Unango Complex are nearcoeval with or younger than the 1065-975 Ma magmatism. The detrital zircon data also suggest
the existence of an active Palaeoproterozoic to Archaean catchment in the vicinity of the
Unango Complex at the end of the Mesoproterozoic. Monazite data (sample 22780) suggest
that the 1065-975 Ma magmatism is associated with a phase of amphibolite- to granulite-facies
metamorphism at 1025 62 Ma. Nevertheless, the data are not conclusive on this point, and
should be considered with caution.
617
Figure 11.30: Relative probability curve summarizing the timing of magmatic (blue) and
metamorphic (red) events in the Unango Complex from data in Table 11.5.
Figure 11.31: Relative probability curve showing the distribution of detrital zircons in sample
33512 (green) from the Unango Complex, compared with the timing of magmatic events in this
complex (blue) and the age of one monazite upper intercept age (sample 22780) of uncertain
geological meaning. Data from Table 11.5.
Post-975 Ma Neoproterozoic magmatism in the Unango Complex includes intrusion of
alkaline syenite plutons. The 799 8 Ma Monte Chissindo syenite (sample 31997) may
correlate with the 830 130 Ma Monte Naumale syenite from the Meponda area (Lulin, 1984).
The Unango Complex possibly includes rafts of high-grade Neoproterozoic metasediments.
Nevertheless, the geological and geochronological data are controversial on this aspect. Sample
33572 is probably a metasediment, but its attribution to the Unango Complex is uncertain. It
could alternatively belong to the Ocua Complex. For this reason, data on sample 33572 are not
included in Figure 11.30.
Pan-African magmatism in the Unango Complex ranges in age from 519 6 to 507 4
Ma and includes plutons of the Malema and Niassa Suites. One of the plutons in the Niassa
Suite yields an age of 507 4 Ma. Peak amphibolite- to granulite-facies Pan-African
metamorphism is recorded in five samples, and dated between 553 13 and 525 9 Ma.
Discrete shear zones at the northwestern margin of the Unango Complex appear to post-date
the Pan-African metamorphism significantly. One of these shear zones was active at 444 5
Ma.
11.6 Marrupa Complex
The Marrupa Complex (see Chapter 6.5) consists of amphibolite-facies gneiss, mainly felsic in
composition, associated with minor volume of migmatite and paragneiss. The gneisses are
618
intruded by Pan-African plutons. Pan-African intrusive rocks increase in volume towards the
south, i.e. toward the contact with the Ocua and Nampula Complexes in the Lurio belt. They
includes gneissified granite plutons, commonly difficult to distinguish from pre-Pan-African
gneiss, and late- to posttectonic subcircular, commonly zoned, plutons. The Pan-African
plutons in the southern part of the Marrupa Complex are referred to as the Malema Suite.
New geochronological data were generated from 12 samples. These are 6 samples of Meso- to
Neoproterozoic orthogneiss, 1 leucosome and 5 samples of Pan-African intrusive rocks.

Samples 33206, 34284, 33253, 33405 and 33498 are typical examples of the
widespread amphibolite-facies granitic gneiss forming the main body of the Marrupa Complex
(sheets 1237, Mecula, 1336 Majune, and 1337, Marrupa). Four of them are biotite-bearing
granitic orthogneiss and sample 33498 is a mesoperthitic leucogneiss. Zircon is prismatic with
typical magmatic oscillatory-growth zoning. LA-ICPMS analyses yield an intrusive age of
1026 9 Ma for sample 33206 (21 analyses; Figure 11.32), 1025 12 Ma for sample 34284 (22
analyses; Figure 11.32), 1016 10 Ma for sample 33253 (21 analyses; Figure 11.33), 1005 19
Ma for sample 33405 (20 analyses; Figure 11.33), and 968 10 Ma for sample 33498 (21
analyses; Figure 11.34). Sample 34284 contains a population of analyses giving an age of 942
21 Ma. These analyses do not sample any specific metamorphic rim but corresponds to zircon
domains that are distinctly more fractured. The age of 942 21 Ma thus has little geological
significance.
619

The timing of Pan-African amphibolite-facies metamorphism is evaluated with the help
of two samples in the central part of the Marrupa Complex. Sample 33406 (sheet 1337,
Marrupa) is an approximatiely 10 cm wide coarse-grained foliation-parallel leucosome in an
amphibolite-facies banded-gneiss sequence (Figure 11.35). Prismatic, high-U zircon in this
sample yields a crystallization age of 548 13 Ma for the leucosome (21 analyses; Figure
11.35). Sample 33503 (sheet 1436, Cuamba) is a granitic gneiss similar to other granitic
gneisses formed during the 1026-968 Ma time interval. Zircon was not analysed in this sample.
Monazite (Figure 11.6) gives a crystallization age of 558 11 Ma (16 LA-ICPMS analyses;
Figure 11.34), interpreted as the timing of Pan-African amphibolite-facies metamorphism.
620
Figure 11.35: Field occurrence and concordia diagram for sample 33406. The sample is
collected in the leucosome in the middle of the photo.
Five samples of Pan-African intrusive rock were analysed using LA-ICPMS. Sample
33205 was collected in a minor body of unfoliated biotite-hornblende granite in the northern
part of the Marrupa Complex (Sheet 1237, Mecula). Prismatic zircon yields an intrusive age of
547 14 Ma (22 analyses; Figure 11.36).

33205.
Samples 26859 and 26802 are two deformed granite sheets conformable to the regional
gneiss fabric in the Lurio belt, close to the southern boundary of the Marrupa Complex (sheets
1437, Malema, and 1438, Ribu-Mecubri). Sample 26859 shows an intense fabric with a
lineation oriented at 340-350, typical for this part of the Lurio belt. Zircon in sample 26859
displays a U-poor magmatic core, surrounded by a U-rich metamorphic rim. This zoning
pattern is not favourable for reliable LA-ICPMS dating. Fifteen LA-ICPMS analyses
performed in the core yield poor 207Pb/206Pb age of 555 79 Ma (Figure 11.37). Selection of 9
analyses corresponding to the second of two ablations in a specific area of a crystal (the second
ablation is less prone to elemental fractionation), yields a more reliable 206Pb/238U age of 545
9 Ma (Figure 11.37). Eight analyses in the U-rich rim yield an estimate of 478 28 Ma for the
metamorphic overprint in this sample. Sample 26802 contains oscillatory zoned zircon giving
621
an intrusion age of 521 15 Ma (26 analyses; Figure 11.38). A zircon xenocryst was detected.
Four analyses in this crystal give an age of 735 20 Ma (Figure 11.38).
Figure 11.37: Concordia diagram for sample 26859 and CL images of two zircon crystals.
Figure 11.38: Concordia diagram for sample 26802.

Sample 33509 is a quartz mangerite representing a large (>40 km) post-tectonic subelliptical pluton of the Malema Suite, in the Cuamba area (sheet 1436, Cuamba). Zircon forms
large prismatic crystals of magmatic origin. Twelve LA-ICPMS analyses yield a 532 52 Ma
intrusion age for the pluton (Figure 11.39). The poor precision of this age is a consequence of
the low-U content of zircon in this sample.
Sample 26892 is a weakly foliated, undersaturated, coarse-grained syenitic gneiss
representing a small intrusive body in the southern part of the Marrupa Complex (sheet 1437
Malema). This intrusive body can be classified as part of the Malema Suite, or alternatively
belongs to the Ocua Complex. The Ocua Complex indeed includes a conspicuous syenitic
gneiss layer on sheets 1339-1340 Montepuez-Mecufi (Figure 11.56, Figure 11.62). Zircon
crystals in sample 26892 are large (>200 m) and only fragments were recovered. Zircon show
magmatic oscillatory-growth zoning, and yields an intrusive age of 504 11 Ma for the syenite
pluton (38 analyses; Figure 11.39). This age is significantly younger than the age of 599 6 Ma
for the syenitic gneiss exposed in the Ocua Complex on sheets 1339-1340 Montepuez-Mecufi.
622

11.6.2 Synopsis
Available geochronological data from the Marrupa Complex are summarized in Figure 11.40.
These data include 3 dates by Jamal (2005), namely a magmatic age of 978 8 Ma and a
metamorphic age of 562 4 Ma (SHRIMP data; Table 11.2) from a migmatitic gneiss in the
Maua area (sheet 1337 Marrupa), and also an intrusion age of 531 7 Ma for a syenite sheet
belonging to the Malema Suite (sample 00DJ121, SHRIMP data; Table 11.2, sheet 1438,
Ribu-Mecubri). The syenite sheet is situated at the boundary between the Marrupa and
Ocua Complexes.
The main rock-forming event in the Marrupa Complex consisted of widespread felsic
magmatism. It took place between 1026 9 and 968 10 Ma. No basement for this magmatism
is detected. The Pan-African overprint in the central and northern part of the Marrupa Complex
was short-lived and is well constrained in time. Amphibolite-facies metamorphism is bracketed
between 562 4 and 548 13 Ma and overlaps with a minor magmatic event at 547 14 Ma.
The Pan-African overprint in the southern part of the Marrupa Complex relates directly to the
tectonic evolution of the Lurio belt. In this region, Pan-African plutonism is voluminous and
includes syn- to late-kinematic plutons of the Malema Suite. This plutonism is dated between
545 9 and 504 11 Ma. The high-grade metamorphism along the southern margin of the
Marrupa Complex is not well dated. One sample (26859) yields a date of 478 29 Ma based on
8 analyses. This age overlaps with the youngest metamorphic ages recorded in the Nampula
Complex (493 8 Ma, sample 33568).
623
metamorphic (red) events in the Marrupa, Nairoto and Meluco Complexes, from data in Table
11.2 and Table 11.5.
11.7 Nairoto and Meluco Complexes
The Nairoto and Meluco Complexes (see Chapter 6.6 and 6.7) are correlated with the Marrupa
Complex on the basis of lithological similarity. The Nairoto and Meluco Complexes can be
regarded as equivalents of the Marrupa Complex, lying tectonostratigraphically under the
Xixano and Lalamo nappes.
New data were collected on one sample of the Meluco Complex. Sample 40760 is a
migmatitic granitic gneiss collected in a quarry close to Rio Montepuez (field photo in Chapter
6.6, sheet 1240 Quissinga-Pemba). Zircon shows a core-rim structure. Seventeen LA-ICPMS
analyses in the oscillatory zoned core yield an intrusion age for the protolith of this gneiss at
946 12 Ma (Figure 11.41). Three of the 6 analyses collected in the U-rich rim are concordant
and yield a "concordia age" of 585 13 Ma (Figure 11.41). These analyses record a
metamorphic overprint, presumably the pervasive migmatitization observed in this outcrop.
Sample 40760 was collected at the same locality as sample 99DJ19 of Jamal (2005). Sample
99DJ19, a granodioritic gneiss, gave a protolith age of 944 21 Ma (SHRIMP data), equivalent
to the estimate of 946 12 Ma for sample 40760. Four SHRIMP analyses in the metamorphic
rim of sample 99DJ19 gave two age groups, a group at 602 5 Ma and a group at 557 6 Ma. It
is not clear whether these two groups correspond to two distinct metamorphic events, as three
of the LA-ICPMS data points on sample 40760 cluster between the two groups at 585 13 Ma.
More analytical work would be necessary at this locality to constrain the timing of
metamorphism in a reliable fashion.
624

Available geochronological data in the Nairoto and Meluco Complexes are summarized
in Figure 11.40. The data set of Jamal (2005) includes 3 samples from the Nairoto Complex
and 2 samples from the Meluco Complex. Sample 99DJ05 (sheet 1239, Meluco) of the Nairoto
Complex is interpreted as a psammitic gneiss. This sample yields a single population of zircon
cores at 976 5 Ma, and could represent an orthogneiss. The other two samples from the
Nairoto Complex are a biotite-gneiss (99DJ77) and an amphibolite (99DJ76) collected from
the same locality along the narrow stripe of the Nairoto Complex trending to the southeast
(sheet 1339, Montepuez). Based on SHRIMP data, the biotite gneiss yields an intrusion age of
1044 44 Ma and the amphibolite an age of 1019 36 Ma. For the Meluco Complex, the Jamal
(2005) data set includes the 944 21 Ma granodioritic gneiss (sample 99DJ19) from the same
locality as sample 40760, and a foliation-parallel leucosome (99DJ84) in a granitic gneiss. The
leucosome contains zircon cores at 947 21 Ma surrounded by a rim. The best age for the rim
is 562 11 Ma, which is interpreted as the age of partial melting recorded in the outcrop. The
cores are possibly inherited from the host granitic gneiss. Available geochronological data
(Figure 11.40) support the correlation between the Nairoto and Marrupa Complexes, as the age
range of 1044 44 to 976 5 Ma for felsic gneisses in the Nairoto Complex overlaps with the
interval of 1026 9 to 968 10 Ma defined by equivalent lithologies in the Marrupa Complex.
The data suggest that the orthogneiss in the Meluco Complex, dated at 947 21 to 944 21 Ma,
is slightly but significantly younger than those in the Marrupa and Nairoto Complexes.
Available data on Pan-African amphibolite-facies metamorphism in the Nairoto and Meluco
Complexes are not very reliable, as only a few metamorphic rims were dated in each of the 6
investigated samples. Available preliminary data suggest a time span ranging from 602 5 to
562 11 Ma.
625
Figure 11.42: Ternary radioelement image centered on the Xixano Complex, Namuno and
Xixano sheets. Geochronological results of samples from the Xixano Complex are shown.
11.8 Xixano Complex
The Xixano Complex (see Chapter 6.8) overlies the Marrupa Complex, and is juxtaposed with
it along a tectonic contact. The Xixano Complex is interpreted as a Pan-African nappe covering
the Marrupa Complex. It contains abundant mafic to intermediate lithologies, including
metaplutonic rocks of the norite-charnockite series and garnet-pyroxene granulites. These
rocks define a strong anomaly on airborne K-Th-U radiometric maps, characterized by a low
signal in all radioelements (Figure 11.42). Granulite-facies rocks are associated with various
amphibolite-facies supracrustals metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks including
arkose, graphite schist, schist, tremolite marble and metarhyolite. The short distance and
marked metamorphic break between the granulites and the supracrustal rocks suggest that these
rocks are tectonically juxtaposed along shear zones. The Xixano Complex also contains granite
plutons enriched in potassium. The youngest of these are subcircular plutons, attributed to the
Maco Suite.
New U-Pb data were collected from 6 samples of the Xixano Complex, including two granulite
facies rocks, 2 samples of metarhyolite and granitic gneiss interlayered in metasediments and
two granite plutons (Figure 11.42).
626
Figure 11.43: Concordia diagram and photomicrograph for sample 33410. The sample is a
slightlly deformed metarhyolite with a porphyritic texture. Magmatic phenocrysts of feldspar
and quartz (about 1-2mm; Kfs phenocryst in the centre of the field of view) are hosted in a
fine-grained quenched matrix (<0.1 mm). Photomicrograph: Field of view: 5.4x4.4 mm.
Figure 11.44: Concordia diagram for

sample 33420.
Sample 33410 is a metarhyolite from the Namuno area (sheet 1338, Namuno) collected
from a package of amphibolite-facies metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks. The sample
displays a weakly deformed volcanic/subvolcanic texture (Figure 11.43), and represents a
volcanic/subvolcanic formation, only weakly affected by metamorphism. The sample contains
small zircon prisms, giving a magmatic crystallization age of 818 10 Ma (21 LA-ICPMS
analyses; Figure 11.43).
Sample33420 is a granitic gneiss collected in the same area as sample 33410 (sheet
1338, Namuno). It is similar except for being coarser and more deformed. Zircon in this
sample is of poor quality. Twelve LA-ICPMS analyses yield an upper intercept age of 799 44
Ma (Figure 11.44), reflecting magmatic intrusion of the granite. This age is equivalent to the
one of sample 33410, confirming a correlation between these two rocks.
627
Sample 36053 is an enderbite showing an orthopyroxene-bearing granulite facies

assemblage. The rock is free of K-feldspar and biotite and represents a typical example for the
large volume of low-K metaigneous granulite forming the core of the Xixano Complex (Figure
11.42, sheet 1238, Xixano). The zircon is rounded and shows concentric zoning. The internal
zone commonly shows sector zoning and is probably related to the magmatic crystallization of
the igneous rock. The external zone is bright on CL images and interpreted as a
subsolidus/metamorphic overgrowth, possibly related to zirconium release from ilmenite
(Bingen et al., 2001). Analyses of the weakly zoned to sector zoned core yield an age of 742
16 Ma (17 LA-ICPMS analyses; Figure 11.45). This age probably represents the
crystallization of the magmatic protolith of the rock.
Sample 33306 is a K-feldspar phenocryst granite representing a poorly foliated pluton
in the southeastern part of the Xixano Complex (sheet 1338, Namuno), hosted in
metasedimentary and metavolcanic units. Zircon forms prismatic oscillatory zoned crystals,
and yields an age of 739 8 Ma for intrusion of this pluton (16 LA-ICPMS analyses; Figure
11.45).

Sample 33274 was collected in a straight, steeply-dipping, low-K, banded granulite
situated in the centre of the Xixano Complex (Figure 11.42, sheet 1338, Namuno). The
lithology can be interpreted as an orthogneiss or a paragneiss. The main rock type is a garnet
granulite of intermediate composition, interlayered, at dm scale, with coarse-grained
leucosome layers. The leucosomes contain garnet and orthopyroxene phenoblasts, up to 3 cm
in diameter, interpreted as evidence for incongruent dehydration melting in the outcrop (Figure
11.46). The closest outcrop across strike (<4 km apart) is a graphite schist, probably in tectonic
contact with the granulite. Sample 33274 is a biotite-poor orthopyroxene-garnet granulite with
a good foliation defined by quartz ribbons and pyroxene aggregates. The sample displays
corona textures, surrounding orthopyroxene, made of needles of amphibole, chlorite or
muscovite. The corona textures attest to an overprint in amphibolite facies conditions,
involving introduction of a fluid. Zircon crystals are rounded and show a variably irregular
concentric zoning (Figure 11.6). Twenty HR-SIMS U-Pb analyses performed in the different
zones yield an unimodal gaussian age distribution, and define a "concordia age" of 735 4 Ma
(Figure 11.46). No inherited/detrital component could be detected in any of the mounted
zircons. The age of 735 4 Ma is attributed to granulite-facies biotite dehydration melting
recorded in this outcrop.
628
Figure 11.46: Concordia diagram for sample 33274 and photo of the lithology at the locality.
The photo shows a leucosome layer in the banded sequence showing cm-scale orthopyroxene
phenoblasts interpreted as residual product of biotite dehydration melting. The sample was
collected in the grey garnet + quartz granulite in the lower part of the photo.

Sample 33266 represents a foliated K-feldspar-phenocryst granite pluton belonging to
the Maco Suite. It is situated in the west of the Xixano Complex along the contact between the
Xixano and Marrupa Complexes (sheet 1338, Namuno). The sample is tectonized, as it
contains microlayers and shear bands made of granulated feldspar, highly oriented fine-grained
biotite and quartz ribbons. The rock contains large prismatic, oscillatory zoned zircon. Thirteen
LA-ICPMS analyses in this zircon yield an intrusion age of 573 17 Ma for the pluton (Figure
11.47). This age is equivalent to the age of 564 4 Ma derived by Jamal (2005) from a nearby
locality in the same pluton (Sample 99DJ39; Table 11.2). One zircon core, from a fractured
oscillatory zoned crystal, gave two concordant analyses consistently younger than the main
cluster of analyses. These analyses yield an average 206Pb/238U age of 397 19 Ma. This date
probably records recrystallization of the core. It may reflect the partial mylonitization observed
in the sample and may date tectonic reworking of the contact between the Xixano and Marrupa
Complexes.
629
11.8.2 Synopsis
Available geochronological data in the Xixano Complex are summarized in Figure 11.48. The
data set includes two dates by Jamal (2005), including an age of 607 7 Ma for a sub-circular
granite-syenite pluton in the southern part of the Xixano Complex, belonging to the Maco
Suite.(sample 98DJ02; Table 11.2, sheet 1338, Namuno).
The oldest detected lithology in the Xixano Complex is the marble unit belonging to the
supracrustal sequence. Chemostratigraphic data on the Montepuez marble unit situated at the
boundary between the Xixano and Montepuex Complexes, constrain deposition of the marble
to approximately 1100-1050 Ma (see chapter 11.12). The basement to the marble is unknown
at present. The supracrustal sequence includes rhyolite and granite plutons dated at 818 20
and 799 44 Ma (Figure 11.43, Figure 11.44). The data thus suggest that deposition of the
supracrustal sequence represents a time span of minimum 250 m.y.. The supracrustal rocks are
juxtaposed with granulite-facies rocks, of metaigneous and metasedimentary parentage. The
metaigneous rocks formed at 742 16 Ma (Figure 11.45), and are coeval with the timing of
granulite-facies metamorphism recorded in the metasedimentary granulite (735 4 Ma; Figure
11.46). This suggests that the metaigneous rocks are deep-seated magmatic rocks intruded into
a lower-crustal environment. The supracrustal rocks host a granite pluton dated at 739 8 Ma,
coeval with formation of the deep-seated plutons. The 739 8 Ma pluton stitches the sediment
cover with the granulites, and suggests that the supracrustal rocks and the granulites were part
of the same crustal bloc at approximately 740 Ma. Tectonic juxtaposition of the supracrustal
rocks with the granulites probably took place during exhumation of the granulites, some time
after 735 Ma. Intrusion of Pan-African subcircular granite plutons of the Maco Suite took place
in the Xixano Complex between 607 7 and 573 17 Ma (Figure 11.47). The Maco Suite
(607573 Ma) is significantly older than subcircular granite plutons of the Niassa and Malema
Suites intruding the Unango and Marrupa Complexes (545504 Ma; Figure 11.30, Figure
11.40). There is evidence for a reactivation of the tectonic contact between the Xixano and
Marrupa Complexes at 397 19 Ma, largely after the main Pan-African orogeny (Figure
11.47).
630
metamorphic (red) events in the Xixano, Lalamo, M'Sawize and Mugeba Complexes, from data
in Table 11.2 and Table 11.5.
11.9 M'Sawize and Muaquia Complexes
The M'Sawize and Muaquia Complexes (see Chapters 6.10 and 6.9) overly the Unango and
Marrupa Complexes. In line with the interpretation of Pinna et al. (1993), they are regarded as
Pan-African nappes overlying the Marrupa Complex. The Muaquia Complex is mainly made
up of granitic gneiss with minor metasedimentary rocks including quartzite, schist and calcsilicate gneiss. The Muaquia Complex is characterized by widespread mylonitic texture and a
conspicuously low magnetic relief on the aeromagnetic map. The M'Sawize Complex overlies
the Muaquia Complex. It is made up of migmatitic gneiss, metagabbro, amphibolite and
granodioritic-tonalitic orthogneiss, with amphibolite- and locally granulite-facies assemblages.
The M'Sawize Complex is characterized by a pronounced low signal on radiometric maps
indicating that the main body of orthogneiss is low in potassium.
New zircon U-Pb data were collected on one sample of the M'Sawize Complex. The
sample (31978, sheet 1236 mavago) is a metatonalite from a weakly foliated pluton,
631
representing the low-K lithologies forming the core of the M'Sawize Complex. The rock is low
in potassium (K2O =0.4%) and is free of K-feldspar and biotite. The sample contains a
population of prismatic oscillatory-zoned magmatic zircon (Figure 11.6). LA-ICPMS analyses
of the zircon yield a "concordia age" at 640 4 Ma (19 analyses; Figure 11.49), representing
the magmatic intrusion of the tonalite pluton.
The age of 640 4 Ma (Figure 11.48) suggests that the low-K plutonism in the M'Sawize
Complex is significantly younger than the low-K plutonism in the Xixano Complex situated at
the equivalent tectonostratigraphic level (Figure 11.48). The age of granulite-facies
metamorphism in the M'Sawize Complex is unknown. Texturally, the granulite-facies
assemblage is overprinted by an amphibolite-facies assemblage and is regarded as an "early"
metamorphic assemblage. Granulite-facies metamorphism is possibly coeval with, or older
than the 615 7 Ma granulite-facies metamorphism recorded in the Mugeba Complex situated
at a similar tectonostratigraphic level above the Nampula Complex (Figure 11.48).
11.10 Lalamo Complex
The Lalamo Complex (see Chapter 6.11) occupies a tectonostratigraphic level similar to the
one of the Xixano Complex. It consists mainly of amphibolite-facies metasupracrustals
including biotite gneiss, metasandstone, quartzite, marble, amphibolite and conglomerate, and
minor metaigneous rocks of granitic to ultramafic composition.

U-Pb geochronological data were collected on 1 sample (40667, sheet 1239, Meluco) of
comparatively fine-grained granodioritic gneiss, conformable in the metasupracrustals. The
sample probably represents a subvolcanic/volcanic unit. The sample contains oscillatory zoned
prismatic zircon of magmatic origin, commonly rich in U. Thirty LA-ICPMS analyses yielded
an age of 696 13 Ma for magmatic crystallization of this rock unit.
Available geochronological data on the Lalamo Complex are summarized in Figure
11.48. Two samples from one locality were dated by Jamal (2005). They are a monzogranitic
gneiss (99DJ18) and a crosscutting aplite dyke (99DJ79) (sheet 1239, Meluco). The
monzogranitic gneiss has zircon with core-rim structure and gives rather poor SHRIMP U-Pb
systematics. Nevertheless, an intrusion age of 753 10 Ma can be extracted from the data. The
crosscutting aplite yields a titanite U-Pb age of 591 9 Ma using SHRIMP data, interpreted as
the crystallization age of the aplite. The age of 591 9 Ma defines a minimum age for the
gneiss fabric in this outcrop.
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11.11 Alto Benfica and Mecubri Groups

The Alto Benfica and Mecubri Groups (see Chapter 6.12) are viewed as relics of a
metasedimentary cover overlying the Nampula Complex. They occupy synformal structures
and their contact to the Nampula Complex is probably an unconformity. They are
metamorphosed to amphibolite facies conditions. The Alto Benfica Group is mainly made up
of matrix-supported metaconglomerate, which contains felsic gneiss pebbles. The
conglomerates are interbedded with quartzite, and micaceous gneiss. Fibrolitic sillimanite
aggregates are common. The Mecubri Group is mainly made up of a grey clastic biotite
gneiss. This gneiss hosts spectacular conglomerate and sillimanite-nodule pseudoconglomerate
layers. The conglomerate contains both matrix- and clast-supported beds, and includes
subrounded boulders of granitic gneiss, similar to typical lithologies of the Nampula Complex.
The conglomerates in the Mecubri and Alto Benfica Groups are immature, proximal deposits
probably representing screes or intermontane fans.
Figure 11.50: Concordia diagrams for detrital zircon in samples EGC31+32, Alto Benfica
Group
New U-Pb data were collected on zircons from 2 samples of metaconglomerate from
the Alto Benfica Group (sheet 1636, Mocuba). The 2 samples, EGC31 and EGC32, were
collected at the same locality and represent a sillimanite-bearing metaconglomerate (Figure
11.52). The zircon is made of detrital grains, showing variable oscillatory growth zoning,
surrounded by a thin metamorphic rim. Fifty-nine SHRIMP U-Pb analyses were obtained on
zircon from the 2 samples: 37 analyses in sample EGC31, and 22 analyses in sample EGC32.
As the results for the 2 samples are statistically equivalent, the data are merged and reported as
a single data set in Figure 11.50, Figure 11.51, and Figure 11.52.
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Figure 11.51: Probablility density curve for detrital zircon in sample EGC31+32, Alto Benfica
Group.
Figure 11.52: Concordia diagram and microphotograph for samples EGC31+32, Alto Benfica
Group. The concordia diagram shows data for the youngest detected detrital zircon grain (626
22 Ma) and metamorphic zircon (492 12 Ma). The microphotograph (field of view: 5.4x4.4
mm) shows the contact between the biotite-muscovite-bearing matrix (upper part) and a
sillimanite-rich nodule (lower part). The sillimanite is acicular and parallel to the foliation of
the rock.
Of the 55 analyses of detrital zircon cores, 46 are less than 10% discordant (Figure
11.50). A probability density diagram (Figure 11.51) shows that 75% of the zircon cores have
ages between 1382 36 and 988 35 Ma, and were derived from a catchment in which
Mesoproterozoic rocks were exposed, e.g. the surrounding Nampula Complex. A smaller
population was derived from Palaeoproterozoic rocks ranging in age from 2024 24 to 1663
24 Ma. Three zircons yield discordant ages between 3315 8 and 2926 18 Ma, indicating a
minor Archaean source (or recycled Archaean source). The youngest detected zircon core has a
concordant 238U/206Pb age of 626 22 Ma. This age represents the maximum age for deposition
of the Alto Benfica Group sediments. It implies that the Alto Benfica Group is Neoproterozoic,
and represents a Pan-African synorogenic deposit. The 626 22 Ma age for the youngest
detrital zircon overlaps with the age of granulites in the nearby Mugeba Complex (615 7 Ma).
This implies that the Mugeba Complex was a possible source for detrital material sequestred in
the Alto Benfica Group. The Mugeba Complex is a Pan-African nappe overlying the Nampula
634
Complex. Consequently, it is possible that deposition of the Alto Benfica Group was
synchronous with emplacement of Pan-African nappes.
Four metamorphic rims were anaysed successfully in samples EGC31+32. Three highly
luminescent rims with low-U concentration (50-80 ppm) and one high-U rim (779 ppm) yield a
concordia age of 492 12 Ma (Figure 11.52). This age is interpreted as the age of sillimanitegrade metamorphism in the metaconglomerate. The age of 492 12 Ma is similar to the age of
the metamorphic overprint in nearby sample 33568 situated in the underlying Nampula
Complex.
11.12 Montepuez Complex
The Montepuez Complex (see Chapter 6.13) is rich in paragneisses, mainly quartzite,
metaarkose, marble, quartz-feldspar gneiss and biotite gneiss, associated with orthogneiss
ranging from granitic to amphibolitic in composition. The rocks are metamorphosed in
amphibolite facies, and are strongly folded into tight and isoclinal folds. The Montepuez
Complex is highly reworked by Pan-African orogenic processes, and consequently this
complex has been assigned to a higher tectonostratigraphic level than the surrounding Nairoto,
Xixano and Lalamo Complexes (Figure 11.3), though it is clear that the ages of the protoliths
of rocks in the Montepuez Complex are not older than the surrounding complexes.
11.12.1 Geochemical and isotopic data on the Montepuez marbles
New chemostratigraphic data were acquired from the marble units in order to constrain the
timing of deposition of the sediment sequences in the Montepuez Complex. Data were
collected in the four small marble quarries east of Montepuez, situated in one of the largest
exposed marble units, marking the boundary between the Montepuez and Xixano Complexes
(Figure 11.53, sheet 1338, Namuno). This unit comprise three distinctive lenses dipping at 4660 SE. Their visible structural thickness ranges from 20 - 50 m. The lenses are separated by
mica schists, are isoclinally folded, and tectonically dissected. These three marble lenses are
defined in this study as a structurally lower Calcite-dolomite marble (CDM), a structurally
upper White dolomite marble (WDM), and a middle Grey dolomite marble (GDM).
Major elements: Major and trace element geochemistry is based on analyses of 56 samples .
Both the calcite (CM) and the dolomite marbles (DM) are relatively pure rocks. They are
almost devoid of Al2O, Na2O and K2O. The dolomite marbles and dolomitised calcite marbles
(DCM) are relatively enriched in SiO2 (up to 18.7 wt%, Figure 11.54a). Several samples of the
dolomite marbles contain sizeable amounts of total organic carbon (TOC, up to 0.6 wt%). We
tentatively suggest a Mg/Ca ratio of 0.1 as the boundary between the calcite marbles and the
dolomitised calcite marbles. A Mg/Ca ratio of 0.5 sets a lower limit for the dolomite marbles.
The calcite marbles are characterised by variable Mg/Ca ratios ranging between 0.02 and 0.09
(Figure 11.54a), whereas dolomitised varieties show ratios between 0.37 and 0.50. The Mg/Ca
ratios of the dolomite marbles range between 0.51 and 0.63 (avg.: 0.58 0.03, n =43), which is
lower than that for stoichiometric dolomite (0.62) apparently indicating incomplete
dolomitisation. The dolomitised calcite marbles do not plot on the limestone-dolostone mixing
line (Figure 11.54b), because both Mg and Ca concentrations are low due to the high SiO2
content (Figure 11.54a).
635
Figure 11.53: Geological map of the northeastern of Cabo Delgado Province, showing the
location of marble units of different ages, and the sampled unit in Montepuez.
Iron and manganese: The average Mn (47 23 ppm, n =43) and Fe (1208 623 ppm) contents
of the dolomite marbles are much lower than those commonly reported from Proterozoic
dolostones (Mn =180 ppm, Fe =2020 ppm) (e.g., Melezhik et al., 2005). The calcite marbles
contain less Mn (16 7.3 ppm, n =7) and Fe (327 122 ppm), whereas the dolomitised calcite
marbles occupy a transitional position between the two end-members.
Strontium: Strontium concentrations in the calcite marbles are low (142 17 ppm, n =7) and
show no significant correlation with the Mg/Ca ratio (Figure 11.54c). Both low Sr and Mn
concentrations resulted in a low Mn/Sr ratio (0.11 0.04, n =7). The dolomitised calcite
marbles and dolomite marbles contain less Sr (88 15 ppm, n =6; 86 15 ppm, n =43,
respectively) with a maximum concentration of 112 to 121 ppm, approaching a minimum
concentration in the calcite marbles (Figure 11.54c). The average Sr concentration of the
dolomite marbles is higher than that reported for non-metamorphosed Proterozoic dolostones
(54 ppm, n =344) (Melezhik et al., 2005). Mn/Sr ratios range between 0.1 and 1.5 averaging at
0.58 0.33 (n =43)
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Figure 11.54: Various binary plots illustrating major geochemical and isotopic features of the
Montepuez marbles.
Oxygen and carbon isotopes: Twenty-three analyses of carbon and oxygen isotopes were
performed. The G18O values of the calcite marbles range between 14.6 and 20.3 V-SMOW
(Figure 11.54d) (ave.: 17.2, n =7) suggesting postdepositional resetting. The G13C values are
all positive and tightly clustered between +1.6 and +2.1 V-PDB (+1.9 0.2 on average).
There is a positive correlation between G18O and G13C (r = +0.53, n =7, >80%), which is
indicative of postdepositional resetting. Based on the observed alteration trends, we tentatively
suggest that +2 and 20 represent the least-altered G13C and G18O values, respectively.
637
The dolomite marbles are enriched in 18O with respect to the calcite marbles (Figure
11.54d) with G18O values tightly clustering at 22.1 0.4 (n =12). In contrast, G13C values
fluctuate between 1.7 and +1.8 (Figure 11.54e), which correlate negatively with the TOC
content (Figure 11.54f); all samples with the negative G13C values contain graphite. Such an
effect can be attributed to a local isotopic exchange between organic matter/graphite and
dolomite. There is no correlation between G18O and G13C. The overall G18O values measured
from the dolomite marbles show an overlap with those reported from non-metamorphosed,
Proterozoic dolostones (e.g., Melezhik et al., 2005), thus suggesting a high degree of
preservation of original G18O values. The observed alteration trend (Figure 11.54f) suggests
+1.8 and 22 as the best proxies for initial G13C and G18O values, respectively. The
dolomitised calcite marbles show both G13C (0.4 1.7) and G18O (19.3 22.6) somewhat
transitional from the calcite marbles to the dolomite marbles.
The 18O depletion of the calcite marbles relative to the dolomite marbles can be
attributed to the following explanation. The partial dolomitisation of limestones commonly
creates enhanced porosity and permeability, whereas intensively and completely dolomitised
rocks become largely impermeable. As the result, the partially dolomitised rocks would be
more sensitive towards exchange of their oxygen isotopes with infiltrating postdepositional
fluids, whereas the G13C of calcite would be sufficiently buffered by the dissolving precursor
(Banner and Hanson, 1990; Land, 1992). Because diagenetic and metamorphic alterations
affect carbonate material in a similar way (Nabelek, 1991), we are not in a position to
distinguish between the two.
Strontium isotope ratios: The strontium isotope ratios have been obtained from 23 samples.
Sr/86Sr ratios measured from the calcite marbles ranges from 0.70508 to 0.70521 (n =7),
whereas those obtained from the dolomitised calcite marbles are more radiogenic and fluctuate
between 0.70531 and 0.70560 (n =4). The dolomite marbles have the most radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr
ratios, ranging from 0.70540 to 0.70565 (n =12) (Figure 11.54h). Such an isotopic pattern
suggests that 87Sr was very likely introduced to the system by dolomitising fluids. However,
the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the calcite marbles show a significant negative correlation with the Sr
concentration (Figure 11.54g) (r = -0.66, n = 7, 90%) and do not exhibit a correlation with the
Mg/Ca ratio. This trend suggests that the calcite marbles were affected by an additional episode
of postdepositional alteration, which was not associated with the dolomitisation. Considering
all the observed alteration trends (Figure 11.54g, h), the least radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr ratio of
0.70508 is tentatively suggested as the least altered value for the calcite marbles.
87
11.12.2 Apparent depositional age of the Montepuez marbles

The timing of deposition of the metasedimentary rocks in the Montepuez Complex is
unconstrained. Consequently, in terms of isotope stratigraphy, one should initially consider a
broad time interval, ranging from Archaean to Neoproterozoic. Over this time interval, the
secular 87Sr/86Sr seawater curve was constructed based on data by Gorokhov et al. (1998),
Shields and Veizer (2002), Kuznetsov et al. (2003a, b), and Melezhik et al. (2005) (Figure
11.55). If the least altered initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio is projected onto the seawater curve, the
interception on this curve will indicate the apparent depositional age of the studied carbonates.
Within this time span, the initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.70508 sets the lower age limit at around
1100 1050 Ma (Figure 11.55). However, sampling through Mesoproterozoic carbonate
sequences remains sparse and there may be more 87Sr/86Sr fluctuations within the
Mesoproterozoic than current data indicate. Moreover, the relatively low Sr concentrations in
the Montepuez marbles might have not provided sufficient buffer against postdepositional
638
resetting of the Sr isotope system. Consequently, the apparent depositional age of 1100 1050
Ma Ma should be considered as a minimum age.
The global carbon isotope record offers additional constraints. Kah et al. (1999)
reported that G13C values of -1.0 to +4.0 are characteristic of the interval between
approximately 1300 and 800 Ma. This pattern is distinct from that of older Mesoproterozoic
successions, which record values near 0, and suggests that the 1300-800 Ma moderately
positive values may be useful for broad time correlation. In the late Palaeoproterozoic (1800 1500 Ma) the secular G13C curve is flat, relatively monotonous and fluctuates close to zero
much like that seen in the Mesoproterozoic (Lindsay and Brasier, 2002). Thus, considering all
the limitations, a depositional age for the Montepuex marbles older than 1300 Ma is
improbable, as the Montepuez carbonates have slightly elevated G13C values fluctuating
between +1.6 and +2.0, thus distinct from those close to zero. Moreover, Palaeoproterozoic
carbonates are distinguished by a much lower 87Sr/86Sr.
Figure 11.55: Temporal trends of 87Sr/86Sr in seawater and apparent depositional ages of the
Montepuez marbles. The initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of the least altered Montepuez marbles is
represented by a green horizontal dished line. Its intersection with the 87Sr/86Sr age reference
curve gives the apparent depositional age of the studied carbonates. A vertical, arrowed-head
line indicates the most probable depositional age
11.12.3 Synopsis
U-Pb age determinations are available on 2 samples from the Montepuez Complex (Jamal,
2005) (Table 11.2). Psammite gneiss 98DJ27, collected on sheet 1339 Montepuez, probably
represents a metasediment. One analysis in a detrital zircon core yields an age of 942 14 Ma.
This age can be regarded as a maximum limit for deposition of the sedimentary sequence. A
metamorphic zircon rim in this sample has been dated at 599 10 Ma, and zircon from a
639
foliation parallel leucosome from the same locality, at 586 4 Ma, providing estimates for the
timing of the amphibolite-facies metamorphic overprint in the Montepuez Complex.
The geochronology of the Montepuez Complex is not very well constrained. Available
data suggest deposition of marble units between 1100 and 1050 Ma (Figure 11.55) and
deposition of clastic sediments sometime after 942 14 Ma (Table 11.2). The basement to the
marble is unknown. The data suggests that the sediment package exposed in the Montepuez
Complex is older than the rhyolite-bearing supracrustal sequence exposed in the nearby Xixano
Complex (818 10 Ma; Figure 11.48). The age of the amphibolite-facies metamorphic
overprint in the Montepuez Complex is estimated at 599 586 Ma.
11.13 Ocua Complex
The Ocua Complex (see Chapter 6.14) forms the core of the Lurio belt and is made up of a
highly tectonized assemblage of rocks (Figure 11.56). The most diagnostic lithologies are
granulites, ranging from mafic to felsic in composition, very commonly banded, and a
mylonitic leucogneiss, characterized by prominent quartz ribbon texture. The Ocua Complex
also contains a variety of ortho- and paragneisses, generally forming narrow units or boudins.
These include granitic gneiss, amphibolite, metadiorite, syenite, marble, and ultramafic rocks.
The complex forms a continuous belt of tectonites in the east (sheets 1339 Montepuez and
1340 Mecufi). Towards the west (sheets 1438 Ribu-Mecubri, 1437 Malema, 1438 Cuamba
and 1635 Milange), diagnostic lithologies gradually form more discontinuous elongate rock
units and boudins. These units are hosted in, or interlayered with granitic gneisses attributed to
the Marrupa or Unango Complexes and intrusive rocks belonging to the Malema Suite.
The Ocua Complex is highly reworked by Pan-African orogenic processes. Following
the same rationale as for the Montepuez Complex, the Ocua Complex has been assigned to a
high tectonostratigraphic level (Figure 11.3), though the age of rock protoliths in the Ocua
Complex may not be younger than those in the surrounding complexes.
New U-Pb data were collected from 7 samples of the Ocua Complex. Five of these samples
were collected along the well-exposed traverse in the area of the Lurio falls (Figure 11.56,
sheets 1339 Montepuex, and 1340, Mecufi). The sampling includes four granulites and banded
gneiss, two samples of granitic to syenitic orthogneiss, and one interboudin pegmatite.
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Figure 11.56: Ternary radioelement image showing the sampling and geochronological results
along the Lurio falls traverse, Ocua Complex, sheet 1339 Montepuez.
Figure 11.57: Concordia diagram for sample 33310.

Sample 33310 was collected along the Lurio falls traverse in a NW-dipping, banded
gneiss sequences, interpreted as a paragneiss. The banded gneiss hosts more than 10 m thick
boudins of garnet amphibolite and hornblendite (field photograph in Chapter 6.15). Sample
33310 is a biotite + garnet gneiss collected in a felsic layer, about 50 cm thick, directly
overlying a coarse-grained amphibolite boudin. Garnet porphyroblasts (1 2 mm) are
641
embedded in a comparatively fine-grained quartzofeldspathic matrix (0.05 0.4 mm)

containing quartz ribbons. The matrix was probably affected by grain-size reduction during
deformation. Ghosts of orthopyroxene attest to attainment of granulite-facies conditions.
Zircon is rounded, prismatic to oblate, and shows sector to fir-tree zoning. Few apparently
inherited cores are recorded. One HR-SIMS analysis in such a core yields an age of 880 21
Ma. If this core is correctly interpreted as detrital in origin, the date of 880 21 Ma implies that
the sedimentary protolith of this banded gneiss is Neoproterozoic. Sixteen concordant HRSIMS analyses in sector to fir-tree zoned metamorphic zircon range from 568 13 to 548 13
Ma, and define a "concordia age" at 557 3 Ma (Figure 11.57). This group of analyses includes
two points in an approximately 350 m wide oblate to flat, U-rich, zircon crystal. In thin
section, such oblate crystals can be observed to be oriented parallel to the foliation plane of the
host gneiss, suggesting that they grew during development of the planar fabric and banding.
Sample 33310 contains monazite, also forming oblate crystals oriented parallel to the foliation.
Thirty-four LA-ICPMS analyses yielded a crystallization age of 540 7 Ma for this monazite,
significantly younger than the age of metamorphic zircon. Metamorphic zircon and monazite
define an age bracket between 557 3 and 540 7 Ma, probably covering formation of the
coarse-grained, peak-metamorphic assemblage, followed by continued deformation leading to
tight banding recorded in this outcrop.

Sample 26810 is a fine-grained, amphibole-bearing granitic paragneiss collected in an
outcrop with prominent quartz ribbons and linear fabric. The sample represents an elongate
unit, mainly of granulite in the Muite area (sheet 1438, Ribu-Mecubri), though the sample
itself lacks orthopyroxene. The sample contains zircons with a core-rim structure and
neoformed metamorphic zircons comparatively rich in U. Eleven LA-ICPMS analyses in 5
cores gave ages for these cores ranging from 978 34 Ma to 832 40 Ma (Figure 11.58). The
zircon cores are interpreted as detrital. They indicate that the metasedimentary protolith of this
gneiss was deposited after 832 40 Ma, and is consequently Neoproterozoic. Sixteen LAICPMS analyses were collected in metamorphic zircon. They yield a crystallization age of
58723 Ma, recording the amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphic overprint in this unit.
Samples 33298 is a two-pyroxenes + garnet felsic granulite showing a very good NWdipping planar fabric. It represents an elongate unit of low-K granulite in the middle of the
Lurio belt (Figure 11.56, sheet 1339, Montepuez). The zircon crystals are rounded and show a
core-rim structure (Figure 11.6). The core is generally oscillatory zoned. Nine HR-SIMS U-Pb
analyses were performed in nine zircon cores. Five of them are concordant and range from 969
642
24 to 768 19 Ma (Figure 11.59). The scatter of ages demonstrates that the zircon cores have
a detrital origin and that the sample is a paragneiss. Accordingly, the sample is interpreted as a
Neoproterozoic metasediment deposited after 768 19 Ma. The zircon core is surrounded by a
thin rim of CL bright, U-poor, zircon, itself surrounded by a thick rim with variable CL
contrast. The bright inner rim commonly fills fractures into the core of the zircon. The fractures
are locally decorated with fluid inclusions. Early crystallization of U-poor metamorphic zircon
in this sample probably took place when the rock was deforming in a brittle fashion, during
prograde metamorphism. Nine concordant analyses were derived from the rim. They range
from 583 15 to 541 14 Ma and define a bimodal age distribution. The oldest mode is defined
by four analyses giving a concordia age of 576 7 Ma (Figure 11.59). The oldest mode
includes one analysis of the inner bright rim at 583 15 Ma; this probably relates to the early,
prograde part of metamorphism. The youngest mode is defined by five analyses giving a
concordia age of 548 6 Ma (Figure 11.59). This age probably reflects protracted deformation
and high-grade metamorphism. The data do not allow us to establish whether the development
of the well-preserved, equilibrium granulite-facies assemblage in the sample is related to the
first mode at 576 7 Ma or the second mode at 548 6 Ma.

Sample 33305 is a garnet-biotite paragneiss showing centimetre-scale banding from the
Lurio falls traverse. Mesocratic layers are rich in garnet phenoblasts (up to 1.5 cm), while
leucocratic layers are rich in quartz. Quartz ribbons define an east-northeastern-trending
lineation. The leucocratic layers are interpreted as sheared (flattened) leucosome. Zircon
crystals are rounded and characterized by sector to fir-tree zoning with variable CL contrast.
Twelve HR-SIMS analyses of zircon are concordant and range from 584 15 to 531 14 Ma
(Figure 11.60). The analyses record formation of metamorphic zircon. No inherited detrital
component can be detected. Two of the analyses are significantly older that the main
population of analyses and yield a "concordia age" of 578 10 Ma. The dominant zircon
population gives a concordia age of 545 4 Ma. Fifteen LA-ICPMS analyses in monazite give
an age of 568 9 Ma, regarded as the age of crystallization of metamorphic monazite. This
sample features an uncommon pattern, in which the apparent monazite crystallisation age (568
9 Ma) is significantly older than the crystallization age of the main zircon population (545 4
Ma). This pattern may be linked to the lower resolution of the LA-ICPMS analytical method,
or may correspond to a real age difference. Additional analyses would be required in order to
define the relationship between the apparent crystallization ages for the metamorphic zircon
and monazite well, and to describe the petrological processes recorded in the sample. As a first
643
approximation, it is safe to say that the sample records high-grade metamorphism between 578
10 and 545 4 Ma, and that the dominant zircon population at 545 4 Ma probably records
the conspicuous migmatization event observed in this outcrop.

Sample 26811 represents a magnetite-rich granitic gneiss with an intense planar fabric,
mapped as a lens in the "quartz-ribbon" mylonitic leucogneiss, characteristic of the Ocua
Complex on sheets 1437 Malema and 1438 Ribu-Mecubri. The sample contains zircon
crystals with a core-rim structure and neoformed metamorphic zircon crystals. The core is
oscillatory zoned. The rim and neoformed zircon are comparatively rich in U. The core yields a
monomodal age distribution at 749 20 Ma (11 LA-ICPMS analyses; Figure 11.61). This age
is interpreted as the age of crystallization of a single population of magmatic origin.
Consequently, this rock body is interpreted as an orthogneiss, with a magmatic intrusion age at
749 20 Ma. Eleven LA-ICPMS analyses were performed in the metamorphic zircon. They
yielded an age of 583 19 Ma, reflecting the timing of amphibolite facies metamorphism
recorded in this sample.
Sample 33304 is of quartz-free syenitic gneiss containing clinopyroxene and titanite.
This rock is characterized by extreme enrichment in K and other alkali elements (Sr, Ba), and
can be traced for more than 100 km as a narrow layer in the middle of the Ocua Complex
(Figure 11.56, sheet 1339, Montepuez). The sample contains a population of prismatic to
rounded zircon with magmatic oscillatory to sector zoning. Nine LA-ICPMS analyses define a
644
"concordia age" of 599 6 Ma for magmatic intrusion of the syenite (Figure 11.62). The
magmatic zircon is surrounded by a thin metamorphic rim: the rim is too thin to be analysed in
any reliable way.
Sample 26878 is an example of the mylonitic leucogneiss, with prominent quartz
ribbons, characterizing the Ocua Complex in sheet 1438 Ribu-Mecubri. The sample was
actually collected in one of the numerous thin sheets of this lithology included in the Nampula
Complex in the footwall of the Lurio belt (Figure 11.5). Zircon forms large, abundant, high-U
prismatic crystals with osciallatory magmatic zoning. Twenty six LA-ICPMS analyses yield an
intrusion age of 538 10 Ma for the leucogranite protolith to this gneiss. Though the sample is
highly deformed, no metamorphic zircon rims were detected. Consequently, the timing of
mylonitization cannot be constrained directly, except for the fact that it is younger than 538
10 Ma.
Figure 11.62: Concordia diagram and microphotograph of syenitic gneiss 33304. The rock
shows a quartz-free matrix of K-feldspar with clinopyroxene megacrysts (Field of view:
5.4x4.4 mm).
Figure 11.63: Concordia diagram for

sample 26878.
645
Sample 33312 was collected approximately 2 m away from sample 33310, at the Lurio
falls locality, in an approximately 20 cm large boudin-neck scapolite pegmatite pocket (Figure
11.64). The pegmatite is situated between two metre-scale garnet-amphibolite boudins,
forming the margin of a large (>10 m) cluster of boudins of the same lithology. The rock has a
grain size of about 10 mm, and contains abundant, coarse-grained (commonly >300 m),
prismatic, oscillatory zoned zircon. Twenty two LA-ICPMS analyses yield an age of 535 15
Ma for crystallization of the pegmatite (Figure 11.64). This date records boudinage of the
outcrop, and indicates that boudinage (535 15 Ma) is coeval with formation of fabric-parallel
metamorphic monazite in the host gneiss (540 7 Ma; Figure 11.57). Structural analysis at the
locality (see Chapter 9.8) suggests that boudinage is associated with extensional structures.
Consequently, the date of 535 15 Ma also records extensional deformation at the locality.
Figure 11.64: Concordia diagram and field occurrence of interboudin pegmatite 33312.
11.13.2 Synopsis
Available geochronological data in the Ocua Complex are summarized in Figure 11.65. They
include zircon U-Pb data from two samples reported by Jamal (2005). Sample 98DJ13 is of
biotite-hornblende gneiss, collected from the same area as sample 26810 (sheet 1438 RibuMecubri), and sample 99DJ67 is a garnet-clinopyroxene gneiss from the Lurio falls, from the
same locality as samples 33310. These samples are arguably interpreted as orthogneisses by
Jamal. For sample 98DJ13, zircon cores yield an average age of 922 20 Ma, and rims give
metamorphic ages at 606 4 and 581 4 Ma. For sample 98DJ67, zircon cores yield an age of
936 22 Ma, and rims give metamorphic ages at 562 3 and 543 14 Ma.
Zircon cores from the 5 samples of intermediate to felsic high-grade gneisses, showing
amphibolite- to granulite-facies assemblages (samples 33310, 33298, 26810, 98DJ13, 99DJ67),
are either significantly discordant (Figure 11.59) and/or define significant scatter. For sample
98DJ13, the 206Pb/238U dates for near concordant zircon cores range from 968 26 to 843 24
Ma. For sample 99DJ67, discordant zircon cores range from 879 24 to 839 22 Ma. Zircon
cores from these 5 samples show a well-preserved original zoning pattern (Figure 11.6), so the
analyses probably record the crystallization age of these cores. The observed scatter is
significantly larger than would be expected for a single zircon population of magmatic origin,
using the LA-ICPMS or HR-SIMS methods. Consequently, available data suggests that the
zircon cores are detrital in origin and that these five samples should be interpreted as
646
paragneiss. Therefore, they are represented as paragneiss in Figure 11.65. Available data
suggest that the granulite-facies gneisses forming the most diagnostic lithologies of the Ocua
Complex are Neoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks. At least part of these sediments were
deposited after 768 19 Ma, i.e. the age of the youngest detected concordant detrital zircon
core (sample 33298). These metasedimentary rocks show a comparatively restricted
Neoproterozoic provenance ranging from 978 34 to 768 19 Ma. Neoproterozoic
metasedimentary rocks are known in the Xixano, Lalamo and Montepuez Complexes.
Consequently the amphibolite- to granulite-facies paragneisses in the Ocua Complex probably
represent highly reworked correlatives of supracrustal sequences in these complexes.
The metasedimentary rocks are interlayered with gneisses of indisputable magmatic
parentage. Two such orthogneisses are Neoproterozoic and dated at 749 20 and 599 6 Ma.
The 749 20 Ma granitic gneiss (sample 26811) in the Ocua Complex is coeval to a 739 8 Ma
granite pluton (sample 33306) intruding metasedimentary strata in the Xixano Complex. The
599 6 Ma syenite gneiss (sample 33304) is coeval with the 607 7 Ma granite/syenite pluton
(sample 98DJ02) also intruding the Xixano Complex. Syenite plutons, though undated, are also
known in the Monapo Complex. In accordance with the evidence provided by the airborne
radioelement map (Figure 11.42), the geochronological study suggests that a major proportion
of lithologies sequestred in the Ocua Complex correlates with lithologies exposed in the
Xixano, Lalamo, Montepuex and Monapo Complexes.
The amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphic overprint in the Ocua Complex is
well constrained by 13 zircon and monazite dates in paragneiss and orthogneiss samples.
Crystallization of metamorphic zircon ranges from 606 4 to 545 4 Ma while monazite
ranges from 568 9 to 540 7 Ma. Zircon and monazite dates correspond to a significant time
interval of some 65 m.y. The probability-density curve displays two maxima, one at 581 Ma
and the other at 546 Ma (Figure 11.65). There is no reason to believe that the spread of dates is
an analytical artefact, as several samples show a pattern with two significantly different age
groups (sample 33298, Figure 11.59, sample 33305, Figure 11.60, samples 98DJ13, 98DJ67).
So, it is probable that the 65 m.y. time span between 606 4 and 540 7 Ma corresponds to
protracted tectonometamorphic activity, including high-grade metamorphism, local
migmatitization (sample 33305) and protracted high-grade deformation. It is difficult to extract
a specific age for the granulite-facies overprint within the 606 4 540 7 Ma time bracket.
The mylonitic quartz-ribbon leucogneiss is a conspicuous high-strain lithology in the
central part of the Lurio belt (Malema and Ribu-Mecubri sheets). Consequently, this
lithology has been mapped as part of the Ocua Complex. Sample 26878, representing this
lithology, has a magmatic intrusion age of 538 10 Ma (Figure 11.63). This result implies that
the quartz-ribbon leucogneiss is a Pan-African intrusive rock. It corroborates other
geochronological results from the Marrupa and Nampula Complexes, indicating that the
western part of the Lurio belt was a preferential axis for intrusion of synkinematic granite
plutonism. Importantly, as this leucogneiss is sheared, this result implies that an important
componant of shearing along the Lurio belt is younger than 538 10 Ma, i.e. it took place at the
end of the metamorphic cyle, dated between 606 4 and 540 7 Ma.
Granulites and mafic lithologies form elongate narrow rock units and boudins in the
Lurio belt. Interboudin pegmatite 33312 (Figure 11.64), from the Lurio falls locality provides
an estimate of 535 15 Ma, for the timing of the boudinage process and associated extensional
tectonics in the eastern part of the Lurio belt (Figure 11.65).
647
Figure 11.65: Probability density curves summarizing the geochronology of the Ocua
Complex. The figure includes a probability curve for zircon cores, probably detrital, in five
paragneiss samples (green), for magmatic events (blue) and for metamorphic events (red)
(data in Table 11.2 and Table 11.5).
11.14 Txitonga Group
The Txitonga Group overlies the Ponta Messuli Complex in the northwestern part of Niassa
Province. The Group (see Chapter 6.16) is dominated by metasedimentary rocks, mainly
metagreywacke, metasandstone and schist. Bodies of metagabbro, greenstone and greenschist
are common and minor porphyritic metarhyolites are recorded. The break in metamorphic
grade between the Txitonga Group and the Ponta Messuli Complex suggests that the Txitonga
Group represents a metasedimentary cover. Nevertheless, the contact between the two units is
tectonized. The contact can be interpreted either as a tectonized nonconformity or alternatively
as a thrust contact.
648
Figure 11.66: Concordia diagram and microphotograph for sample 31818. The rock displays
a poorly deformed volcanic porphyritic texture with mm scale magmatic phenocrysts (Kfs, Pl,
Qtz) in a fine-grained quenched matrix (<0.1 mm). Photomicrograph: Field of view: 5.4x4.4
mm.
New zircon U-Pb data were collected on one sample. Sample 31818 (Figure 11.7, sheet 1135,
Lupilichi) was collected in a weakly foliated granite porphyry sheet, conformable with the
enclosing greywacke and micaschist of the Txitonga Group. The rock displays a typical
porphyritic volcanic/subvolcanic texture and is interpreted as a metarhyolite (Figure 11.66). Its
magmatic crystallization age is estimated at 715 20 Ma by means of 16 LA-ICPMS analyses
in small prismatic zircon (Figure 11.66). This date represents the timing of extrusion of the
metarhyolite unit and is also a good estimate for the timing of deposition of the hosting
metasediments. The data suggest a Neoproterozoic age for deposition of the Txitonga Group.
11.14.2 Re-Os dating of the Niassa Gold Belt
The Txitonga Group hosts the gold deposits of the Niassa Gold Belt (Figure 11.7). Primary
gold occurs in native form in deformed quartz veins hosted in metasedimentary rocks
associated with mafic dykes and sills (see Chapter 13.1). Re-Os isotopic data were collected in
3 samples (31852a, 31853a, b) from the Caguru gold field (sheet 1135, Lupilichi). Twelve
Re-Os analyses were collected on pyrite, chalcopyrite and mixtures of these two minerals, from
quartz-dominated ore. The data define a spread of model ages from 560 to 104 Ma (see
Appendices 1, 4).
649
Figure 11.67: Re-Os isotopic data for sulphides from the Caguru gold field, Niassa Gold Belt.
The data are presented in a 187Re/188Os vs. 187Os/188Os diagram in Figure 11.67. In this
diagram, two significant regression lines can be extracted from the data. A first line, close to
the origin of the diagram, is defined by three fractions composed of single euhedral pyrite
crystals (analyses LL92, LL182) and a massive chalcopyrite aggregate (analysis LL91), all
from the same sample (31853b). This line yields an age of 483 72 Ma (MSWD=13, model 3
regression following Ludwig, 2001). The initial 187Os/188Os ratio is 0.123 0.058, equivalent to
the chondritic 187Os/188Os ratio of 0.1238 at 483 Ma. A second line is defined by four
chalcopyrite fractions from all three samples. This line shares fraction LL91 with the 483 72
Ma line and includes three more fractions with higher Re-Os ratios (analyses LL166, LL172,
LL178). This line yields a robust age of 112 14 Ma (MSWD=2.0) with an initial ratio of 0.68
16 Ma. Analysis LL180, with a model age of 560 Ma, is close to the 48372 Ma regression
line and is probably derived from material associated with the three fractions defining the 483
Ma line. Four fractions, mainly of mixtures of pyrite and chalcopyrite, scatter immediately to
the right of the 483 Ma regression line and can be interpreted as mixtures of minerals defining
the two regression lines.
Though the errors associated with the regressions are large, and though the regression
lines scatter beyond analytical uncertainty (MSWD>1), the distribution of points on a
187
Re/188Os vs. 187Os/188Os diagram (Figure 11.67) suggests at least a two-stage history for the
sulphide mineralization in the Caguru gold field. Early mineralization, including pyrite and
chalcopyrite, formed at 483 72 Ma from a fluid with a chondritic Os-isotope composition. A
second period of sulphide deposition, dominated by chalcopyrite, occurred at 112 14 Ma. The
higher initial ratio of the younger regression line (0.68 r0.16) and the fact that the two lines
intersect each other at a position corresponding to the fraction of coarsely crystalline massive
chalcopyrite (analysis LL91), support the interpretation that the younger period of sulphide
deposition may reflect reworking of an older and perhaps more significant period of Au-(Cu)
mineralization of Pan-African age. In two examples from the literature, sulphide mineralization
in gold-bearing quartz veins has been demonstrated to have formed in association with two
events, widely spaced in time (Stein et al., 2000; Bierlein et al., 2006). Two-stage evolution
thus appears to be a common feature in orogenic gold deposits.
650
The 2 Re-Os dates at 483 72 and 112 14 Ma, recording mineralization events, place
strong constrains on the geological evolution of the Caguru gold field. The 483 72 Ma date
links the original mineralized quartz veins to late-orogenic Pan-African tectonics. Formation of
these veins encompasses the timing of regional cooling defined by biotite and muscovite
40
Ar/39Ar dating in the Txitonga Group. Biotite and muscovite 40Ar/39Ar ages range from 492
4 to 466 2 Ma (Table 11.3). They are also, within error, coeval with lateral sinistral shearing,
on the northwestern margin of the Unango Complex. This shearing took place along discrete
epidote-amphibolite-facies shear zones at 444 5 Ma (sample 35228, Figure 11.29). The date
at 112 14 Ma suggests that quartz veins were reworked during the Lower Cretaceous (AptianAlbian). This period corresponds to rifting related to dispersal of Gondwana and more
specifically to dextral translation of Madagascar relative to the African plate, and initiation of
seafloor spreading between the Antarctic and African plates (e.g., Rakotosolofo et al., 1999;
Torsvik et al. 2002). At the regional scale, the age of 112 14 Ma almost overlaps with
intrusion of kimberlite at 138 9 Ma in the Maniamba graben (Figure 11.72) and overlaps with
deposition of the Aptian (125-112 Ma) Macomia Formation in the Rovuma Basin.
The chondritic initial 187Os/188Os ratio of 0.123 0.058 for the 483 72 Ma pyritechalcopyrite regression line indicates that the fluid responsible for deposition of the quartz
veins had a chondritic Os isotopic composition. This suggests that the Pan-African Au-Cu ore
fluids were associated with a juvenile source rock with a short crustal residence time and a low
Re/Os ratio. This possibly traces the ore fluid to gabbroic sills hosted in the Txitonga Group.
These gabbros have a probable Neoproterozoic age, coeval with the 715 20 Ma porphyritic
metarhyolite dated in the Txitonga Group (Figure 11.66).
11.15 Geci Group
Four tectonic slices of the Geci Group (see Chapter 6.17) are known in the northwestern part of
the Unango Complex (Figure 11.7). These form southwest-northeast-trending lenses between
orthogneisses of the Unango Complex. The Geci Group is regarded as a sedimentary cover
overlying the Unango Complex. It mainly consists of carbonate rocks. A chemostratigraphic
study was performed on carbonate rocks from the Serra Geci exposure (sheet 1235, Macaloge).
11.15.1 Geochemical and isotopic data
Whole-rock analyses of the Serra Geci metacarbonate rocks based on new XRF analyses and
previously published data (Jordan and Paulis, 1979) show relatively low SiO2 and Al2O3
contents, ranging between 0.1 and 10, and 0.6 and 6 wt %, respectively. MgO/CaO ratios
fluctuate between 0.05 and 0.70, averaging around 0.15 0.18 (1V, n =111), although most
analyses plot within the fields of limestone or along the dolostone-limestone mixing line
(Figure 11.68). Only two analyses plot in the dolostone field. Acid-soluble constituents
analysed from 17 whole-rock samples have moderate concentrations of Fe (777 310 ppm),
Mn (131 85 ppm) and Sr (566 145). Mn/Sr ratios are relatively low (0.26 0.19) but show
sizeable variations (0.04 0.8), which correlate positively with the Mg/Ca ratios (rMn/Sr-Mg/Ca
=0.55, n =17, >95.0%). The Mg/Ca ratios correlate negatively (r = -0.74, n =17, >99.9%) with
the Sr concentration (Figure 11.69 a).
651
Figure 11.68: MgO/CaO cross-plot of the

Geci metacarbonate rocks from Serra Geci
based on new analyses (n =17) and
previously published analytical data (n =94)
(Jourdan and Paulis, 1979).
The measured 87Sr/86Sr value fluctuates between 0.70709 and 0.70736, and correlates
positively with Mg/Ca ratios (r =0.88, n =10, >99.9%) and G13C (r =0.71, n =10, >95%) and
negatively with the Sr concentration (r =-0.83, n =10, >99.0%) (Figure 11.69 b-d). The
87
Sr/86Sr ratio of microcored dolomite (0.70733) is slightly higher compared with the coeval
calcite (0.70714). G13C and G18O values are invariably high, +4.0 0.6 and 25.8 0.5 (n
=24) respectively, and show a limited range. G13C values of microcored dolomite samples are
0.6 higher on average compared with the coeval calcite whereas G18O values are 0.6
lower.
11.15.2 Screening for possible postdepositional alteration
In general, the carbon isotopes are strongly buffered by the high C concentrations in carbonate
minerals relative to the fluid (Banner and Hanson, 1990; Jacobsen and Kaufman, 1999).
Consequently, infiltration of externally derived fluids is likely to have a relatively greater
effect on O and Sr isotopes. In the studied case, C, O and Sr isotope ratios show homogeneous
distributions, which do not suggest any obvious postdepositional alteration. This is supported
by the high G18O values, which are commonly more sensitive to postdepositional resetting than
the carbon isotope system.
652
Figure 11.69: Binary diagrams illustrating alteration trends and variations of geochemical
parameters along calcite-dolomite mixing line (pale grey lines) in samples from the Geci
Group. Samples, which lie significantly above the mixing line are considered to be altered.
There are, however, three obvious geochemical trends associated with dolomite/calcite
ratios. These include a negative correlation with Sr concentration (Figure 11.69 a), and the
positive correlation with 87Sr/86Sr (Figure 11.69 b) and Mn/Sr ratios. The negative correlation
can be easily attributed to mineral chemistry, i.e., the dolomite crystal lattice can admit less Sr
compared to calcite. The dolomite is slightly enriched in 13C compared with the calcite. The
relatively high Sr concentrations in the Serra Geci metalimestones probably provided a
relatively strong buffer for the Sr isotope system although this is impossible to quantify.
Dolomite is slightly enriched in 87Sr and depleted in 18O with respect to calcite. Such
features can be reconciled if the dolomite was a secondary phase and dolomitisation of a calcite
precursor was essentially buffered by ambient seawater, slightly diluted by meteoric fluids.
Alternatively, the dolomitisation might have been caused by slightly younger seawater with
respect to that coeval with the calcite precursor. This would explain the slightly elevated
87
Sr/86Sr ratios of the dolomite.
As the rocks studied are metamorphosed, normal petrographic screening and
cathodoluminescence was of very limited use as they could only detect the alteration associated
with the last geochemical transformation. Thus, although all traditional screening procedures,
originally specified for non-metamorphosed or low-grade rocks (e.g., Brand and Veizer, 1980;
Denison et al., 1994; Jacobsen and Kaufman, 1999) have been applied, the discrimination
technique has been based essentially on geochemical criteria. Conventional geochemical
653
assessment of postdepositional alteration of carbonate is largely based on relative abundances

of Mn, Fe, Rb and Sr (e.g. Brand and Veizer, 1980). Elemental ratios, such as Mn/Sr, Fe/Sr,
Ca/Sr and Rb/Sr, as well as carbon and oxygen isotopes, are widely used as geochemical
criteria for detecting the least disturbed carbon, oxygen and Rb-Sr systems. Different authors,
however, use not only dissimilar values of the same ratios, but also dissimilar combinations of
these ratios. In all cases, the choice of the elemental ratios and their values is empirical and to
some extent arbitrary. The published data on non-metamorphosed limestones suggest Mn/Sr
0.065 0.02 and Mg/Ca <0.02, whereas a significant database obtained recently from highgrade calcite marbles (Melezhik et al., 2003) suggests Mn/Sr <0.02, Mg/Ca <0.02.
Based on the reasoning outlined above, the least altered 87Sr/86Sr ratio of calcite from
the Geci metalimestones is tentatively considered to be 0.70708. The available data suggest a
range of +3.5 to +4.8 as the best proxies for initial G13C of the pure calcite and dolomite
phases.
Figure 11.70: Temporal trends of 87Sr/86Sr in seawater and apparent depositional ages of the
Geci Group carbonate rocks. The seawater curve is modified after Melezhik et al. (2001); see
Melezhik et al. (2001) for references cited in the figure. The initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of the least
altered Geci carbonates is represented by a red horizontal dished line. Its intersection with the
87
Sr/86Sr age reference curve reported in the literature gives the apparent depositional age of
the studied carbonates. A vertical, arrowed-head bar indicates the most probable depositional
age.
11.15.3 Apparent depositional age of the Geci Group
Strontium isotope ratios of seawater display a distinct fluctuation through time. Importantly, a
long residence time of Sr in the oceans (approximately 5 m.y.) relative to the ocean mixing
time (approximately 1,500 years) (Banner, 2004) results in a very high degree of homogeneity
in the oceanic Sr isotopic composition at any given time (e.g. Veizer et al., 1999). There is a
gradual, though irregular increase in 87Sr/86Sr ratio from approximately 850 to 500 Ma (Figure
11.70), and therefore this particular time interval is well suited for indirect dating of
Neoproterozoic to Early Palaeozoic carbonate rocks.
654
The least altered 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.70708 in the Serra Geci calcite is consistent with
several ages within the 630-625 and 590-585 Ma time intervals if the most reliable published
87
Sr/86Sr data on seawater evolution are considered (Figure 11.70). Further constraint is
provided by the observation that the Geci metalimestones are directly underlain by glacial
deposits in some localities (Pinna et al., 1993). Precise radiometric dates on the Neoproterozoic
glacial diamictites suggest that two glaciations occurred between 635 and 580 Ma (Figure
11.71). The 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.70708 is consistent with deposition of the Geci carbonate rocks
after the 635.5 r 0.6 Ma Marinoan glaciation though prior to the younger (580 Ma) Gaskiers
glacial event (Figure 11.71). A newly constrained G13C reference curve for the 635-542 Ma
time interval (Condon et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2005) allows a further refinement.
Depositional ages from 620 to 600 Ma are less probable as they are marked by highly positive
G13C ratios, which are not observed in the Geci metalimestone. The most probable ages based
on the G13C calibration curve are at around 595 or between 625 and 620 Ma. Considering all
the limitations involved in the isotope chemostratigraphy, the apparent depositional age of the
Geci Group metalimestones is very likely to be between either 595 and 585 Ma or 630 and 625
Ma. Despite intensive shearing, folding and mylonitisation, the central parts of the largest
exposure of the Geci Group in Serra Geci preserves primary depositional features and primary
isotopic composition. The G13C values of +3.5 to +4.8 and the least altered 87Sr/86Sr ratio of
0.70708 suggest two apparent depositional age intervals of either 590-585 or 630-625 Ma.
Figure 11.71: Temporal trends of G13C in seawater for the 632-542 Ma time interval modified
after Condon et al. (2005) and apparent depositional ages of the Geci Group carbonate rocks.
Age data are from Grotzinger et al. (1995), Martin et al. (2000), Amthor et al. (2003),
Hofmann et al. (2004), Condon et al. (2005) and Zhang et al. (2005). Filled symbols are
geochronologically constrained G13C values. An orange, horizontal bar shows the range of
G13C values from the least altered Geci carbonates. Its intersection with G13Cage reference
curve gives two apparent depositional ages, which are indicated by vertical, arrowed-head
bars.
11.16 Kimberlites, Maniamba Graben
Approximately 40 kimberlite dykes and four isometric kimberlite bodies (diatremes or pipes)
are known in the Maniamba Graben, Niassa Province. The kimberlites intrude Karoo
sediments. Samples collected at one of the isometric kimberlite bodies, known as the TX3
kimberlite (UTM 36S, 719537, 8610862, sheet 1235, Macaloge; Figure 11.7), contain
phlogopite phenocrysts (Figure 11.72). Rb-Sr analyses of phlogopite separated from 2 samples
were analysed. Data from one of the samples yield a regression line with a Lower Cretaceous
age of 138 9 Ma (Figure 11.72). The regression line has a MSWD of 8.5 and an initial
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87
Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.7052 0.0026. The age of 138 9 Ma is interpreted as the time of
crystallization and closure of the phlogopite, synchronous with the emplacement of the
kimberlite. This age, together with structural arguments, suggest that emplacement of
kimberlites was controlled by stresses associated with Lower Cretaceous dispersal of
Gondwana.
Figure 11.72: Microphotograph of a separate of phlogopite phenocrysts from the kimberlite

TX3 intruding the Maniamba Graben, and Rb-Sr isochron diagram showing phlogopite data
from samples 31964 and 31991.
11.17 Conclusions
Geochronological data contribute to defining, characterizing, and correlating the different
geological complexes mapped in northeastern Mozambique (Figure 11.1, Figure 11.2, Figure
11.3). They also contribute to defining the tectonic relationships between them, at different
scales, and to calibration of tectonic and metamorphic events. Available geochronological data,
including data from de Sousa Saranga (unpublished), Jamal (2005), Krner et al. (1997) and
Costa et al. (1994), and this work, are summarized in a set of probability density curves in
Figure 11.73 and a set of descriptive concluding statements.
1) Palaeoproterozoic crust with 1.95 Ga granulite facies metamorphism and an Archaean
isotopic signature is present in the Ponta Messuli Complex; Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic
ages are not detected elsewhere except in detrital zircons in younger clastic sediments (Unango
Complex and Alto Benfica Group).
2) Major crustal development occurred between 1.14 and 0.94 Ga in the Nampula, Unango,
Marrupa, Nairoto and Meluco Complexes; these complexes have very similar age structures,
except for the fact that orthogneisses older than 1.10 Ga are only detected in the Nampula
Complex.
3) The Unango Complex hosts local, approximately 800 Ma-old Neoproterozoic alkaline
magmatism (Monte Chissindo and Monte Naumale syenites).
4) The Xixano, Lalamo, MSawize, Mugeba and Monapo Complexes, and the Txitonga Group
contain a mixture of Neoproterozoic supracrustal rocks and deep-seated orthogneisses, dated
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between about 820 and 635 Ma; an approximately 735 Ma-old Neoproterozoic granulite-facies
event is reported in the Xixano Complex.
5) The Ocua Complex, forming the core of the Lurio belt, is rich in Neoproterozoic ortho- and
paragneisses, similar in age to lithologies recorded in the Xixano, Lalamo and MSawize
Complexes.
6) The geochronology of the Montepuez Complex is poorly constrained; marble units at the
contact between the Montepuez and Xixano Complexes are Mesoproterozoic as they were
deposited between 1.10 and 1.05 Ga.
7) With the possible exception of the Ponta Messuli Complex, all Pre-Karoo lithotectonic
complexes were affected by Pan-African reworking and metamorphism; high-grade PanAfrican metamorphism is bracketed between about 615 and 490 Ma; there is no clear evidence
for a 1.0 Ga metamorphic event in any of the complexes.
8) The timing of Pan-African metamorphism shows a significant decrease when going down in
the tectonostratigraphy; the oldest Pan-African granulite-facies metamorphism is recorded in
the Mugeba Complex (about 615 Ma), and the youngest is recorded in the Nampula Complex
(about 490 Ma); the timing of Pan-African high-grade metamorphism in the Ocua Complex
ranges from about 605 to 540 Ma, suggesting that the Lurio belt was the location of protracted
deformation and metamorphism over a period of 65 m.y.; boudinage and local extension in the
Lurio belt took place at approximately 535 Ma, as evident from dating of an interboudin
pegmatite.
9) The Alto Benfica and Mecubri Groups are younger than about 630 Ma. They represent
coarse clasitic sedimentary material covering the Nampula Complex; they can be interpreted as
synorogenic Pan-African deposits possibly deposited in a rising orogenic belt; the Alto Benfica
and Mecubri Groups were infolded and metamorphosed together with the Nampula Complex.
10) The Geci Group represents a continental-slope marine carbonate sequence deposited at
around 630-625 or 590-585 Ma; the Geci Group forms tectonic lenses hosted in the Unango
Complex.
11) The Mesoproterozoic crust of the Nampula, Unango, and Marrupa Complexes was the
location of voluminous production of Pan-African felsic melts between about 550 and 490 Ma
(Murrupula, Malema and Niassa Suites); Late Pan-African plutonism is most voluminous in
the Nampula Complex and along the Lurio belt; late-kinematic Pan-African plutonism in the
Xixano Complex is bracketed between about 606 and 560 Ma (Maco Suite), and is
significantly older than the Pan-African suites in the Nampula, Unango, and Marrupa
Complexes.
12) Gold-bearing quartz veins in the Txitonga Group were deposited in a late stage of the PanAfrican orogeny around 480 Ma; the sulfide assemblage in the veins was reworked during the
Lower Cretaceous at around 110 Ma; the quartz veins were deposited from a juvenile fluid
with a chondritic Os initial ratio;
13) A robust age of 444 5 Ma records mylonitization along northeast-southwest-trending
shear zones at the northwestern margin of the Unango Complex. The data suggest that the
margin of the Unango Complex and the boundary between the Xixano and Marrupa
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Complexes were the location of transcurrent shearing during from Ordovician to Devonian
times, i.e. during regional cooling following the Pan-African orogeny. These margins were
subsequently the location of rifting during the Lower Permian, leading to deposition of Karoo
deposits (Ecca Group) in the Maniamba Graben and in two small grabens at the contact
between the Marrupa and Xixano Complexes.
14) Kimberlites intruded in the Maniamba Graben at about 138 Ma, during the Lower
Cretaceous.
The main geotectonic implications of these conclusions are considered in Chapter 12.
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Figure 11.73: Probability density curves summarizing the geochronology of the different
lithotectonic complexes in northeastern Mozambique. The figure integrates U-Pb data from
Table 11.2 and Table 11.5, Re-Os data on gold-bearing quartz veins from the Txitonga Group
and chemostratigraphic data on carbonate units from the Montepuez Complex and Geci
Group.
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12 TECTONOSTRATIGRAPHY AND GEOTECTONIC EVOLUTION

12.1 Introduction
Geotectonic models formed for northeastern Mozambique during the last thirty years have
largely been calibrated using Rb-Sr geochronological data (e.g. Pinna et al., 1993). These
models gave contrasting, and sometimes conflicting, interpretations as to the importance of the
two main orogenic events recorded in the region, namely the 1.2-0.9 Ga late-Mesoproterozoic
to early-Neoproterozoic orogenic event, variably called Kibaran, Mozambican, Lurian or
Grenvillian, and the ca. 0.6-0.5 Ga Pan-African orogenic event (Holmes, 1951; Jourde and
Vialette, 1980; Sacchi et al., 1984; Cadoppi et al., 1987; Costa et al., 1992; Pinna et al., 1993;
Costa et al., 1994; Stern, 1994; Pinna, 1995; Krner et al., 1997; Sacchi et al., 2000). However,
the most recent data from northeastern Mozambique and contiguous areas of Malawi and
Tanzania, including work by Krner et al. (2001; 2003), Jamal (2005) and this work, leave
little doubt that the present-day crustal architecture in northeastern Mozambique is mainly the
product of the Pan-African orogenic evolution. The lithotectonic units exposed in northeastern
Mozambique were assembled, deformed, and metamorphosed during the Pan-African orogeny.
The pre-Pan-African tectonic evolution appears very difficult to unravel and describe with any
degree of confidence.
The Pan-African-Brasiliano orogeny is a general term to describe one of the largest
orogenies that affected the globe between about 725 and 500 Ma. This orogeny resulted in the
formation of supercontinent Gondwana at the end of the Neoproterozoic (Unrug, 1997; Figure
12.1). A number of recent review articles summarize various ideas on the geologic and tectonic
evolution of the Pan-African-Brasiliano orogenic system, with special emphasis on East Africa
(Bauer et al., 2003; Grantham et al., 2003; Hanson, 2003; Harley, 2003; Johnson and
Woldehaimanot, 2003; Meert, 2003; Yoshida et al., 2003; Jacobs and Thomas, 2004; Collins
and Pisarevsky, 2005; Johnson et al., 2005). Northeastern Mozambique is situated at an
interesting location in the Gondwana puzzle, arguably and speculatively at the intersection
between four Pan-African belts (Figure 12.1). These are (1) the north-southtrending East
African Orogen (Stern, 1994), extending from northeastern Mozambique to Arabia and
including the Mozambique Belt and the Arabian-Nubian Shield, (2) the east-west-trending
Zambezi Belt possibly linked to the Damara Belt of Namibia (Hanson et al. 1993), (3) the
north-south-tending Dronning Maud Province in Antarctica, and (4) the Ltzow-Holm
Complex in Antarctica possibly linked towards the east with the Prydz Bay Belt in Antarctica
and Eastern Ghats in India.
This chapter offers a discussion on the tectonostratigraphy and geotectonic evolution of
northeastern Mozambique, with special emphasis on the Pan-African evolution. Using Figure
12.2 as a template, field structural and lithological observations, geochronological constraints,
and large-scale interpretations derived from the new geophysical survey, are used in the
following sections to outline and discuss our preferred comprehensive model for the regional
tectono-metamorphic evolution of northeastern Mozambique. We have established a consistent
temporal sequence of tectonic events based on absolute geochronological constraints, field
geometric and kinematic characteristics and crosscutting relationships. In the following
sections we will first characterise each of these events starting from the oldest and will then
summarise them into a consistent evolutionary scheme.
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12.2 Tectonostratigraphy
The mapped area in northeastern Mozambique has been divided into a number of geological
complexes on the basis of lithostratigraphic, geochronological and structural criteria. The
geology of these complexes is described in Chapter 6. Figure 12.2 shows a large-scale map of
northeastern Mozambique, portraying the distribution of the main geological complexes. The
map collates information on the individual structures, kinematics and geochronology reviewed
here into a broader context. Construction of such a tectonic map allows a regional
understanding of the types of structures present, their relative geometry and the pattern of
tectonic movements.
Available geological, structural and geochronological data allow the grouping of the
geological complexes in northeastern Mozambique into five major, genetically distinct, megaunits, imbricated during the northwest-verging Pan-African orogeny. The five mega-units and
their constituent complexes are represented in Figure 12.3, Figure 12.4, Figure 12.5 and Figure
12.18. These are:
(1) At the base of the tectonostratigraphy, a Palaeoproterozoic domain belonging
to the foreland of the Pan-African orogen, and corresponding to the Ponta
Messuli Complex;
(2) A Mesoproterozoic gneiss domain made up of felsic crust reworked and
transported during the Pan-African orogeny, and corresponding to the
Nampula, Unango, Marrupa, Nairoto and Meluco Complexes;
(3) A dominantly Neoproterozoic domain forming a far-transported Pan-African
upper nappe system, exposed in the Xixano, Lalamo, M'Sawize, and Muaquia
Complexes, the Monapo and Mugeba klippen, and possibly the Txitonga
Group;
(4) Local Neoproterozoic cover sequences; these are the Mecuburi and Alto
Benfica Groups overlying the Nampula Complex and the Geci Group overlying
the Unango Complex;
(5) The Montepuez and Ocua Complexes, interpreted as a Pan-African tectonic
melange including lithologies from mega-units 2 and 3, and forming the core of
the Lurio belt. The Lurio belt represents a major Pan-African structure
reworking mega-units 2 and 3.
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Figure 12.1: Reconstruction of Gondwana supercontinent at the end of the Pan-African

orogeny, with extent of Pan-African orogenic belts (shaded area) following Meert (2003), and
location of northeastern Mozambique. The East African Orogen includes the Arabian-Nubian
Shield, and Mozambique Belt (Stern, 1994). ANS: Arabian-Nubian Shield; DB: Damara Belt;
DMP: Dronning Maud Province; EG: Eastern Ghats; LA: Lufilian Arc; LHC: Ltzow-Holm
Complex; MB: Mozambique Belt; PBB: Prydz Bay Belt; ZB: Zambezi belt
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Figure 12.2: Tectonic map of northeastern Mozambique showing the lithotectonic complexes
identified and characterized during this project.
663
Figure 12.3: Sketch-map of northeastern Mozambique in its Pan-African context, showing the
distribution of the main tectonostratigraphic mega-units discussed in this text. The Gondwana
reconstruction follows Torsvik et al. (2002; vector map available at www.geodynamics.no).
664
Figure 12.4: Generalized tectonostratigraphic column for northeastern Mozambique, with

colour coding following Figure 12.3. Palaeoproterozoic crust is in grey. Mesoproterozoic
crust is in pink. Neoproterozoic far-travelled Pan-African upper nappes are in green and
Neoproterozoic short-travelled cover sequences are in purple. Attribution of the Txitonga
Group to the Neoproterozoic cover sequence or to the upper nappe system remains a matter of
debate. All contacts are tectonic, except the contact between the Nampula and Mecuburi/Alto
Benfica Group, which is possibly an unconformity. Explanations are given in the text.
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Figure 12.5: Probability density curve summarizing the timing of pre-Pan-African magmatic
(blue) and metamorphic (red) events in the three main crustal mega-units mapped in
northeastern Mozambique.
12.3 Palaeoproterozoic foreland of the Pan-African orogen
A Palaeoproterozoic domain, corresponding to the Ponta Messuli Complex, is exposed only in
a small area in northeastern Mozambique, northwest of the Maniamba Graben (Figure 12.2).
The Ponta Messuli Complex is characterized by Palaeoproterozoic, comparatively lowpressure, granulite-facies metamorphism (6-7 kbar, Crd +Sil + Spl assemblage) dated at 1950
15 Ma. It is also characterized by Archaean Sm-Nd depleted-mantle model ages (TDM)
ranging from 3.01 to 2.64 Ga, by Palaeoproterozoic detrital zircons, and is intruded by 1056
11 Ma granite magmatism. No high-grade Pan-African metamorphism is apparent from the
data.
Palaeoproterozoic crust is well known in the Usagaran and Ubendian belts in Tanzania,
Malawi and Zambia (Figure 12.3; Lenoir et al., 1994). The Usagaran belt forms the eastern
margin of the Archaean Tanzania Craton. The Ubendian belt is linked to the Usagaran belt to
form a linear northwest-southeast-trending system between the Tanzania Craton and the
Bangweulu Block. The main magmatism in these belts took place between 2.09 and 1.86 Ga
(Dodson et al., 1975; Lenoir et al., 1994; Ring et al., 1997; Vrna et al., 2004). Archaean rocks
are common (Collins et al., 2004). Regional amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphism is
bracketed between 2.00 and 1.88 Ga on the basis of age dates from metamorphic zircon and
666
syn-kinematic melts (Reddy et al., 2003; Ring et al., 1997; Sommer et al., 2005). Locally,
Palaeoproterozoic eclogite bodies are reported in the Usagaran belt of Tanzania (Collins et al.,
2004; Mller et al., 1995), giving evidence for high-pressure eclogite-facies metamorphism at
2.00 Ga. In northern Malawi, the Ubendian belt contains minor volumes of granite plutons
emplaced between 1119 20 and 977 1 Ma (Ring et al., 1999), and in western Tanzania,
Neoproterozoic (842 80 and 724 6 Ma) alkaline granite and syenite plutons are known
(Lenoir et al., 1994). To the southwest of the Ubendian belt, the Northern Irumide belt forms
the margin of the Palaeoproterozoic to Archaean Bangweulu Block. The Northern Irumide belt
is characterized by several Palaeoproterozoic magmatic events at 2.05-2.00 Ga, 1.98-1.93 Ga,
1.88-1.85 Ga and at 1.6 Ga, and by voluminous granite magmatism between 1053 14 and
1005 5 Ma, followed by minor magmatism at 943 5 Ma (De Waele et al., 2003; De Waele et
al., 2006). High-grade metamorphism in the Northern Irumide belt took place at 1.02 Ga. The
Usagaran and Northern Irumide belts are characterized by Archaean Sm-Nd depleted-mantle
model ages (TDM), indicating widespread recycling of Archaean crust (De Waele et al., 2006;
Mller et al., 1998). Importantly, the 1.051.00 Ga granite magmatism in the Northern Irumide
belt displays the same Archaean Sm-Nd TDM signature, indicating that this magmatism resulted
also from partial melting of an Archaean basement (De Waele et al., 2006).
Though very little data is available in the direct vicinity of the Ponta Messuli Complex
in southern Tanzania and northern Malawi, the key features of the Ponta Messuli Complex,
namely 1.95 Ga metamorphism and Archaean Nd signature, link this complex to the Ubendian
and Northern Irumide belts exposed to the west and northwest of Mozambique. The Ubendian
and Northern Irumide belts form the margin of the Archaean Congo-Tanzania craton,
suggesting that the Ponta Messuli Complex is part of this margin too. The Ponta Messuli
Complex can be regarded as part of the foreland of the Pan-African orogen (Figure 12.3).
12.4 Mesoproterozoic continental building
The bulk of the continental crust in northeastern Mozambique, including the Nampula,
Unango, Marrupa, Nairoto and Meluco Complexes, is made up of comparatively felsic gneiss,
formed at the transition between the Mesoproterozoic and the Neoproterozoic (rose colour in
Figure 12.4). Magmatic protoliths range in age from 1148 1 to 944 21 Ma (Figure 12.6).
Felsic gneisses have generally medium- to high-K signatures and can be classified as I-type to
A-type granitoids (see Chapter 11). There is considerable overlap in the geochemical
composition and geochronology of these different complexes (Figure 12.6). The earliest
magmatic event recorded within the Nampula Complex, the Mocuba Suite, dated at 1148 1
Ma - 1123 9 Ma, is nevertheless not reported in the Unango and Marrupa Complexes. This
observation justifies the position of the Nampula Complex below the Unango and Marrupa
Complexes in the tectonostratigraphic column (Figure 12.4). The youngest plutonic rocks,
dated between 968 10 and 944 21 Ma, are recorded in the Marrupa, Nairoto and Meluco
Complexes. These three complexes are lithologically very similar and, in the absence of a
comprehensive geochronological characterization of the Nairoto and Meluco Complexes, these
three complexes are grouped together tectonostratigraphically above the Unango Complex
(Figure 12.4). Structurally, the Marrupa Complex overlies the Unango Complex, as seen on
sheet 1136 Milepa and overlies the Nampula Complex as seen on sheet 1439 Malema (
Figure 12.18). These observations also justify the position of the Marrupa Complex above the
Nampula and Unango Complexes in the tectonostratigraphic column of Figure 12.4. The
Mesoproterozoic complexes are characterized by voluminous magmatism between about 1150
and 940 Ma, but there is very little to no robust evidence for metamorphism and deformation in
the same time interval. The Unango Complex hosts a minor volume of approximately 800 Ma-
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old Neoproterozoic alkaline magmatic intrusives (Monte Chissindo and Monte Naumale
syenites).
Mesoproterozoic crust extends beyond the mapped area. The Unango Complex extends
westward into Malawi, without any apparent major tectonic break. In Malawi and eastern
Zambia, south of the Mwembeshi shear zone, the crystalline crust (Figure 12.3) is made up of
amphibolite- to granulite-facies gneiss, mainly orthogneiss (Andreoli, 1984). The main
generation of orthogneiss ranges in age between 1074 3 and 929 1 Ma (Krner et al, 2001;
De Waele et al, 2006), which supports a correlation with the Unango Complex. The
Mesoproterozoic crust in Malawi nevertheless hosts common Neoproterozoic intrusive rocks,
at variance with what is observed in the Unango Complex (Krner et al, 2001). Available SmNd isotopic data indicate that the Mesoproterozoic crust in Malawi has HNd values close to 0 at
around 1.0 Ga, supporting a comparatively juvenile Mesoproterozoic character of this crust
(Krner et al, 2001).
The Marrupa Complex extends to the north into Tanzania. No reliable dating of felsic
gneisses is however available across the Tanzanian border to test for geologic correlation. In
central Tanzania (north of parallel 8), a broad zone (>100 km) of granulite-facies felsic gneiss,
underlying Pan-African upper nappes, is known as the Western Granulites (Figure 12.3).
Abundant geochronological and isotopic data indicate that the Western Granulites are made up
of Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic felsic gneisses reworked during the Pan-African orogeny
(Mller et al., 1998; Maboko, 2000; Muhongo et al., 2001; Johnson et al., 2003; Sommer et al.,
2005; Vogt et al., 2006). The Western Granulites represent distinctly older crust than the
Unango and Marrupa Complexes.
South and southwestwards, the Mesoproterozoic felsic crust extends up to the margin of
the Kalahari craton, where ~ 1110 Ma orthogneisses are recorded (Manhica et al., 2001). In a
Gondwana reconstruction (Figure 12.1, Figure 12.3), the Dronning Maud Province of
Antarctica is contiguous to the Nampula Complex. The similarity in the age and structure
between this province and the Nampula Complex has been noted by Jacobs et al. (1998) and
Paulsson and Austrheim (2003). Mesoproterozoic orthogneisses in the Dronning Maud
Province range in age from 1163 6 to 1076 14 Ma with HNd values close to 0 or positive at
about 1.1 Ga.
In a Gondwana reconstruction, Sri Lanka is situated to the east of northeastern
Mozambique (Figure 12.1, Figure 12.3). Sri Lanka is subdivided into three major complexes,
the Wanni Complex in the north, the Highland Complex in the center, and the structurally
lowest Vijayan Complex in the south (e.g. Kriegsman, 1995). A compilation of available
geochronological and isotopic data is presented by Krner et al. (2003). The geochronological
data base for the Highland and Vijayan complexes is largely outdated. The Wanni and Vijayan
Complexes are rich in Mesoproterozoic orthogneisses ranging in age from 1082 66 to 881 1
Ma. Palaeoproterozoic ages are reported for the Highland Complex. The Wanni and Vijayan
Complexes possibly represent eastward extensions of the Marrupa and Nampula Complexes
respectively (see for example interpretation by Collins and Pisarevsky, 2005).
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Figure 12.6: Probability density curve summarizing the timing of Meso- to Neoproterozoic
magmatic events (blue) in the Mesoproterozoic Complexes, and the Palaeoproterozoic Ponta
Messuli Complex.
The geotectonic setting of the massive 1150-940 Ma magmatism in the
Mesoproterozoic complexes of northeastern Mozambique and beyond, is a matter of
speculation. Available Sm-Nd isotopic data in Malawi, Sri Lanka and Dronning Maud
Province suggest that the Mesoproterozoic crust is comparatively juvenile in character
(Milisenda et al., 1994; Jacobs et al., 1998; Krner et al., 2001, 2003). We do not yet have data
from northeastern Mozambique to substantiate this pattern. Nevertheless, the lack of magmatic
rocks older than 1.2 Ga in available data sets is striking. This suggests that these complexes
represent juvenile Mesoproterozoic continental crust, and that the Grenvillian event (sensus
lato) corresponds to a major continental building event in this part of the world. Geochemical
and mineralogical data (see Chapters 10 and 11 and Pinna et al. 1993) indicate that the 1150940 Ma magmatism includes a variety of rock types, without apparent correlation between the
time of intrusion and the geochemical signature. Plutonic rocks in this 1150-940 Ma interval
notably include rocks of the charnockite series. The use of classical discrimination diagrams
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to derive a geotectonic setting for the 1150-940 Ma magmatism does not provide a unique
result. The broad geochemical characteristics of the 1150-940 Ma magmatism could be
compatible with a post-collisional setting or a continental arc setting. The postcollisional
setting is difficult to defend for northeastern Mozambique as evidence for an orogenic event
around 1100 to 1000 Ma is weak. The juvenile continental arc model is supported by Krner et
al. (2001, 2003) and Johnson et al. (2005) for the juvenile Mesoproterozoic crust of Malawi,
eastern Zambia and Sri Lanka.
The restoration of the Mesoproterozoic crust in northeastern Mozambique and
contiguous areas before the Pan-African orogeny is also a matter of speculation. The almost
perfect match between the timing of Mesoproterozoic magmatism in the (Northern) Irumide
belt, i.e. 1050 to 940 Ma (De Waele et al., 2003; De Waele et al., 2006), the Ponta Messuli
Complex, i.e. around 1060 Ma, and the Unango and Marrupa Complexes, i.e. about 1070 to
970 Ma, strongly supports the concept that the these different terrains were part of the same
continent before the Pan-African orogeny. The (Northern) Irumide belt unequivocally belongs
to the margin of the Archaean Congo-Tanzania craton. Consequently the Unango and Marrupa
Complexes can be regarded as part of the same margin at the onset of the Pan-African orogeny.
Restoration of the Nampula Complex is more problematic. The earliest of the 1150-1120 Ma
magmatic suites reported in the Nampula Complex, i.e. the Mocuba Suite, possibly correlates
with a coeval suite in Dronning Maud Province (Jacobs et al., 1998; Paulsson and Austrheim,
2003). The 1150-1120 Ma suites are neither reported in the Unango and Marrupa Complexes,
nor in Malawi (Krner et al., 2001), nor in the Irumide belt (De Waele et al., 2003, 2006). This
difference is an argument to suggest that the Nampula and Unango-Marrupa Complexes
represent two continental domains of distinct Mesoproterozoic evolution, and that the 11601120 Ma magmatism is characteristic of the crustal domain marginal to the Kalahari craton
before the Pan-African orogeny (Nampula Complex and Dronning Maud Province). The Lurio
belt, situated between the Nampula, and Unango and Marrupa Complexes, has been suggested
to represent a Pan-African suture zone (see for example Collins et al., 2005) between terrains
situated at the margin of the Kalahari Craton before the Pan-African orogeny (Nampula
Complex and Dronning Maud Province), and terrains situated at the margin of the CongoTanzania craton (Unango and Marrupa Complexes, Northern Irumide belt). As discussed later
in this chapter, we nevertheless note that there is good evidence to support our interpretation
that the Nampula, Unango and Marrupa Complexes are covered by a common set of PanAfrican upper nappes. This implies that stitching of the Nampula, Unango and Marrupa
Complexes occurred, in any event, before emplacement of these upper nappes, i.e. before about
600 Ma (discussion hereafter). Current ideas on the palaeogeographic distribution of continents
before the Pan-African orogeny are extremely speculative. The presence or absence of one
group of intrusive rocks, namely the 1150-1120 Ma magmatic suites, is not a definitive
argument for restoring terrains at the margin of distinct continents (i.e. Kalahari vs. CongoTanzania cratons), and is certainly not a definitive argument for locating a continent-continent
suture zone (i.e. the Lurio belt).
12.5 Neoproterozoic alkaline magmatism
The Unango Complex displays minor volume of about 800 Ma Neoproterozoic alkaline felsic
magmatism, known as the Monte Chissindo and Monte Naumale syenites. This magmatism has
an undisputable anorogenic or intra-plate character. The distribution of alkaline magmatism in
Africa has been compiled by Burke et al. (2003). These authors show that alkaline magmatism
of various age, including nepheline syenite and carbonatites, are concentrated along
continental-scale elongate trends. These trends are located along known or inferred Proterozoic
suture zones. Burke et al. (2003) suggest that repeated episodes of alkaline plutonism in
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southeast Africa could point to the location of Pan-African suture zones. The model of Burke
et al. (2003) is very speculative and should be considered with extreme caution. Nevertheless,
sporadic alkaline magmatism attests to an extensional environment along the southern margin
of the Congo craton at around 800 Ma.
12.6 Neoproterozoic volcanic arcs and microcontinents
The Mesoproterozoic crust in northeastern Mozambique (Nampula, Unango, Marrupa, Nairoto
and Meluco Complexes) is overlain by a set of Pan-African nappes, made up of dominantly
Neoproterozoic lithologies, and referred to as the upper nappe system in Figure 12.3 and
Figure 12.5. The contact between the nappes and the Mesoproterozoic crust is interpreted as a
thrust plane (see discussion in Chapter 12.9). The upper nappe complex is exposed in the
Xixano, Lalamo, M'Sawize, and Muaquia Complexes north of the Lurio belt, and in the
Mugeba and Monapo Complexes south of the Lurio belt (Sacchi et al., 1984, 2000). The
Txitonga Group possibly belongs to these upper nappes, or alternatively, it represents a
proximal cover sequence overlying the Ponta Messuli Complex (as represented in
Figure 12.18).
The geological complexes forming the upper nappe system share a number of
characteristics, which suggest that they are genetically linked and belong to a single megatectonic unit. The most diagnostic features are the occurrence of mafic lithologies, generally
characterized by a low signal on the ternary K-Th-U radiometric maps, the occurrence of
abundant metasedimentary sequences, including marble and graphite schist, the occurrence of
metavolcanic rocks associated with the metasediments, a widespread Neoproterozoic age
signature, and evidence for pre- to early-Pan-African granulite-facies metamorphism.
The Xixano Complex is the best characterized and best dated of these nappes. The main
magmatic activity in the Xixano Complex ranges from 818 10 to 739 8 Ma. A second pulse
of magmatism is dated between 607 7 and 573 17 Ma, and includes a granite-syenite pluton
at 607 7 Ma. The first of these magmatic pulses includes both deep-seated granulite-facies
mafic plutonic rocks and shallow volcanic or plutonic rocks. Few rocks of intermediate
composition are reported. Most of this magmatism has a low-K calk-alkaline geochemical
signature, though a minor proportion of rocks with high-K signature is reported. A highpressure granulite-facies event (11 kbar) is recorded at 735 4 Ma, coeval with intrusion of
deep-seated enderbitic plutonic rocks (742 16 Ma) and high-K phenocrystic granite plutons
(739 8 Ma). The plutonic and volcanic rocks are associated with metasedimentary sequences.
Rb-Sr and C isotopic data in marble units forming the contact between the Xixano and
Montepuez Complexes constrain the deposition of the marble sequence to around 1100 1050
Ma. This suggests that the magmatic rocks intrude the metasedimentary sequences. The
geotectonic setting of the rock assemblage exposed in the Xixano Complex is typical of a
volcanic arc. The volcanic arc probably developed on a pre-existing platformal
metasedimentary sequence. This suggests that the volcanic arc probably developed at the
margin of a continent or a microcontinent.
The Lalamo Complex probably represents an eastward extension of the Xixano
Complex, richer in sedimentary sequences. The ages of the magmatic rocks in the Lalamo
Complex range from 753 10 to 696 13 Ma, and overlap with the magmatism in the Xixano
Complex. To the west, the Muaquia and M'Sawize Complexes are tectonostratigraphically
equivalent to the Xixano Complex. One age of 640 4 Ma is derived from a tonalite from the
MSawize Complex. No date is available for the high-pressure granulite-facies metamorphism
recorded in the M'Sawize Complex. The typical low-K calc-alkaline signature of the 640 4
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Ma tonalite also suggests a volcanic arc setting for the MSawize Complex magmatism. The
Xixano Complex extends to the north into Tanzania. Krner at al. (2003) report
geochronological and Sm-Nd isotopic data in this complex from the Masasi area, Tanzania.
Neoproterozoic rocks in the Masasi area range from 798 1 to 632 1 Ma and largely overlap
the age range defined by the Xixano, Lalamo and M'Sawize Complexes (Figure 12.7). Initial
HNd values for the Neoproterozoic rocks in the Masasi area are close to 0 or are positive. This is
evidence for a juvenile character for the Neoporterozoic magmatism. Poorly mapped windows
or rafts of Mesoproterozoic felsic gneiss, ranging in age from 1092 to 956 Ma, are reported in
the Masasi area. The tectonic relation between these gneisses and the Neoproterozoic rocks is
not well established in this area.
To the south of the Lurio belt, the Mugeba and Monapo klippen are interpreted by Sacchi
et al. (1984 and 2000) as nappes covering the Nampula Complex. Available geochronological
data by Jamal (2005) indicate Neoproterozoic felsic magmatism at 635 3 Ma. The Mugeba
klippe is characterized by granulite-facies metamorphism at 615 7 Ma (Krner et al., 1997).
Figure 12.7: Probability density curve summarizing the timing of Neoproterozoic magmatic
events (blue) and metamorphic events (red) in the Xixano, Lalamo and MSawize Complexes
and the northern extension of the Xixano Complex in Tanzania, the Masasi area, using data
from Krner et al. (2003)
Further north in Tanzania, upper Pan-African nappes are known as the Eastern
Granulites (Muhongo, 1994; Fritz et al., 2005). The Eastern Granulites include a number of
well-known features including the Uluguru Mountains, Pare-Usambara Mountains, MahengeFurua Mountains. The lithological assemblage in the Uluguru Mountains, described by
Muhongo (1994), includes granulites and anorthosites associated with sedimentary rocks
including marbles and graphite schists. Neoproterozoic magmatic rocks, including
anorthosites, range in age from about 880 to 700 Ma (Muhongo and Lenoir, 1994; Muhongo et
al., 2001; Tenczer et al. 2006), and the peak of granulite-facies metamorphism is well dated at
around 640 Ma (Muhongo and Lenoir, 1994; Mller et al., 2000; Muhongo et al., 2001). The
lithological assemblages and the geochronology of magmatic suites in the Uluguru Mountains
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show striking similarities with those reported in the Xixano Complex. Available information
thus suggests a genetic link between the Xixano Complex and the Eastern Granulites, though
the age of granulite-facies metamorphism is significantly younger in the Uluguru Mountains (~
640 Ma) than in the Xixano Complex (~ 735 Ma). Available information thus suggests that the
upper nappes in northeastern Mozambique, including the Xixano, Lalamo, M'Sawize, and
Muaquia Complexes north of the Lurio belt, and the Mugeba and Monapo klippen south of the
belt, and the Eastern Granulites in Tanzania are remnants of a continental-scale nappe system
extending for more than 1,500 km from northeastern Mozambique to Tanzania.
In northeastern Mozambique, the Neoproterozoic magmatic rocks and the ~735 to 615
Ma granulite-facies metamorphism observed in the upper nappes, are not recorded in the
underlying Mesoproterozoic felsic crust. This implies that the nappes are far-travelled and
formed outboard of the Mesoproterozoic felsic crust. Consequently, we suggest that the
upper nappes in northeastern Mozambique, south and north of the Lurio belt, and the Eastern
Granulites in Tanzania are remnants of Neoproterozoic volcanic arcs and microcontinents
formed outboard of the Mesoproterozoic continent. These were possibly located at the
margin, or in the middle of the Mozambique Ocean, before closing of this ocean during the
Pan-African orogeny. A speculative restoration is proposed in Figure 12.20.
Recognition of the fact that thrusting of the upper nappe system is younger than the last
metamorphic or magmatic event specific to these nappes is important for understanding of the
regional geology in northeast Mozambique,. The youngest metamorphic event recorded in the
upper nappes is the 615 7 Ma granulite-facies metamorphism recorded in the Mugeba klippe
(Krner et al., 1997) and the youngest magmatic event is arguably the syenite plutonism dated
at 607 7 Ma recorded in the Xixano complex (Jamal, 2005). A conservative appraisal of
available data suggests that thrusting of the upper nappe system took place after 615 15 Ma.
12.7 Crustal extension leading to the exhumation of the 735 Ma granulites
Metamorphic zircon ages of 735 4 Ma from a garnet granulite within the Xixano Complex
(Figure 12.2) constrain a phase of pre- or early- Pan-African high-grade metamorphism in the
nappe system. Intrusion ages from an enderbite (742 16Ma) and a phenocrystic granite (739
8 Ma) in the Xixano Complex suggest near simultaneous magmatism and metamorphism. The
presence of these granulite-facies rocks at the surface requires a phase of exhumation postdating 735 Ma.
Unfortunately, no obvious structural evidence was found to allow for the
characterisation of the geometry and kinematics of this exhumation phase. Extensional ductile
shear zones accommodating top-to-southeast extension within the Marrupa Complex are
described in Chapter 9 (see also Figure 12.8). A relatively early origin of these extensional
structures is inferred from the fact that some of them are probably folded by a later, northnorthwest-directed thrust-related deformation phase, summarised in Section 12.9, that folds
them in open folds around subhorizontal axes trending northeast-southwest. However, these
extensional structures cut across nappe boundaries (Figure 12.8), and are thus, at least as far as
their latest activity is concerned, post Pan-African imbrication and therefore cannot be directly
responsible for the pre-Pan-African exhumation phase. Nonetheless, given the important
structural reactivations documented during this project, we believe that some of these
extensional shear zones have actually in part exploited and reactivated older extensional
detachments that possibly contributed to the exhumation of the pre-Pan-African granulites.
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Figure 12.8: Northeast-southwest-trending extensional ductile shear zones, recording top-tosoutheast crustal extension, subsequently folded around southwest-northeast-trending folds of
inferred Pan-African age (X and Y are two outcrops on opposing limbs of a northeastsouthwest-trending fold). The stereonet plots represent the structural data presented in
Chapter 8 and the solid black arrow shows the reconstructed regional extension direction
12.8 D1 early Pan-African deformation phase
Structures from the western sector of the Lurio belt (Ribaue-Mecuburi / Malema area) differ
remarkably from those observed in its eastern sector (Montepuez region). In the east, the
structure is intense and linear, whereas in the west it becomes wider and less 'belt-like' in
character. Nevertheless, throughout the belt structure but also within its present-day hanging
wall and footwall, tight to isoclinal folds with north-northwest-dipping axial planes and
roughly down-dip plunging axes are common and are often associated with down-dip
stretching lineations. In Chapter 10, dealing with the structural analysis of the area, we have
assigned these features to a D1 deformation phase. No clear kinematic indicators could be
identified, which precludes assigning of these structures to a specific, well-constrained tectonic
phase. Nonetheless, we can tentatively suggest that D1 structures may have formed during an
event responsible for the exhumation of early Pan-African granulites. The youngest of these
granulites are reported in the Mugeba klippe, to the south of the Lurio belt, and have a
published age of about 614 8 Ma (Krner et al., 1997). Therefore, D1 probably post-dates 615
Ma.
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12.9 Pan-African crustal compression and nappe imbrication

Evidence exists for an early Pan-African, regional northwest-southeast-oriented crustal
shortening event. Top-to-northwest reverse kinematics are commonly recorded along the
tectonic boundaries (Figure 12.9) separating the main tectonic units of northeastern
Mozambique, such as, for example, the Marrupa-Xixano Complex contact (Figure 12.2 and
Figure 12.9e) and the contact that juxtaposes the Txitonga Group against the Paleoproterozoic
Ponta Messuli Complex (Figure 12.9f). The present-day tectonic framework of northeastern
Mozambique is indeed shaped by the nappe stack formed in response to this shortening
episode, and the tectonostratigraphic column erected during this project (Figure 12.4) reflects,
to a large extent, such an imbricate geometry. We envisage an early Pan-African tectonic
framework (prior to the development of regional scale folding of the nappe structure discussed
below in Section 12.10) of moderate- to shallow east-, eastsoutheast-dipping nappe slices. As
shown in Figure 12.4, we assign the M'Sawize and Muaquia Complexes to such nappe
imbricate as well and, based on lithological, chronological and metamorphic constraints,
interpret them as equivalents to the Xixano Complex.
Minor evidence of southeast-directed thrusting, mostly located within the individual
nappes and seen as far apart as the Marrupa Complex and the Meluco Complex (see also
Chapter 9) is possibly indicative of local back-thrusting phenomena. We interpret these
features as related to the same period of crustal shortening, although we believe they reflect
subsidiary minor-scale features, with an opposite vergence to the overall nappe transport
direction.
The northwest-directed nappe-stacking event pre-dates the formation of crustal-scale
northeast-southwest-trending folds (see below), a later expression of the same shortening
phase. In fact, structures associated with nappe imbrication are obviously folded by northeastsouthwest-trending upright folds (Figure 12.10), thus suggesting a progressive evolution of
shortening-accommodation mechanisms from discrete thrusts at the base of imbricated crustal
slices to diffuse, generally upright folding. These folds are described and put into tectonic
context below, in Section 12.10.
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Figure 12.9: Regional scale evidence for reverse top-to-northwest-directed juxtaposition of

different complexes in an imbricate nappe sequence. A- Southwest-northeast-striking mylonite
zone, folded on open southwest-northeast-trending folds (UTM 36S 465789, 8664948). BEvidence for the folded thrust limbs and a northwest-southeast-trending mineral-stretching
lineation (UTM 36S 465789, 8664948). C- Meta-arenite emplaced over tonalitic gneiss (see D)
with a steeper dip than the underlying tonalitic gneiss may suggest an anticlinal fold structure
in the hangingwall (UTM 36S 438189, 863884) D- Same locality as C. Mylonite thrust over
tonalitic rocks in the Xixano Complex towards the northwest (UTM 36S 438189, 8638844). ETectonised contact between the Ponta Messuli Complex and the Txitonga Group, with
northwest-verging small folds (UTM 37S 690072, 8655901). F- Top-to-northwest shear sense
at the Xixano-Marrupa Complex tectonic contact (UTM 36S 445080, 8656974). All of these
structures occur on or near major tectonic boundaries.
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Figure 12.10: Detail of the Marrupa-Xixano Complex tectonic contact as visible in the
radiometric data (Norconsult, 2006) showing northeast-southwest-trending folding of the
nappe-stacking-related mylonitic fabric. Field evidence suggests an initial thrust-stacking topto-northwest sense of shear for the folded mylonites.
We have no direct age constraints for this stacking event. However, the ages of
granulite-facies metamorphic zircons in the Mugeba klippe at 615 Ma (Krner et al., 1997)
suggest an allochthonous origin of the klippe that rests with a discordant tectonic contact on the
Nampula Complex (e.g. Sacchi et al., 2000). Moreover, we interpret lithological and structural
similarities (Krner et al., 1997; Sacchi et al., 1984 and 2000) to support a model whereby the
klippe (and possibly also the Monapo klippe farther east) is part of the same nappe system that
outcrops much more extensively to the north of the Lurio belt. The tectonic nature of the
klippe's basal contact requires its emplacement to be post 615 Ma, the youngest metamorphic
age available so far from the nappe. Figure 12.11 provides information on the possible
minimum lateral extent of some of the Pan-African nappes. It was already shown in Chapter 8
how, on the ground of geophysical affinities, we assigned the Nipepe klippe to the Xixano
Complex, thus constraining the minimum lateral westward extension of the latter. Figure 12.11
strengthens this interpretation by showing identical radiometric classes (colour black and dark
blue) at site A (Nipepe klippe) and B (southwest folded termination of the Xixano nappe). By
adopting the same criterion, it is possible to suggest that the Xixano Complex extended even
farther to the west, to the sites marked by C in Figure 12.11. As discussed in Chapter 9 and as
shown in Figure 12.12, sites labelled C occur on or very close to the closure of large PanAfrican west-southwest-plunging folds and the radiometric class distribution helps highlight
the geometry of the complete fold structure in the hinge region. Sites D and E point to the
possible minimum southern and eastern extent of the Xixano Complex. D in particular is of
great interest in that it is located south of the Lurio belt, in the Nampula Complex. In spite of
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the caution that should be used when interpreting this type of dataset, this observation implies
that Pan-African nappes indeed extended even to the south of the Lurio tectonic belt. Site E
shows that possible elements of the Xixano Complex are structurally reworked in the Lurio
belt.
Sites F mark two chosen localities within the Lurio belt, characterized by the
occurrence of Ocua- and Marrupa-type rocks. Site G farther to the north, close to the boundary
between sheets 1337 Marrupa and 1338 Namuno, has the same radiometric characteristics,
again supporting the model whereby the Ocua Complex (and part of the structural fabric of the
Lurio belt) is folded around west-southwest-plunging upright folds (see section 12.10). Similar
radiometric signatures occur also south of the Lurio belt. Time constraints on the subsequent
folding event (section 12.10) provide a minimum age for the nappe-stacking event at
approximately 580 Ma.
Ring et al. (2002) discuss a regional compression event affecting granulite-facies rocks
of northern Malawi, at amphibolite facies on an east-southeast-west-northwest compressional
trend along conjugate shear zones, starting at about 580 Ma. This is rather close in time to the
onset of the folding phase (see Section 12.10 below) that folds the thrust and nappe
imbrication-related structures.
Figure 12.11: Compilation map of radiometric classes (Block 4 and 5, Norconsult, 2006) and
airborne magnetic data. The radiometric signal can be used to make inferences on the possible
minimum lateral extent of the Pan-African nappes. Letters refer to sites of specific interest
discussed in the text.
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12.10 Northwest-southeast Pan-African regional compression-D2a and D2b

The northwest-southeast-oriented shortening event that led to the nappe-stack formation
evolved progressively into a more diffuse, continuum deformation episode that shortened the
whole stack via a set of crustal-scale northeast-southwest to Enortheast-Wsouthwest-trending
folds (Figure 12.12). Outcrop-scale folds representative of this shortening episode are
described extensively in Chapter 8. Figure 12.12 shows the crustal-scale set of F2b northeastsouthwest to east-northeast west-southwest-trending upright and inclined, open to tight folds
that can be followed from the Tanzanian border southward, to the southernmost boundary of
the high-resolution geophysical dataset coincident with the location of the Lurio belt and even
farther south within the Nampula Complex. Fold axes plunge moderately to the west/westsouthwest. The importance of such a shortening phase in shaping the present-day crustal
architecture of northeastern Mozambique is obvious from the figure. The fold style and
geometry changes progressively from north to south. In the north folds are generally upright
and open. Their amplitude and wavelength decreases to the south and their axial plane attitude
changes from upright to moderately inclined to the northwest (see
Figure 12.18). The folds can be traced over large distances, straddling all major tectonic
contacts between individual nappes. Spectacular folded lithological and tectonic contacts help
highlight the presence and positions of the fold-limbs and hinge zones. The folds eventually
become isoclinal in the immediate vicinity of the Lurio belt (see next section), which we
interpret to be a part of this folded geometrical framework.
The yellow line on Figure 12.12 represents a major shear zone that bounds the western
margin of the Xixano Complex. This tectonic contact between the Xixano Complex and the
underlying Marrupa Complex is a major long-lived zone of discontinuity. Mylonitization of
this contact first occurred prior to the Pan-African open folding phase (post 735Ma) related to
the early Pan-African northwest-directed nappe-stacking event. This contact was probably also
reactivated during late Pan-African times during strike-slip flexural on the post-nappe-stacking
fold limbs between 586 and 530 Ma. This inherited zone of weakness also seems to have been
the locus for some intrusion of Pan-African granites at this time. Further reactivation of the
tectonic zone occurs (397 19 Ma) in one of these granites, that was deformed in post-Pan
African times. This event may be correlated with the array of strike-slip tectonic zones
localized within the Unango Complex, dated at 444 5 Ma. The last event to have affected this
tectonic zone was the development of the Karoo basins starting at 280 Ma (Ecca Group). These
basins are a north-south brittle reactivation of the previously multi-mylonitised contact. The
displacement of the Pan-African north-northwest south-southeast-trending fold axial trace (B
on Figure 12.12) along this brittle structure suggests up to several tens of kilometres of sinistral
movement.
As discussed in the structural section, these folds are superposed on earlier isoclinal,
northwest-plunging folds characteristic of the D1 Lurio deformation phase. Their geometrical
superposition generates type II interference patterns, visible especially within the Lurio belt
and its immediate surroundings (Figure 12.12). "Eye structures", common in the area (see
structural section) and usually interpreted as representing the intersection of topography with
highly sheared sheath folds (the results of very high value of shear strain), are instead
interpreted here as being due to the refolding of northwest-plunging tight to isoclinal folds by
the folds discussed in this section. Classic mushroom-type interference figures are also
common (Figure 12.12).
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Figure 12.12: Structural interpretation of the geophysical data for northeastern Mozambique. Traces of the main crustal-scale F2b folds recognised
are shown on the large image. Letters A to F refer to the folds traced in the cross-section of
Figure 12.18. The northernmost inset zooms onto an example of shear-sense inversion due to flexural flow across the hinge of a large-scale antiform.
The southern inset highlights type II interference patterns immediately to the north of the Lurio belt.
Evidence of this compression and shortening episode is found consistently throughout

the region, not only in the form of the above-mentioned crustal-scale folds, but also with
intense structural reworking of suitably oriented pre-existing tectonic features. Clear examples
are the attenuation (for example via asymmetric boudinage) and shear-reworking, both sinistral
and dextral, of pre-existing tectonic contacts (e.g. Xixano-Marrupa) and the development of
some strike-slip imbricate structures to the north of the belt within the Xixano Complex. The
systematic inversion of sense of shear across fold hinges is interpreted as due to flexural-flow
folding mechanisms, whereby the strong mechanical layering of the nappe system involved in
the folding accommodated strain along the limbs by interlayer oblique slip. As shown in Figure
12.12, a good example is found across the eastern tip of antiform C, whose northern and
southern limbs are sheared sinistrally and dextrally respectively. We also suggest that the
overall sinistral shear corridor observed in the Nampula Complex immediately to the south of
the Lurio belt in the Ribu-Malema area may reflect local components of simple shear
accommodated during folding of the nappe sequence.
Geochronological results constrain the age of the regional compression approximately
to between 586 and 540 Ma. The upper age constraint is inferred from a 586 Ma-old leucosome
(sample 98DJ27A; Jamal, 2005), formed probably during regional metamorphism associated
with nappe stacking, and folded by the later northeast-southwest-trending folds. The minimum
age is constrained by a monazite metamorphic ages believed to date the onset of a subsequent
extensional phase of tectonics (described below in Section 12.14).
12.11 Deposition of synorogenic sequences: Mecuburi, Alto-Benfica and Geci Groups
The Alto Benfica and Mecuburi Groups represent a sedimentary cover unconformably
overlying the Nampula Complex (Figure 12.4). The Mecuburi and Alto Benfica Groups are
rich in conglomerate and are interpreted as immature, proximal deposits, deposited in
intermontaine basins. The youngest detected detrital zircon constrains deposition of the Alto
Benfica Group to be younger than 626 22 Ma. This age implies that the Alto Benfica Group
represents a Pan-African synorogenic deposit. The 626 22 Ma detrital zircon is coeval with
granulite-facies metamorphism in the nearby Mugeba klippe (615 7 Ma), implying that the
sediment was possibly sourced in the nappes overlying the Nampula Complex. Consequently,
it is possible that the Alto Benfica Group was deposited in front of an advancing Pan-African
nappe complex and was itself covered by the nappe complex (as it is affected by Pan-African
metamorphism at about 490 Ma). The similarity in the deposition age and detrital zircon age
distribution, between the Alto Benfica Group in northeastern Mozambique and the Molo Group
in central Madagascar is worth noting (Cox et al. 2004).
The Geci Group represents a continental-slope marine carbonate sequence covering the
Unango Complex. Rb-Sr and C isotopic data suggest deposition of this group at about 630-625
or 590-585 Ma. These time windows imply that the Geci Group also represents an early-PanAfrican synorogenic deposit. There is insufficient evidence at present to allow restoration of
the Geci Group, and stratigraphic relationships between the Geci Group and the Mecuburi and
Alto Benfica Groups, and between the Geci Group and the Txitonga Group. Consequently,
integration of the Geci Group into a geotectonic model for the region is difficult.
12.12 The Lurio belt
The Lurio belt forms the most prominent linear tectonic feature in northeastern Mozambique. It
consistently strikes southwest-northeast except in its easternmost sector, where the structure
attains an east-west orientation. Its role within the tectonic framework of the Mozambique Belt
in Mozambique has been discussed in several studies (including Pinna et al., 1993; Kroner et
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al., 1997; Jamal, 2005 and Grantham et al., 2003). All agree that there was significant
deformation and metamorphism of approximately 1100 Ma-old rocks during the Pan-African
orogeny between 650 and 460 Ma. On the other hand, the kinematics of the belt have always
been poorly constrained, hampered also by poor outcrop conditions. The sense of movement
has thus been typically described as sinistral (although overall dextral kinematics have also
been suggested, e.g. Jacobs and Thomas, 2004), or transpressional with both strike-slip and
down-dip components. Regional models envisage the Lurio belt primarily as a strain belt
accommodating top-to-southeast directed thrusting, inferred to be the mechanism responsible
for the exhumation of Pan-African granulites and their juxtaposition against the Nampula
Complex.
As discussed in Chapter 9, we do not believe that the Lurio belt in its present form (as a
result of the Pan-African event) represents a major shear belt that accommodated major strikeparallel nor up-/down-dip displacement. The belt is instead best explained as the locus of major
late-stage, focused pure-shear accommodation in response to the shortening event described in
the previous section, starting with the early Pan-African nappe-stacking event. In its central
portion, the belt is characterised by strong flattening, visible in the form of highly attenuated
isoclinal folds and their lateral segmentation (Figure 12.13). This structural segmentation is
believed to be responsible for the creation of the Ocua Complex (see Chapter 6), whereby the
discontinuous, lensoidal distribution of its lithologies reflect the pure-shear accommodating
segmentation parallel to the strike of the belt. This holds true particularly in the western part of
the belt. The easternmost Lurio belt presents instead a more continuous, penetrative planar
fabric and lacks the structural segmentation typical of the western belt. However, as discussed
below, the more linear character of the belt in the east and the absence of severe segmentation
of the Ocua Complex can be explained by the later development of a new, pervasive fabric
throughout the belt in response to pervasive ductile shearing along a set of prominent conjugate
shear zones (see section 12.13).
Figure 12.13: Schematic block
diagram illustrating the final
stage of a process of flattening
accommodation within the Lurio
belt by folding, folding tightening,
fold attenuation and transposition
and finally structural
segmentation of the limbs. View to
north.
The Lurio belt is thus an integral part of the F2a and F2b northeast-southwest- to
east/east-northeast - west/west-southwest-trending fold geometrical framework, with the S1
early Pan-African mylonitic foliation regularly folded isoclinally around east/east-northeast west/west-southwest trending axes. The Lurio belt is therefore in itself the latest manifestation
of the progressive deformation event, which started with the northwest-directed nappe-stacking
event.
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As discussed previously, in the west (Malema area) the Lurio belt becomes wider and
less belt-like in character than in its eastern sector. Even the geophysical signature becomes
less indicative of a strong, northwest-southeast-trending linear grain. Previous studies have
always been very generic as to the westward extension of the Lurio belt and all sketch tectonic
maps show a sudden interruption of the structure towards the west. The fold model discussed
in this work and illustrated in Figure 12.12 provides a possible solution. We suggest that the
Lurio belt, which in its present form represents only a flattening-strain localization site, is itself
folded. The closure of a major fold system occurs in the Malema area and leads to the
northwestwards re-folding of the Ocua lithologies (see also Figure 12.11 and related text
explanation). This causes a progressive flattening of the otherwise steeper planar attitude of the
belt and thus a progressive loss of the very strong linear character that instead defines the belt
farther east. Moreover, the overall southwest-plunge of the fold system and the west-southwest
shallowing of the fold structure explains the westward fading of the belt, with only sporadic
occurrences of Ocua lithologies and a gradual weakening of the belt structure.
12.13 Pan-African bulk regional crustal flattening
The high-resolution geophysical data allowed for the identification of other important mapscale structures within the Lurio belt, which strengthen our field observations and
interpretation. Due to their isoclinal geometry, the F2a folds that characterise the Lurio Belt
must have reached a lock-up and strain hardening stage. Ongoing progressive active
shortening, orthogonal to the strike of the belt was thus accommodated by open coaxial F2b
folds but also by the development of crustal-scale sets of conjugate ductile shear zones. The
previous section pointed out that the Lurio belt does not, on a map-scale, display a linear
geometry but presents instead a major change in strike in its easternmost sector, where the belt
swings to an east-west trend. Also, it pointed out that the eastern sector of the belt is more
continuous and lacks the structural segmentation typical of the western part, where Ocua
lithologies are highly dismembered along the belt.
Field observations in the eastern Lurio belt area have described numerous small-scale,
steep dextral and sinistral shear zones, striking east-west and north-northeast south-southwest
respectively. The new geophysical data for the same eastern portion of the Lurio belt show an
important set of map-scale conjugate shear zones formed in response to the accommodation of
a bulk horizontal flattening component oriented southeast-northwest.
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Figure 12.14: Detail from the aereomagnetic data coverage for the eastern portion of the
Lurio belt (Norconsult, 2006). The figure shows map-scale shear bands with opposing senses
of shear defining a system of conjugate shear zones formed in response to pure shear flattening
oriented northwest-southeast (large arrows) The kinematics of the ductile shear zones can be
reconstructed from the sigmoidal bending of the external foliation (axial planar to F2a folds) in
the shear plane. The formation of the penetrative ductile shear zones has also created sets of
secondary asymmetric folds along the north-northeast south-southwest- and east-westtrending shear zones, with southwesterly and easterly senses of vergence respectively (yellow
lines).
The eastern sector of the Lurio belt, where the overall structural grain swings to an eastwest orientation, reflects indeed the local, strong control of such an east-west-trending ductile
shear zone (Figure 12.13). We interpret these shear zones to be the result of a progressive
deformation episode accommodating the same shortening event with a maximum compressive
direction oriented northwest-southeast, that also produced the folds discussed above. Such
conjugate ductile shear zones with opposing senses of shear, deforming the original folded
mylonitic structure, are a natural consequence of progressive flattening during pure-shear
deformation in the Lurio belt. Strain-accommodation within the Lurio belt (via isoclinal
folding and conjugate shear zones) is more intense than in the surrounding blocks (open to
tight folding and conjugate shear zones) probably because of the existence of older inherited
structures (possibly even Grenvillian) acting as a zone of mechanical weakness and leading to
preferential strain accommodation and fold amplification.
Conjugate shear zones are not confined exclusively to the belt and its immediate
surroundings, but developed also farther north, mostly in the Xixano Complex where flexuralslip segmentation of northeast-southwest-trending fold limbs is dissected by north-northeast
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south-southwest-trending shear zones. As shown in Chapter 9, conjugate sets of shear zones

with similar orientation and kinematics can be recognized at the regional scale in the whole
region. Figure 12.15 shows the aereomagnetic data for part of the area mapped and also for
part of the Nampula Complex mapped by the Council for Geosciences. Several conjugate shear
zones are highlighted and their kinematics are indicated. It is interesting to observe that the
Namama belt (Cadoppi et al., 1987) is a major sinistral shear belt, the orientation and geometry
of which suggest that it is also part of the same set of conjugate structures that accommodated
northwest-southeast-oriented pure shear (Figure 12.15). If this is the case, the Namama Belt is
Pan-African and not older as postulated by Cadoppi et al. (1987).
A recent paper by Fritz et al. (2005) describes shear zones in southern Tanzania with
identical orientation and kinematics, possibly suggesting an even broader regional extent for
these flattening-accommodating structures.
Figure 12.15: Pure-shear accommodating conjugate shear zones can be found in the whole
region. The Namama Belt is also interpreted as a sinistral shear belt, part of the same
structural framework.
In the absence of direct geochronological constraints, the development of these
conjugate shear zones is constrained to between 586 and 540Ma, the same age interval as
defined for the folding episode. Nonetheless, the event must post-date the formation, tightening
and locking up of the Lurio F2a isoclinal folds. As clearly visible in Figure 9.59, the east-westtrending dextral and the north-northeast - south-southwest-trending sinistral shear zones cut
through and/or offset tight to isoclinal upright folds with axial planes perpendicular to the
reconstructed shortening direction.
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12.14 Northwest-southeast syn- to late-Pan-African crustal extension

540 Ma monazite ages from mylonitic fabrics associated with top-to-north/northwest or
north/northeast extensional structures from the eastern portion of the Lurio belt constrain a
phase of crustal extension roughly co-axial with the prior compressional event. Development
of extensional structures (Figure 12.16) on a northwest-southeast trend in the Lurio belt and to
the north of it, at least as far as the Tanzanian border, clearly post-dates the development of the
Pan-African F2a and F2b upright folds (Figure 12.16h). Development of these structures (Figure
12.16), which are both pervasive (asymmetric porphyroblasts, folded banding, small-fold
development and foliation fish) and focussed (extensional shear bands and shear zones), is
constrained to the latest stages of the bulk-flattening event. This may suggest that, as bulk
horizontal flattening was coming to an end, there may have been a period of overlap in which
bulk horizontal flattening alternated with bulk vertical flattening, or in which parts of the Lurio
belt and the crust north of it were starting to thin, whereas other parts were still flattening and
extending along an east-northeast west-southwest trend. Geochronological data from
structurally controlled extensional sites are too scarce to allow the definition of a tight time
framework for this event. No indications exist as yet as to whether such an extensional phase
was coeval in the whole area or acted diachronously across the region.
It should be also pointed out that no large-scale, regional structures accommodating
such an extensional phase were observed. Instead extension seems to be localized and
accommodated by relatively minor structures. It has also to be remembered that no obvious
extensional structures could be documented in the field in the western part of the Lurio belt. If
tectonic models involving very major crustal stretching and thinning are to be discussed and
hypothesised for the area, we feel that more field work and research are needed in order to
confirm and better constrain the geometry, kinematics and, more importantly, the extent of this
extensional phase.
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Figure 12.16: Examples of medium-scale extensional structures associated with thinning

subsequent to the compressive Pan-African event starting at approximately 540 Ma. A- Top-to
north asymmetric porphyroblasts at UTM 37S 605953, 8517672 in the Lurio belt. B- Top-to
north asymmetric porphyroblasts at UTM 37S 587609, 8517465 in the Lurio belt. C- Ductile
extensional shear bands displaying top-to-north shear sense in the Lurio belt at UTM 37S
608667, 8508344. D- Ductile extensional shear bands displaying top-to-north shear sense in
the Lurio belt at UTM 37S 606565, 8514521. E- Top-to-north extensional small-folds in the
Xixano Complex a few kilometres south of the Tanzanian border at UTM 37S 482222,
8753826. F- Ductile conjugate shear suggesting bulk vertical flattening in the Lurio belt at
UTM 37S 606565, 8514521. G- Extensional boudin containing pegmatite forming in the
immediate footwall to the extensional shear zone shown in H. H- An extensional top-to- north
shear zone cutting main stage Pan-African F2b fold structures (UTM 37S 608709, 8506268).
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12.15 Pan African granite plutonism

Pan-African granitic plutonism is widespread in the Mesoproterozoic rocks of the Nampula,
Unango, and Marrupa Complexes. This plutonism is dated between 548 13 and 495 13 Ma
(Murrupula, Malema and Niassa Suites). Pan-African plutonism is most voluminous in the
Nampula Complex and along the Lurio belt. Pan-African granite plutonism includes both
highly foliated synkinematic intrusions and postkinematic sub-circular plutons. This variability
is especially prominent for the Malema Suite, which follows the axis of the Lurio belt. PanAfrican granitic plutons are coeval with, and younger than peak metamorphism in the
Nampula, Unango and Marrupa Complexes (see Chapter 11). Pan-African plutonism in these
complexes is a typical product of crustal partial melting following maximum thickening during
the Pan-African orogeny.
12.16 Ordovician-Devonian greenschist-facies sinistral shear zones
After the development of the Lurio belt and its subsequent flattening, the Pan-African
deformation history appears to have closed with the development of the northwest-southeasttrending extensional episode described above. Evidence of it is generally confined to the Lurio
belt and its immediate hanging wall, leaving the more remote northern areas, generally
undeformed.
Significant late- to post-Pan-African tectonic activity across the whole of the mapped
area was limited to discrete, steep shear zones mostly within the northernmost part of the
Unango Complex. These shear zones are spatially rather concentrated and form several
sinistral fault arrays up to 20 km wide and several hundred kilometres long (Chapter 9). These
structures formed at greenschist-facies conditions and were dated at 444 5 Ma (Chapter 11).
Similar strike-slip shearing under comparable conditions is also recorded along the MarrupaXixano tectonic contact that appears to have been reactivated even later, at 397 19 Ma. As
discussed above in section 12.10, this contact appears to have a long complex history, having
been reactivated again during Karoo times.
The tectonic significance of these strike-slip structures remains unclear. A possibility is
that they also formed, at least in part, in response to the above-mentioned extensional phase.
According to such a model, they would represent the step western lateral ramps to the
extensional detachments accommodating the extension phase described above. Ring et al.
(2002) described a similar retrograde event from northern Malawi, in which strike-slip shear
reactivation of older shear zones occurs after 500 Ma.
The southwest-northeast-trending greenschist-facies shear zones in the northern part of
the Unango Complex are situated along strike from the Mwembeshi shear zone, a well known
northeast-southwest-trending transcurrent shear zone marking the northwestern boundary of
the Zambezi belt in Malawi and Zambia. In Zambia, sinistral shearing along the Mwembeshi
shear zone affects a 551 19 Ma-old rhyolite, implying that shearing along this shear zone
occurred at or after about 550 Ma (Hanson et al. 1993). The date of 444 5 Ma in the Unango
Complex may record a phase of Ordovician-Silurian sinistral transcurrent deformation along
this continental-scale lineament, paving the way for Karoo rifting during the Permian along the
same lineament.
12.17 Emplacement of the Geci Group
The tectonic event described in Section 12.16 involving the development of regional-scale
strike-slip shear-zone arrays, is also probably synchronous with the emplacement of the Geci
Group. The Geci Group occurs as several large, tectonically dissected, intensively sheared,
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folded and mylonitized, southwest-northeast-trending lenses of carbonate-rich

metasedimentary units at greenschist- to lower amphibolite-facies conditions within the
surrounding Unango granulite facies terranes. The lenses were emplaced as a result of sinistral
imbricate shears. The north-south-trending bounding shear zones extend from sheet 1436
Cuamba to the Tanzanian border. The absence of footwall-hangingwall cut-offs suggests a
minimum lateral displacement of several hundred kilometres. The age of the Geci Group
(87Sr/86Sr and 13C ratios suggest an apparent depositional age of either 595-585 or 630-625
Ma; see Chapter 11) fits well with its subsequent tectonic juxtaposition with the Unango
Complex in late- to post-Pan-African times.
12.18 Gold mineralisation in the Txitonga Group
Re-Os dating of sulphide in gold-bearing quartz veins in the Txitonga Group points to two
events of sulphide mineralization. Early mineralization, including pyrite and chalcopyrite,
formed at 483 72 Ma. Secondary sulphide deposition, dominated by chalcopyrite, occurred at
112 14 Ma. Structural observations suggest that the whole of the Txitonga Group is cut by a
suite of greenschist-facies, strike-slip ductile shear zones on a north-northeast southsouthwest trend. The gold-bearing quartz veins are interpreted to have formed in extensional
shear fractures developed during strike-slip shearing along the north-northeast southsouthwest-trending shear zones (Section 12.16). The 483 72 Ma date on the early
mineralization thus probably records this tectonic event. The north-northeast southsouthwest-trending shear zones are identical to those described on a regional scale within the
Unango Complex, which are dated at 444 5 Ma, using the zircon U-Pb method. Therefore, it
is likely that the initial period of mineralisation in the Txitonga Group is a result of the same
Ordovician-Silurian transcurrent tectonic event, which juxtaposed the Geci Group within the
Unango Complex granulites.
12.19 Karoo rifting
The present-day distribution of the Karoo Supergroup is due to development of the Maniamba
Graben and related smaller half-grabens during Permo-Triassic times. The Maniamba Graben
developed with an overall northeastern trend indicating extension on a northwest-southeast axis
that may have been controlled by the reactivation of older structures in the Precambrian
basement. Moreover, the two basins developed on the Marrupa-Xixano Complex contact are
testament to long-lived multiple-reactivation of the same zone of weakness; the geometry of
these north-south basins is extensively controlled by the Precambrian ductile structural pattern.
Several of the Precambrian structures now exposed in the basement have a similar
northeasterly trend. Regionally this extensional trend seems to have operated in the
continuation of the graben northwards into Tanzania (the Selous Basin; Wopfner and Kaaya,
1991), in the separate Ruhuhu Basin of Tanzania and the Luangwa area of Zambia (Verniers et
al. 1989). This probably reflects a period of early rifting in the Gondwana continent.
Although Karoo deposition in the Maniamba basin extended beyond the present graben
it appears from the present outcrop pattern of the Lower and Upper Karoo that a major part of
the rifting occurred from mid- to late-Karoo times, with some reactivation in post-Karoo times.
As described previously the Maniamba Graben can be subdivided into three blocks controlled
by northwest-trending faults within the rift zone. The two faults that delimit the blocks are the
Rio Moola Fault and the Rio Txiune Fault (Figure 12.17). Southwest of the Rio Txiune Fault,
the southern part of the graben may have developed first, as it contains the oldest strata, the
depositional pattern of which in the Maniamba basin is cut by the bounding faults of the
present graben.
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The basal Ecca conglomerate and coarse-grained sandstones exposed in the southern
block indicate an initial, syn-rifting phase of deposition, probably in lower Permian times as
there is no evidence of late Carboniferous glaciogenic rocks. There are several localities (e.g.
UTM 36S 702538 8601292) where the margin of the Karoo deposits appears to be controlled
by reactivated shear zones, which were initiated in the basement in Precambrian times. This is
especially true of the small, structurally controlled Karoo basins present on the long-lived
tectonic contact between the Xixano and Marrupa Complexes. The thick pebbly and coarsegrained sandstone unit represented by the Mecondece Formation is found in all the blocks and
may reflect a renewed period of tensional tectonics causing relative uplift in the surrounding
Precambrian source areas, although no internal disconformities are known. It is more likely
that the Mecondece Formation represents an immediate post-rift deposit and the Tende and
Lipirichi Formations represent late post-rift deposits (Prosser, 1993), which tend to bury the
early rift faults unless they are rejuvenated. Reactivation, or the development of new brittle
structures occurred at 138 Ma with the introduction of the kimberlites.
Figure 12.17: Cross-sections across the different fault blocks in the Maniamba Graben (not to
scale). Kse=Lipirichi Formation, Ksd=Tende Formation, Ksc=Mecondece Formation,
Ksa/b=Lilonga/Fubue Formation
In the case of the Maniamba Graben, rejuvenation could have been caused by Cretaceous
tectonic activity related to the kimberlite intrusions or by the Tertiary East African Rift System,
690
which affects the present distribution of the Karoo rocks close to Lago Niassa (see section
12.20 below).
12.20 Post-Karoo tectonics
Post-Karoo deformation was limited to the immediate vicinity of the newly formed Maniamba
Graben. Whereas opening of the Karoo Basin was apparently on a northwest-southeast
extensional axis, post-Karoo tectonics appear to have occurred along a northeast-southwest
axis as is indicated by the presence of west-northwest east-southeast-oriented brittle
structures. These were not observed in the field apart from a few minor outcrops but are very
evident from satellite and aeromagnetic data. These structures displace the western contact of
the Karoo with the Txitonga Group along an extensional contact. They are more abundant on
the western margin of the Graben and are most likely related to the East African rifting, which
occurred as late as 8-10 Ma ago, as the final major tectonic event recorded in northern
Mozambique (Lchelt, 2004). However, on an outcrop scale, on the eastern margin of the
basin, these structures appear to show a reverse sense of movement and may indeed
demonstrate still later reactivation. Evidence also exists from map-scale lithological patterns
that some of these post-Karoo structures are scissor structures, i.e. that they can be both
extensional and compressional along their strike length. On a regional scale these latest
structures in the geotectonic history are relatively minor and most likely represent local
tectonic re-adjustment or minor basin inversion.
12.21 Discussion
Figure 12.18 shows a sketch northwest-southeast cross-section across the study area that serves
the purpose of clarifying and illustrating the geometric/kinematic relationships of the main
tectonostratigraphic units identified. It is obvious from the figure and from the discussion of
this chapter that the current crustal architecture of northern Mozambique is the result of long
and complex tectonic processes. Pan-African deformation phases have shaped the crustal
framework of the area and created the present tectonostratigraphy. Although superposed on
presumably pervasive earlier fabrics and structures, Pan-African tectonism overprinted the
whole region to such an extent that we believe no significant earlier structural and tectonic
features are extensively preserved. What is seen on Figure 12.8 thus reflects, to a very large
extent, the direct result of Pan-African events.
The relative position of the various complexes within the regional tectonostratigraphy is
the result of a top-to-northwest/north-northwest-directed shortening event that caused nappe
translation and imbrication. Our model differs from previous studies in that the regional nappetransport direction, as constrained on the basis of field evidence, is to the northwest/northnorthwest and not to the southeast. The nappe stack is visible in the cross section, with a series
of tectonic slices that, prior to their subsequent folding, dipped gently to the southsoutheast/southeast. From the sketch, some of the tectonostratigraphic relationships are very
clear. For example, the M'Sawize and Muaquia Complexes (green pocket to the northwest of
fold axial trace A,Figure 12.18) represent an infolded equivalent to the Xixano Complex
farther east. Their basal contact is thus of tectonic origin and they form allochthons resting on
deeper imbricates like the Marrupa and Unango Complexes. Thrusts at the bases of the nappes
are likely to have, in part, reactivated earlier structures, possibly also earlier extensional faults
(Figure 12.18; see Chapter 9).
Figure 12.11 illustrates the possible areal extent of some of the nappes that, prior to
their partial erosion, used to cover significantly larger areas. This in turn allows suggestion of
691
even larger-scale lithotectonic correlations, whereby, for example, the Mugeba and Monapo
klippen farther south could also be erosional remnants of much larger nappe systems (Figure
12.18). Sacchi et al. (1984 and 2000) describe the Mugeba klippe as resting discordantly on the
Nampula Complex and report a west-northwest east-southeast transport direction. The
allochthonous origin of the klippe is also confirmed by ages for granulite-facies metamorphism
of approximately 615 Ma (Krner et al., 1997).
Within this nappe-stack framework there are still elements and points open to debate.
As shown inFigure 12.18, for example, we lack tight constraints on the lateral geometric
relationships between the Nampula and the Unango Complexes. From a geochemical point of
view, the two complexes are quite similar (Chapter 10). However, the two complexes are
presently juxtaposed along a poorly exposed tectonised contact whose detailed nature is
difficult to unravel. Whereas pre-Pan-African intrusive ages within the Nampula Complex are
generally older than within the Unango (1100 Ma vs. 1000 Ma or younger), possibly indicating
different evolutions of the two complexes in pre-Pan-African times, the Pan-African
metamorphic ages are coarsely coeval, implying a common Pan-African thermotectonic
history. In more detail, though, metamorphic ages from the southwestern part of the Nampula
Complex are among the youngest obtained during this study (490-500 Ma), requiring the
Nampula to be the site of slightly later, enhanced exhumation with respect to the Unango but
also to other complexes farther north.
Figure 12.18 shows the Nampula Complex coring a large-scale F2b antiform, whose
geometry may have enhanced preferential exhumation in its core, possibly also due to a
component of transtension and oblique slip along its limbs triggered by oblique flexural folding
mechanisms (see Chapter 9 for more details and discussion below). The regional extension
phase described in Chapter 9 and above is also a good candidate for localized and diffuse
exhumation, although more work would be necessary to better elucidate its field relationships
and modes.
The most obvious and pervasive structural feature of the whole area under discussion
remains the set of F2b west-/west-southwest-plunging crustal folds. Their presence shapes the
region structurally and is locally responsible for the present-day distribution of lithologies. The
folds are generally upright, although they tend to become progressively tighter and inclined to
the north-northwest in the vicinity of the Lurio belt. The belt is cored by the highly distinctive
Ocua Complex.
Figure 12.19 shows a possible scenario for the development and formation of the Ocua
Complex. Figure 12.19a shows the early stages of the Pan-African northwest-/north-northwestdirected nappe-stacking event. The Ocua is envisaged as forming at the base of the thick
translating nappe stack, possibly acting as basal detachment overriding the Nampula Complex.
Due to the strong, pervasive tectonic overprint, we have no direct information as to whether the
Ocua Complex was an independent lithotectonic unit prior to this event, or if it formed from
the shearing and transposition at depth of components from several nappes. It is reasonable to
assume, though, that its granulite-facies metamorphic overprint started during this stage. D1
structures were probably formed during this event and the northwest-plunging lineations,
characteristic of the western Lurio belt, probably reflect regional transport and deformation
during this event.
During subsequent folding, tight to isoclinal F2a folds developed, leading to even more
severe structural transposition and segmentation of the Ocua lithologies. It is not clear why
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such a significant strain accommodation occurred in the Lurio belt, but the presence of an
inherited structural discontinuity is a likely explanation. Flat-ramp-flat type geometries along
the thrust contacts may also have played an important role in localizing subsequent strain.
Flattening and limb disruption of F2a folds (as shown in Figure 12.13) occurred under
granulite-facies conditions and led to the development of a proper "melange", with
contributions to the final lithological assembly from several nappes (Xixano, Marrupa,
probably Nampula). At this stage, magmas of the Murrupula and Malema Suites were intruded.
Some were caught in the flattening domains and were deformed, whereas others remained
undeformed.
Continued shortening and folding led to the formation of F2b folds after the lock-up
stage of F2a folds was reached. Figure 12.19c shows the possible evolution of the large-scale
antiform immediately to the south of the Lurio belt. Fold amplification and growth at deep
crustal levels created a site of enhanced exhumation in the core of such folds, as discussed
above with respect to the relatively young metamorphic ages in the Nampula Complex. The
Ocua Complex is thus exposed on the limb of a fold that allowed preferential "geometrical"
exhumation. Crustal thickening was such that gravitational instabilities developed and collapse
and extension at upper crustal levels further enhanced such exhumation process (Figure
12.19c). Plutons and melts of the Malema Suite continued to intrude during this stage.
Localized extension post-dated pure shear accommodation by conjugate crustal-scale shear
zones.
In conclusion, the Lurio belt is interpreted as an integral part of the F2a and F2b fold
framework, and we believe that it represents an exhumed site of preferential shortening and
pure-shear accommodation. It occurs at the northern limb of a south-verging antiform
developed in the Nampula Complex (see also Figure 12.19). Our fieldwork and investigations
exclude significant, regional along- or across-strike displacements. According to this view,
there is no proper foreland or hinterland to the Lurio belt, which instead was flattened and
developed similar to a zone of axial-plane cleavage. Flattening strain would generate the highly
transposed structural segmentation of the Ocua Complex, which is here interpreted as a
"tectonic" complex metamorphosed to granulite-facies conditions and transposed along the
Lurio Belt within the 606-540 Ma time interval (Jamal, 2005; Chapter 11). Chapter 7 has
illustrated metamorphic decompressional features indicating a rapid exhumation under almost
isothermal conditions for the Ocua granulites. Exhumation has occurred in response to extreme
fold amplification and/or in the hanging wall to top-to-north/northeast extensional detachments
down to beyond 500 Ma.
As shown in Figure 12.18, there is no clarity as to what the structural relationships
between the belt and the various complexes are at depth. Chapter 9 has shown how the Lurio
belt itself is folded around F2b axes and this would imply that its structures follow the overall
F2b geometries. In the cross section we do not show the possible extension of the Lurio belt
toward the south given the lack of direct observations.
693
Figure 12.18: Sketch cross-section illustrating geometric and kinematic relationships of the structural elements that define the present-day
tectonic framework of northeastern Mozambique. Fold axial traces are labelled according to fold labelling A-F shown in Figure 12.12.
Figure 12.19: Possible scenario for the development of the Ocua Complex.
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12.22 Geodynamic reconstruction

The conclusions of this chapter are presented in Figure 12.20, presenting a simplified
northwest-southeast cross sections through northeastern Mozambique, for eight different time
steps, summarizing the main tectonic events recorded in this transect of the Pan-African
orogen.
Figure 12.20: Simplified geotectonic model of northeastern Mozambique based on the

structural, geometric and geochronological data. The colour coding is similar to that in Figure
12.3 and Figure 12.18.
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13 MINERAL RESOURCES
A great variety of mineral resources is to be found in Niassa and Cabo Delgado Provinces and
the northern part of the Nampula Province. Current exploitation includes artisanal mining of
gold in the Niassa Gold Belt and small-scale production of marble as dimension stone in the
Montepuez area. The Ancuabe graphite mine was recently in operation for five years. There
are widespread small deposits of semi-precious and precious stones. The use of rocks as
construction materials is especially common in the eastern part of Cabo Delgado Province.
The noted mineral deposits that are shown on the 1:250 000 sheets are listed in Appendix
5 and are also reported in the Mineral Resource database. The following descriptions of
mineral deposits/occurrences have been made according to type of commodity. The mineral
deposits that have been visited during the mapping programme are described in this chapter. In
addition, the kimberlites and Geci limestone are described in Chapter 6, sections 6.20 and 6.17,
respectively. A few other mineral deposits, which were not visited, but which have been well
studied and described by others, are included to give a more complete overview for some of the
mineral resources. The descriptions of other mineral resources are found in the Mineral
resource database (see digital copy). Resource potential areas are discussed in Chapter 14
based on the known mineral resources and interpretation of the results of the geological
mapping.
13.1 Gold
The Niassa Gold Belt (NGB) is the most important gold district in northern Mozambique.
Artisanal mining of alluvial and primary gold in quartz veins has been carried out since 1990
along Lago Niassa from the Tanzanian border towards Cobu in the south, in a belt about 90
km long north-south and up to 25 km wide east-west. The estimated total annual gold
production in the belt is 5-12 t/year (Lchelt, 2004). The number of gold camps in the area is
hard to determine exactly: around 27 camps ("acampamentos") were registered in 1994(Valoi
& Manhica, 1994). The most important areas today include Caguru, Long Bay/Miazini,
M'Papa, 0A (Zero A) and M'Popo (0D - Zero D) in the northern part of the belt.
Primary gold occurs in native form in quartz veins in low-grade metasedimentary rocks
associated with mafic dykes and sills in the Neoproterozoic Txitonga Group (see Chapter
6.16): the veins are related to second order structures, associated with north-south- to
northeast-southwest-trending shear zones probably related to the juxtaposition of the Txitonga
Group with the Unango Complex. The main direction of the veins follows extensional shear
fractures developed during strike-slip shearing on the main structures. In the M'Papa area
northeast-southwest-orientated quartz veins are observed in a dextral shear zone, while northsouth-orientated quartz veins are most common in the Caguru area. Dating of the sulphide
mineralisations using the Re-Os method gives an age of around 483 Ma (see Chapter 11). The
productive zones in the alluvial gold fields are 0,5 - 5 m thick; on average about 2-2,5 m thick
in M'Papa, one of the most important alluvial gold fields (Valoi & Manhica, 1994). The gold
content of the alluvium is 5-30 g/t (Lchelt, 2004). In addition, minor eluvial gold
mineralisations have been reported (Lchelt, 2004).
Local, small-scale gold panning has been registered or reported along several of the
rivers in other areas of northern Mozambique, and has, during this project, been verified along
the Rio Chimulicamuli and the Rio Lugenda.
697
13.1.1 Caguru Gold Field

The Caguru gold field (Figure 13.1) is situated about 6 km south of the border with Tanzania
and 1 km west of the Karoo plain. This gold field is the most important within the Txitonga
Group at present. Approximately 500 people live in the village near the mining area.
The gold occurs in native form in a network of quartz veins in low-grade
metasedimentary rocks associated with mafic dykes and sills in the Txitonga Group. The veins
are related to second order structures, associated with north-south- to northeast-southwesttrending shear zones. The main direction of the veins follows extensional shear fractures
developed during strike-slip shearing on the main structures. The Au-bearing quartz veins are
associated with a major body of metagabbro. In the vicinity of the gold field the metagabbro is
locally sheared, mylonitic and altered to quartz-chlorite schist in the vicinity of the
mineralization, grading to quartz-sericite schist away from the mineralisation. The least
deformed and unaltered metagabbro is dominated by green clino-amphibole (around 50 %,
probably actinolite), while the other 50 % consists mainly of plagioclase, quartz and epidote.
Iron oxides, chlorite and titanite are present in subordinate and trace amounts. The plagioclase
is present in laths with a random orientation, obviously a relict texture.
Figure 13.1: Overview of the geology in the Caguru Gold Field (UTM 36S 739550,
8714130), taken from 1:50,000 sheet 1135 C1 M'Papa. The yellow lines represent
major quartz veins. The thick black lines are fault zones. North is up.
698
Figure 13.2: Photomicrographs

showing alteration zones
around the Caguru gold field
(UTM 36S 739550, 8714130).
Field of view = 4,4x5,4 mm for
all photos.
Upper photo: Weakly altered
metagabbro with actinolite,
epidote, plagioclase and quartz.
Middle photo: Chlorite zone
with amphibolite altered to
chlorite, quartz and plagioclase
assemblage.
Lower photo: Quartz-sericite
schist with chlorite aggregates
that may be pseudomorphs after
amphibole or plagioclase.
699
The metagabbro is altered to strongly sheared quartz-chlorite schist in the main area of
the quartz veins. This rock consists of 40-50 % Fe-rich chlorite, and 20-25 % quartz and
plagioclase: Biotite, sericite, epidote and iron oxides are present in subordinate amounts.
Unoriented plagioclase laths are partly resorbed and replaced by epidote and sericite, but
locally the relict gabbroic texture is still recognizable (Figure 13.2).
Further away, at least 100-200 m from the main zone of quartz veins, the metagabbro
has been altered to quartz-sericite schist. This schist is dominated by felted aggregates of very
fine-grained sericite (50-60 %), while quartz in larger irregular grains amounts to 20-40 % of
the rock and Fe-rich chlorite in fine-grained aggregates is 5-10 %. Some aggregates of coarser
sericite/muscovite, quartz and chlorite are probably pseudomorphs after plagioclase.
The main field of quartz veins has an outcrop of about 6-700 m north-south and 250300 m east-west. Most of the veins strike north-south, but other directions are also found. The
veins vary in thickness from cm-scale to several meters (Figure 13.3) and from being subparallel with, to more oblique to the surrounding strongly deformed schists.
Figure 13.3: Upper photo: Shaft

in 2 m-wide quartz vein. Note
the parallel fractures in the
quartz, due to deformation.
Lower photo: Quartz veins subparallel and crosscutting
schistosity in quartz-sericitechlorite schist. Caguru gold
field, UTM 36S 739550,
8714130.
The quartz veins have also been affected by deformation, and are partly schistose and
fractured. The quartz grains show deformation banding and development of sub-grains. The
700
main direction of the veins is in accordance with their formation as extensional shear fractures
during strike-slip shearing on the main structures.
The gold occurs in native form, is generally fine-grained (1-2 mm or less), and in the richer
part of the veins, occurs as irregular grains without other ore minerals (Figure 13.4). In some
parts of the veins, there are veinlets of chalcopyrite, pyrite, marcasite and pyrrhotite, as well as
aggregates of magnetite (Figure 13.5). Tiny inclusions of gold are also present in the
chalcopyrite. Marcasite is present in pyrite-rich parts of the veinlets. Chlorite, carbonate and
felted aggregates of very fine-grained brown amphibole are associated with the sulphides.
Three samples were analysed using a Scanning Electron Microprobe (SEM) at the
Geological Survey of Norway (NGU). Sample 31853 was of a sulphide-rich quartz vein. In
addition to chalcopyrite, the analyses showed the presence of partly Ni-bearing pyrite (up to
3,3 wt.%), sphalerite (Fe:Zn of 0,14-0,19), pyrrhotite (up to 2,1wt.% Ni), Fe-bearing siegenite:
(Ni,Co,Fe)3S4, the silver telluride hessite: Ag2Te, and bismuth-telluride-selenide, probably
kawasulite: Bi2(Te,Se,S)3. Samples 31852 of a quartz vein with magnetite as the main opaque
phase, showed the presence of talc and Ce-monazite. The talc is an Fe-rich variety with up to
40% Fe.
In other parts of the veins there are larger aggregates and patches of magnetite in
idioblastic crystals. Sprays with fibrous, colourless to brownish amphibole, grunerite according
to SEM analyses, are associated with the magnetite (Figure 13.5). There are also small veinlets
of Fe-rich chlorite, which contain Fe-rich talc (small orange laths). The sulphides have
inclusions of magnetite, which might suggest that they were deposited later. Oxides are also
common in the wall rock, and a possible model for gold deposition is that thio-complexed gold
has reacted with iron oxides, forming sulphides and depositing gold.
Figure 13.4: A small nugget (about 1mm) of gold (left) and veinlet of gold about 2-3 mm long
in quartz. Hand specimen from Caguru gold field (UTM 36S 739550, 8714130).
701
Figure 13.5: Photomicrographs of gold-bearing quartz veins from Caguru gold field (UTM
36S 739550, 8714130): A: Needles of grunerite associated with talc overgrowing quartz.
Field of view:3,0x2,4mm. B: Green Fe-rich chlorite and needles of grunerite with quartz and
sulphides. Field of view:1,5x1,2mm. C: Chalcopyrite, pyrite and magnetite in quartz. Field of
view:2,4x3,0mm. D: Marcasite intergrowth with pyrite. Field of view:0,6x0,7mm. E: Tiny
grains of bismuth-telluride-selenide in chalcopyrite. Field of view:0,11x0,14mm.
XRF analyses were carried out on samples from both the alteration zone and the metagabbro (Table 13.1). The analyses show that K, Mg, Si, Ba and Rb were added to the rock, and
Ca, Na and Cu were leached from it, during its alteration to chlorite schist. During quartzsericite alteration, K, Rb, Ba, Pb, REE were added while Ca, Na, Mg and Cu were leached.
702
Table 13.1: XRF analyses of samples from the alteration zone and meta-gabbro/amphibolite in
the Caguru Gold Field.
Four samples of vein quartz from the gold field were analysed for metallic elements,
including the base metals and gold (Table 13.2). The samples contain up to 19 ppm gold, up to
0.15 % Cu, and 12.3 % FeO. The contents of other trace elements are very low.
703
Table 13.2: Metal analyses (including gold) for various

veins within the Caguru Gold Field.
The mining methods are very primitive, based on the use of hammers and chisels,
occasionally also fire setting (Figure 13.6). The mines are vertical shafts, typically 10-20 m
deep, occasionally 40 m, down into the quartz veins, with horizontal adits along the veins in
the bottom of the shafts. The gold-bearing quartz rocks are hoisted by hand winches and
crushed and milled by hand. The gold is then collected using water and mercury. According to
some people in the village, approximately 75-100 kg of gold are extracted annually.
The age of the mineralisation was unconstrained prior to our study. Suggested ages
ranged from Archaean to Early Palaeozoic (e.g. Pinna & Marteau, 1987, Pinna et al., 1993).
Three sulphide-bearing samples from quartz veins in the Caguru gold field were dated using
the Re-Os method (see Chapter 11). Several analyses, based on single euhedral crystals of
pyrite and a separate fraction of massive chalcopyrite, however, yielded Lower Ordovician
ages of 48372 Ma, to which we attribute a high level of geological confidence. All of the
mineralisation is Phanerozoic, and not Proterozoic. The Re-Os analytical data also suggest the
presence of a later pulse of mineralisation. A second mineralisation dominated by chalcopyrite
formed at 11214 Ma. Hence, the mineralisations can be related to the geological evolution in
the area as follows:
x 48372 Ma: Earliest (and perhaps main) sulphide and gold mineralisation in the
Txitonga Group; associated with evolution of major shear zones and late-orogenic PanAfrican evolution.
x 11214 Ma: At a regional scale this age is close to overlapping with the intrusion of the
kimberlites in the Maniamba Graben at 138 r 9 Ma (see Chapter 11).
704
Figure 13.6: (A) Some of the small mines in the Caguru gold field. Each thatched structure
covers a shaft, to help prevent flooding by rain. (B) Open-pit mining. The greyish colour of the
rock marks the quartz vein (C) Vertical shaft in a quartz vein. Note vertical and parallel
fracturing in the vein. (D) Panned concentrate with mercury and small gold nugget (circle).
13.1.2 M'Popo (0D Zero D) Gold Field
This area has been one of the most important alluvial gold fields in the Txitonga Group gold
belt, and production in 2003 was still around 500 g Au/day. One of the three governmental
offices in the NGB where the artisanal miners can sell their gold is located in this village.
Figure 13.7: MPopo village with the alluvial gold field in front (UTM 36S 729894, 8709752)
and 102 g gold.
705
The production area is several hundred metres long and up to 30 m wide (Figure 13.7).
The most productive zone is found in the bottom of a 0,6-1 m thick bed of stone and gravel
overlying red brown clayish soil (Figure 13.8). The stone and gravel (1-40 cm) consists mainly
of milky and clear hydrothermal quartz. A few sugary quartz and fine-grained granite pebbles
were also observed. Up to 6-8 m of sand and soil is found above the productive layer.
Figure 13.8: (Left) MPopo alluvial gold field with the most productive gold zone in the bottom
of the excavation (UTM 36S 729894, 8709752). (Right) The most productive gold zone lies in
the bottom of a bed of stone and gravel, overlying red clayish soil.
13.1.3 Rio Lulimbo alluvial gold (name uncertain)
(Sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono, UTM 36S 789495, 8666328).
We were informed about the gold showing by Mr. Antonio Abacar, who is in charge of the
entrance to the Niassa Wildlife Reserve in the village Nova Madeira II, and we were guided to
the area by one of his men..
The alluvial gold showing is located in sand, gravel and stones in minor creeks between
exposures of Karoo sedimentary rocks in the dry Rio Lulimbo (Figure 13.9). The gravel and
stones consist mainly of quartz, pegmatite and granite. Neither gold nor sulphides were
observed and panning was not being performed. There was no sign of panning activity in the
area.
706
Figure 13.9: (Left) Small creek in the dry Rio Lulimbo where unsorted sandstone of Karoo age
with sub-angular quartz grains, is exposed (Right). (UTM 36S 789495, 8666328).
The Karoo sedimentary rocks comprise small sub-angular quartz grains in unsorted
sandstone (Figure 13.9). This exposure probably marks the south-easternmost extension of the
Karoo basin. The nearest exposure of Proterozoic gneisses is located about 800 m southsoutheast of the gold showing. Very fine-grained, locally mylonitic granitic gneisses dominate
a low hill nearby. Further south there is a large body of medium to coarse-grained granite.
13.1.4 Rio Chimulicamuli bedrock and alluvial gold
(Sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono, UTM 36S 769141, 8644626 and 768960, 8644030)
We were informed of this gold showing by Silva Manuel, of the DNG. A local guide showed
us the area, which is located on both sides of the road between Macaloge and the Rio Rovuma.
The main workings have been performed along an up to 1 m wide, strongly schistose zone,
crossing a dry, small river, in a granite that is partly highly sheared 20-30 m on both sides of
this zone (Figure 13.10). The schistose zone is very fine-grained, black to dark green and
includes a few grains of pyrite. Small excavations have been performed beside the schistose
zone and a few trenches exist in the riverbank in the same area.
The schistose zone consists of very fine-grained, chlorite-sericite schist with granular
lenses of fine-grained quartz. Euhedral pyrite commonly occurs within, and along these lenses.
A chip sample was collected over the main zone, but no gold was detected on analysis (< 2 ppb
Au). A sample was also collected in the continuation of the schistose zone 150 m further west,
and it returned an assay of just 30 ppb Au. No other metallic elements with significant contents
were found in these samples. The southern area is a minor alluvial gold field. Small pits and
trenches have been made in unconsolidated sand and gravel along the stream (Figure 13.11).
Approximately 100 m south of this locality there is a resting place and panning equipment for
the gold miners. Panning in the area probably takes place in the rainy
707
Figure 13.10: Small diggings in strongly

schistose zone in granite along the Rio
Chimulicamuli (UTM 36S 769141, 8644626).
Figure 13.11: Pits and trenches in the dry

Rio Chimulicamuli (UTM 768960 8644030).
season. Although gold was not found in hard rock in the area, it may still be of interest to
artisanal miners.
13.1.5 Rio Lugenda alluvial gold
Gold has recently been found by panning on the banks of the Rio Lugenda. One man, with lots
of experience from working in the NGB, demonstrated that gold was readily found by panning
(Figure 13.12). A nugget 2-3 mm in size was found, together with a few smaller ones in the
pan he showed us.
Figure 13.12: Gold panning on the south bank of the Rio Lugenda, about 1 km west of the road
bridge (UTM 37S 353700, 8623370).
It was reported that a Russian team undertook gold panning in the early 1980s, along
the Rio Lureco, a tributary of the Rio Lugenda. (sheet 1237 Meluco, about UTM 37S 297700,
8564250, Tveriankin 1982; Hunting 1988a). It was not possible to confirm this during the
project and local villagers did not have any further information on this work.
13.1.6 Other previously reported gold showings
Gold panning has been reported from the area northeast of Namuno. Attempts was made to
verify the showings, but without success. Local guides showed diggings in pegmatite (sheet
1338 Namuno, UTM 37S 488572, 8506164), which did not appear to contain any minerals of
708
note. However, the guides were able to show samples of beryl, which had been found in
surficial sediments east of the road from Namuno to Montepuez.
Some grains of gold were reported to have been found during a geochemical sampling
campaign, some 5 km south of Mazeze (Sheet 1340 Mecufi, UTM 37S 628090, 8517170). A
large variety of boulders and stones occur in an area of a few hundred square meters. Strongly
sheared/mylonitic rocks of the Ocua Complex, including sheared graphite-bearing biotite
gneiss, and pegmatitic and hydrothermal quartz were recognised. Sheared quartz-feldspar
gneiss with weak sulphide disseminations and quartz-feldspar pegmatite/veins with very finegrained pyrite aggregates and single grains along joints were sampled, but the highest gold
content recorded was only 26 ppb Au.
13.1.7 Sulphide-mineralised rocks assayed
Various pyrite-bearing rocks were assayed for gold and other acid-soluble metals (Table 13.1).
They mainly comprise quartzitic rocks and none of these are from areas with known
occurrences. However, only very low contents of gold and other metals were detected. The
only anomalous value worth mentioning is from boulders of coarse-grained, milky quartz with
minor pyrite in cracks and as disseminations, sample 36060 that yielded 0,6 g/t Au (sheet 1337
Marrupa, UTM 37S 290097, 8553636). A lot of quartz boulders exist in this area, which is
located about 15 km upstream from the Rio Lureco alluvial gold occurrence (see section
13.1.5). The quartz vein occurs in amphibolite of the Muaquia Complex.
13.2 Copper
The Rio Lureco copper prospect was discovered during the bedrock mapping, while the
Mazeze copper showing had been reported previously (Jourde & Wollf, 1974c). A few other
copper showings that had previously been reported in Cabo Delgado Province (Jourde &
Wollf, 1974a,b,c), have not been verified. According to the descriptions they appear to be
insignificant.
Table 13.3: ICP-ES and fire assay (Au **) analyses of pyrite-bearing quartz-rich rocks.
13.2.1 Rio Lureco copper prospect

Large slabs of pale grey, fine-grained quartz-rich metasiltstone cover an area of several square
metres amongst woodland, 50 km northwest of Marrupa to the north of the Rio Lureco. These
rocks are finely laminated and contain abundant disseminated malachite grains and extensive
malachite (and locally azurite) coatings on joint and foliation surfaces (Figure 13.13). The
secondary copper mineralisation is clearly derived from disseminated copper sulphide grains in
709
the host rock. This is a very fine-grained rock with a very thin banding defined by malachite
stringers parallel to opaque seams and quartz-bearing seams. Interlocking, cloudy plagioclase
grains (80%) dominate the thin section. Opaque and malachite grains are disseminated in the
plagioclase matrix with secondary epidote grains (combined opaque, malachite and epidote
mode of 15%). Quartz grains (5%) are interstitial to plagioclase. Analyses yielded values of >1
% Cu, around 100 g/t Ag and 0,4 g/t Au (sample 37264, Table 13.4). This relatively poorly
exposed area is clearly worthy of follow-up work; especially as the copper mineralisation is
similar to that seen in the Central African Copperbelt.
Figure 13.13: Oxidized copper mineralisation with disseminated malachite grains and
malachite and locally azurite coatings on fracture planes and foliation surfaces in
metasiltstones (UTM 37S 300645, 8571601).
13.2.2 Mazeze copper showing
(Sheet 1340 Mecufi, UTM 37S 621254, 8528310)
In the area between the road to Mazeze and the Rio Megaruma some malachite-staining and
minor chalcopyrite disseminations occur in strongly altered rocks, probably mainly
amphibolite of the Montepuez Complex. A couple of small trenches reveal the mineralisation,
which seems to be insignificant. Strongly sericitised plagioclase predominates in one of the
samples studied: altered biotite, amphibole and titanite are present in subordinate amounts. In
the other sample there are minor amounts of green spinel, titanite and carbonate in a fibrous
matrix. Analyses yielded 0,1-0,2 % Cu and around 250 ppm Ni, the latter indicating an altered
mafic precursor (samples 40682 and 40683, Table 13.4).
13.3 Nickel-copper
Minor enrichment of nickel-copper occurs in mafic intrusive rocks in various complexes in
Cabo Delgado Province. Both low-grade disseminations and small lenses of massive sulphide
exist. Silicification is the most prominent alteration associated with these. No occurrences with
any economic potential have been identified, but they have been included in this section
because they have been described in previous studies.
710
Table 13.4: ICP-ES analyses of selected metals and fire-assay analysis of precious metals in
Cu and Ni-Cu- mineralisations
13.3.1 Chiure (Mucacata) copper-nickel occurrence
The Chiure (formerly Mucacata; Jourde & Wollf, 1974) Cu-Co-Ni occurrence is located in an
abandoned rock quarry on the northeastern side of a small mountain, some 14 km south of
Chiure along the main road road to Namapa. The rock quarry is approximately 40x40 m in
horizontal section, with up to 8-10 m high walls. The quarry was operational in the years 197475. No sulphide mineralisation has been exploited.
The host rocks are fine- to medium-grained, garnet-bearing amphibolites. They are
slightly banded with varying contents of amphibole. Both gabbroic and granitic pegmatite
veins cut the foliation. Dextral shear zones occur along these veins with folding of the banded
amphibolite. Irregular veins and pods mainly of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite occur in zones, 1050 cm wide (Figure 13.14). The main sulphide mineralisation is associated with gabbroic
pegmatites and might represent secondary remobilisation. Disseminated sulphides occur both
in unaltered amphibolite and probable silicified amphibolite. The mineralisation seems to be
too limited and erratic to be of any economic interest, and the contents of both Cu and Ni are
low, with maxima of 0,1 % Cu and 100 ppm Ni (samples 33246 and 33248, Table 13.4).
Figure 13.14: Sulphide veins and pods in amphibolite in the Chiure copper-nickel occurrence
(UTM 37S 585277, 8506126) and photomicrograph of one of these vein comprising
pyrrhotite with 'birds-eye' texture and grains of chalcopyrite. (Reflected light, Field of view:
5,4x4,4 mm).
13.3.2 Lusaka copper-nickel showing
711
A large body of layered, undeformed metagabbro occurs in the Xixano Complex north of the
Nairoto-Lusaka road (see Chapter 6.8.13). Locally it is scapolite-rich and strongly
carbonatised, and carries abundant disseminated, fine-grained pyrrhotite, but the Cu and Ni
contents are very low (sample 38442, Table 13.4).
13.3.3 Rio Nicuburi copper-nickel occurrence
A large outcrop in the Rio Nicuburi consists of typically banded and foliated rocks of the Ocua
Complex, comprising banded, white to grey, fine- to medium-grained, garnet-bearing
amphibolitic to dioritic gneisses. An up to 2 m wide, 10 m long and probably a few dm thick
lens of massive sulphide; mainly pyrrhotite with minor chalcopyrite occurs in the gently
dipping gneiss. The sulphide lens crosscuts the foliation in the gneiss and is partly brecciated
along the contact (Figure 13.15). Alteration of the wall rock includes silicification and
carbonatisation of clinopyroxene. Small lenses and patches of sulphides are found subconcordant to the foliation in the gneiss. One analysis of the massive sulphide lens yielded 0,5
% Cu, and < 300 ppm Ni (sample 40684, Table 13.4).
Figure 13.15: Massive sulphide lens, a few dm thick, crosscutting banded granulitic gneiss in
the dry Rio Nicuburi (UTM 37S 615643, 8516004).
13.4 Iron and iron-titanium ore
Ferrous hard-rock deposits of magmatic, hydrothermal and sedimentary origin are present in
several of the Proterozoic complexes. Magnetite and ilmenite occur in various proportions.
13.4.1 Mazogo iron deposit
Within the strongly deformed part of the granitic gneiss unit, there is a body of iron ore. It is
located along the footpath that runs between the villages Mazogo and Meluluca on the Lago
Niassa shore and some 20 km south of Maniamba. The deposit consists of a massive, finegrained magnetite body (10 m to possibly 50 m thick) with subordinate ilmenite in the form of
mm-cm thick and some cm long lenses (Figure 13.16). The length of the body is uncertain, but
it is at least 200 m in length. Mylonite zones bound the mineralised zone on both sides,
affecting the gneissic granite and pegmatite. The granite to the east also contains very large
blasts of euhedral to subhedral magnetite, up to 15-20 cm in size. XRF analysis yielded the
following composition of the massive ore (sample 31862): 74.7 % Fe2O3, 17.8 % TiO2, 5.0 %
Al2O3, 2.0 % MgO, 0.3 % MnO, 0.2 % CaO (recalculated to 100%). The content of SiO2 is <
0.01 %. The analysis also showed 5,700 ppm V, 1,100 ppm Cr, 600 ppm Co and 720 ppm Zn.
712
A thin section (Figure 13.17) shows that the ore consists of ilmenite and magnetite as
major constituents, while haematite and green spinel are subordinate constituents. SEM
analysis of the spinel shows that it contains about 14 % MgO, 56 % Al2O3, 26 % FeO, 3 %
TiO2 and 1 % ZnO, and is a ferroan spinel (pleonaste). Analysis shows that vanadium is
present in the magnetite (1-1,5 % V2O5). The ilmenite contains about 4 % MgO and about 1 %
MnO. Texturally, the ore is generally granoblastic, with 0.1-0.5 mm grains of oxides, but also
with some larger (up to 1 cm) elongated grains of ilmenite. Varying proportions of ilmenite
and magnetite, and trails of spinel porphyroblasts define a foliation in the ore. The presence of
spinel and the granoblastic texture, show that the ore has been through high-grade
metamorphism, as is also the case for the host lithology.
Figure 13.16: Top: A magnetite

porphyroblast hosted by strongly sheared
granite. Upper right: Several magnetite
crystals, which were found as loose
blocks. The largest is about 20 cm across.
Lower right: Outcrop of massive Fe-Ti
ore, thickness of outcrop about 30 cm.
UTM 36S 699170, 8573690.
13.4.2 Mirrote/Maravone haematite-magnetite occurrence

(Sheet 1339 Montepuez: UTM 37S 561031, 8460622)
A massive haematite-magnetite-quartz rock forms minor hills southwest of Namapa as part of
the Nampula Complex. The mineralisation has not been exploited and, though the proportion
of outcrop in the area is low, it seems that the host body is not more than 3 km x 1.5 km in
outcrop. The mineralisation gives no distinct magnetic anomaly, and migmatitic granodioritic
orthogneiss is exposed about 200 m further southeast. Two analyses yield 53,3 and 58,5 %
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Figure 13.17: Fe-Ti ore. (Left) Parallel nicols showing green spinel and red haematite. (Right)
Reflected light showing granoblastic texture with light-grey magnetite, brownish ilmenite and
dark-grey haematite. Sample 31862, UTM 36S 699167, 8573686. Field of view:4,4x5,4 mm.
Fe2O3 (samples 33433 and 33434,Table 13.5). Granoblastic, medium-grained haematite,
magnetite and quartz predominate in thin sections (Figure 13.18) with trace amounts of zircon.
Figure 13.18: Haematite-magnetite-quartz rock some 9 km south of Mirrote. (sample 33433,

UTM 37S 561031, 8460622). Field of view: 5,4x4,4 mm.
13.4.3 Mazua ilmenite-magnetite occurrence
The ilmenite-magnetite mineralisation is located some 500 m south of the road between Alua
and Mazua in the Nampula Complex. The mineralisation consists of numerous boulders found
mainly at two places about 400 m apart along an east-west trend. It is also present in a small
outcrop (Figure 13.19). The mineralisation comprises lenses, veins and disseminations
probably mainly of ilmenite with lesser magnetite in a fine-grained pyroxene gneiss with
amphibole, clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene (samples 40783 and 40785, Table 13.5). The
lenses and veins are up to 4 cm thick, forming a kind of network. In thin section the minerals
occur in a granoblastic texture with 0,5-1 mm grains of silicates and oxides (Figure 13.20).
714
Figure 13.19: Mazua ilmenite-magnetite occurrence. Left: Boulder field. Right: Sampled
outcrop (samples 40783 and 40785, UTM 37S 623831, 8454538).
Figure 13.20: Left: Pyroxene and green amphibole together with oxides forming a
granoblastic texture. (Sample 40783) Field of view: 4,4x5,4mm. Right: Ilmenite and magnetite
in granoblastic texture. Magnetite is partly oxidized and replaced by haematite. Field of view:
1,2x1,5mm. (Sample 40785). (Both samples: UTM 37S 623831, 8454538).
13.4.4 Chiure Velho magnetite occurrences
(Sheet 1340 Mecufi, UTM 37S 609581, 8518780 and 614846, 8519218)
Two magnetite occurrences are reported at the same structural level in the Ocua Complex,
about 5.3 km apart; they may be part of the same original mineralisation. The westernmost
occurrence, some 5 km southeast of Chiure Velho (UTM 37S 609581, 8518780, sample 40786,
Table 13.5), is a massive magnetite ore about 0,5 m thick in a strongly sheared quartz-feldspar
gneiss and pegmatite. Some boulders of more dioritic/gabbroic gneiss were found in the
vicinity. The mineralisation was exposed in a 20 m long northeast-trending trench up to 1m
deep. Under the microscope (Figure 13.21), it is seen to be dominated by magnetite with only a
few grains of ilmenite present. Magnetite is commonly replaced by haematite along grain
boundaries and fractures. A few small grains of green spinel and clinopyroxene occur
interstitially between the iron oxides.
The eastern mineralisation (UTM 37S 614846, 8519218, sample 40773) was exposed in
a 30 m long north-south-striking trench. It consists of a very rich magnetite impregnation in a
715
layer about 0,5 m thick. Other minerals found included clinopyroxene, hornblende and lesser
feldspar. A few grains of pyrite, pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite are also present. The surrounding
country rock is mylonitic quartz-feldspar gneiss, partly quartzitic.
Figure 13.21: Left: Small grains of green spinel and colourless clinopyroxene in opaque Feoxides. Sample 40786, UTM 37S 609581,8518780. Field of view: 4,4x5,4 mm. Right: One
grain of ilmenite surrounded by magnetite. Magnetite is partly oxidized and replaced by
haematite. Sample 40786, UTM 37S 609581,8518780. Field of view: 1,2x1,5 mm.
Table 13.5: XRF-analysis of major (%) and selected trace (ppm) elements in iron and irontitanium occurrences.
13.5 Heavy mineral sand deposits
The placer deposits occur in both aeolian and beach dune sand in the Rovuma Basin (Chapter
6.23). Enrichments of heavy minerals, ilmenite, rutile and zircon are found all the way along
the Indian Ocean coast, although more frequently in the vicinity of the mouth of major rivers
such as the Rio Rovuma and the Rio Lurio.
13.5.1 Murrubue
The Murrubue deposit is located some 18 km south of Pemba and was investigated by Iluka
Resources in 2000 and 2002 (Warland, 2002). The company concentrated the work along a
716
large hill, 12 km long, 4 km wide and 140 m high, with visible heavy mineral sand. Some 1600
m of aircore drilling was undertaken in 48 drill holes. The sand dune is up to 30 m thick, with
red fine- to medium grained aeolian sand (0-20 m) on top of orange, medium to coarse beach
sand. Concentrations of heavy minerals, ilmenite, rutile and zircon occur in red aeolian sand.
Preliminary results show an ore horizon between 2 and 4 m thick containing 5-10 % heavy
mineral sands with a potential of up to 10 Mt heavy minerals (Warland, 2002).
13.5.2 Natuca (Ponte Uifundo) showing/sampling profile
Heavy mineral-bearing dune sand was noted and sampled in a 1 km long east-west profile from
the coast inland, some 15 km south of Mecufi. Both magnetic susceptibility measurements and
the content of heavy minerals/colouring of the sand were used to determine the sampling
localities. Each sample represents a section of 20-30 cm below the surface (samples 4070140705, Table 13.6). Polished sections have been prepared, and fine-grained (0,1-0,5 mm)
ilmenite, magnetite and haematite in various proportions and intergrowths have been identified.
Rutile, zircon and titanite and various common silicates are also present.
Addionally, a sand dune with brown to pale brown, fine-grained sand with some heavy
minerals in thin layers were sampled over 1 m section, some 10 km south of Mecufi (Figure
13.22) (UTM 37S 666333, 8520278, sample 40706, Table 13.6). Ilmenite and haematite are the
most common ferrous minerals.
Figure 13.22: Sand dune with thin laminae of heavy mineral sand, some 10 km south of Mecufi
(UTM 37S 666333, 8520278).
13.6 Special metals (Nb, Ta, REE) and Uranium
Several Neoproterozoic alkaline intrusions with enrichment of special metals; REE, Ta and Nb
and uranium are found in the Unango Complex in the western part of Niassa Province: these
are the Monte Naumale, Monte Chissindo and Rio Lucuisse intrusions.
13.6.1 Monte Naumale Nb, Ta, U and REE mineralisation
(Sheet 1334 Meponda, UTM 36S 705300, 8515900)
The Monte Naumale alkaline complex (755r155 Ma) covers about 15 km2, and was studied in
detail in the early 1980s (Mroz, 1983; Lulin et al., 1985; Brodoimpex, 1985a; Hunting, 1988b).
The complex comprises a suite of leucocratic alkaline syenitic rocks including nepheline
syenite, alkali-feldspar syenite, and Na-pyroxene-amphibole rocks. The latter are
717
Table 13.6: XRF-analysis of major (%) and selected trace (ppm) elements in heavy mineral
sand samples.
particularly enriched in Nb, Ta, U and REE. The best mineralisation reported occurs in the
northern part of the complex, but the whole complex could have a resource potential for special
metals and uranium. Analyses show averages of around 400 ppm U and Th, and 1,000 ppm of
Nb (Brodoimpex, 1985a). Other data reported by Mroz (1983) show average values of 100
ppm U, 10,000 ppm Nb, 20-10,000 ppm Ta.
On the basis of radiometric anomalies as measured on the ground, as well as trenching,
there are ore-bearing lenses with thickness of 1-4 m, and lengths up to 100 m. These lenses are
interbedded with non-mineralised lenses; the total area of the most strongly mineralised
horizon is approximately 400 x 50 m.
13.6.2 Monte Chissindo nepheline, Nb, Ta and U mineralisation
The Monte Chissindo nepheline syenite complex (7998 Ma) covers about 15 km2 just south
of the Maniamba Graben (see Chapter 6). It was studied in detail in the early 1980s (Drozdov
et al.1983; Mroz, 1983; Hunting, 1988b). Arcuate, lensoidal dykes of similar composition
surround the main mass of nepheline syenite. Parts of the suite comprise syenite, quartz syenite
and alkali syenite. An evaluation of the alumina potential resulted in the discovery of Nb, Ta
and U mineralisation, which is disseminated in a leucocratic syenite, with nepheline, sodalite
and biotite which is coarse grained and locally pegmatitic. Fine-grained pyrochlore and minor
zircon are the most common ore minerals. The most radioactive area is 1,800 x 400 m in
extent, and comprises minor mineralised zones containing 100-350 g/t Ta2O5 and 500-3,582 g/t
Nb2O5 (Drozdov, et al.1983). These mineralisations are too limited to be of any economic
interest. The nepheline syenite itself could be exploited as raw material for the glass or ceramic
industries. Corundum has been reported in syenite pegmatites.
13.6.3 Rio Lucuisse apatite, U, Nb, REE mineralisation in a mafic alkaline complex
The Rio Lucuisse apatite - U, Nb, REE mineralisation is located some 27 km south of Mavago.
The mineralisation occurs in a metamorphosed, mafic alkaline complex on both sides of the
easterly flowing river in a forested terrain. It was discovered during follow-up work on
718
airborne radiometric anomalies by a French team (Mroz, 1983). More detailed investigations
were performed by Bulgargeomin (Obretenov et al., 1983).
The French team carried out bedrock mapping, trenching and spectrometric
measurements as well as soil and rock sampling. A body interpreted as carbonatite associated
with alkaline and nepheline syenitic gneiss and pyroxenite, 3.6 km long and up to 300 m wide
was mapped (Mroz, 1983). It is metamorphosed and two phases of deformation was identified.
The highest radioactivity was reported in the pyroxenites, comprising the core of the body
(Mroz, 1983). The mineralisation comprises uraniferous pyrochlore with REE, columbite,
zircon and apatite. The grades of the mineralised samples are; 300-5200 ppm uranium, 0.5-4.35
% niobium, 70-470 ppm tantalum, while the REE concentrations were not specified. Apatite,
with up to 25.7 % P2O5, is concentrated in the carbonatite (Mroz, 1983).
Bulgargeomin carried out follow-up work in 1982-83 (Obretenov et al., 1983). They
mapped a zone of frequently altered metapyroxenite with calcitic carbonatite veins over a
length of 3 km. Syenitic gneisses enclose the metapyroxenite. Zircon, pyrochlore, monazite,
titanomagnetite, ilmenite and columbo-tantalite are the most important minerals identified in
the metapyroxenite. Bulgargeomin confined their prospecting to the regolith and pits down to
bedrock were excavated in a grid. Both geochemical and heavy mineral samples were taken
and zircon and columbite were found to be the most common minerals. It appears that
columbite and apatite occur together. Bulgargeomin calculated the ore reserves in the regolith
to be around 550 tons of columbite within 2,2 million m3 of ore, grading 250 g/m3), and
suggested that the examined zone is part of a large ring structure (Obretenov et al., 1983).
A simplified geological map based on our reconnaisance mapping in the western part of
the body is shown in Figure 13.23. Our mapping and sampling localities, as well as trenches
from previous investigations are marked.
Figure 13.23: Simplified geological map of the Rio Lucuisse apatite, U, Nb, REE
mineralisation (UTM grid shown).
719
A metapyroxenitic body a few hundred metres wide and a few km long is the host of
the mineralisation. The outline of this body is based on earlier mapping and interpretation of
satellite images, as it is much less forested than the surroundings. In a few localities in the
outer zone of the body, alkali syenitic rocks with minor mafic minerals are found. Syenitic
rocks, partly foliated and gneissic seem to envelop the metapyroxenite. The country rock
comprises well-foliated biotite gneiss and granitic gneiss. The metapyroxenite is also locally
foliated with dips towards the southeast and south as in the surrounding gneisses.
Figure 13.24: The Rio Lucuisse mineralization: A

3.5 m deep trench in the regolith of the metapyroxenite (left), and brecciated metapyroxenite
(above). Western part of the meta-pyroxenite body
(UTM 37S 207259, 8583684 and 207540,
8583818).
The metapyroxenitic rocks are fine- (Figure 13.25) and medium-grained, and locally
brecciated. Fragments of both pyroxenitic and syenitic rocks occur in a matrix dominated by
either carbonate or pyroxene-biotite (Figure 13.24). Carbonate, mainly calcite, comprises up to
1-2 m wide veins together with apatite (Figure 13.26 and Figure 13.27). Mineralogical
investigations show that both Na-pyroxene (aegirine) and Na-amphibole (magnesioarfvedsonite) occur. Albite is the dominant feldspar, and the following minerals occur in small
amounts; biotite, K-feldspar and epidote. Calcite is the major carbonate, and ankerite and
strontianite are also found.
Figure 13.25: Photomicrograph of fine-grained metapyroxenite with Na-pyroxene and Naamphibole (sample 31807, UTM 37S 207210, 8583830)(Field of view: 5,4x4,4 mm).
720
Chemical analyses of representative samples of the different rock-types are shown in

Table 13.7. There are large variations in the content of the trace elements, but they are
generally lower than previously reported (Mroz, 1983). Nb, Ta and REE seem to be enriched in
the calcite-rich varieties. This confirms former studies indicating the association of columbite
and apatite (Obretenov et al. 1983). Preliminary mineralogical investigations show that Nb is
clearly the dominant element compared to Ta in pyrochlore (and probably also in columbite?).
The pyrochlore is U- and Ce-bearing, and REE-carbonates are also found.
Table 13.7: XRF-analyses of major (%) and selected trace (ppm) elements in the Rio
Lucuisse mineralisation.
Figure 13.26: The Rio Lucuisse mineralization:

Carbonate-apatite vein in metapyroxenite (left),
and close-up of the carbonate vein with white
apatite prisms (above). Locality in the centre of
the meta-pyroxenite body (UTM 37S 208206,
8583982).
721
Figure 13.27: Photomicrographs of calcite vein with euhedral apatite and Na-pyroxene
(sample 31810 UTM 37S 208206, 8583982). Field of view: 5,4x4,4 mm).
The apatite mineralisations are too sparse to be of any economic interest. The apatite is
fluor-apatite and includes some unwanted REE as would be expected in this geological setting.
The predominance of Nb over Ta in pyrochlore lowers the interest for this mineralisation at the
moment. However, further sampling is necessary to give a better evaluation of the economic
potential of this body. The genesis of the mineralisations and their host rock has not been
clarified. They have, at least experienced the last phase of deformation seen in the surrounding
gneisses.
13.6.4 Other mineralisations
A Nb-Ta-U occurrence studied by BRGM, called the Lugenda southeast, is located southeast
of Malanga (sheet 1336 Majune, UTM 37S 212000, 8484500) (Mroz, 1983). It occurs in
pegmatites and alkaline 'leptites' within a zone of granulitic mylonite discussed in Chapter 6.4.
Economically interesting values of tantalum are reported in pegmatitic quartz veins, although
the extent of these veins seems to be restricted.
The apatite mineralisations are too sparse to be of any economic interest. The apatite is
fluor-apatite and includes some unwanted REE as would be expected in this geological setting.
The predominance of Nb over Ta in pyrochlore lowers the interest for this mineralisation at the
moment. However, further sampling is necessary to give a better evaluation of the economic
potential of this body. The genesis of the mineralisations and their host rock has not been
clarified. They have, at least experienced the last phase of deformation seen in the surrounding
gneisses.
13.7 Graphite
Graphite-bearing mica schists and gneisses are
found in different tectonic complexes in the
Cabo Delgado Province. Several km long and
commonly 10-100 m-thick sequences include
fine- to coarse-grained graphite in various
concentrations, commonly 5-20 % C (Saranga,
1997). Only the graphite in the Ancuabe
graphite mine has been exploited to date. The
high-quality graphite is mainly metamorphic
although minor local enrichments are related to
tectonic activity.
722
13.7.1 Ancuabe graphite mine

The Irish company Kenmare Resources PLC owns the Ancuabe graphite mine. It was in
operation from 1994 to 1999, and is currently on care and maintenance while the company is
seeking a new investor (Figure 13.28). According to Kenmare a reserve of 1 million tons of ore
grading 10 % graphite was determined. The open pit is approximately 300 m long in a
northwest-southeast direction (315) and up to 100 m wide (Figure 13.29). The dressing plant
has a capacity of 10,000 tpa. The graphite is easy to process, and the large size of graphite
flakes was preserved (Crossely, 2000).
Figure 13.28: The dressing plant at Ancuabe graphite mine (left), and big bags of refined
graphite (right).
Figure 13.29: The open pit at Ancuabe graphite mine. View to the northwest (UTM 37S
608377, 8561868).
723
The graphite-bearing micaceous gneiss is banded and medium-grained (1-3 mm) mainly
comprising quartz and graphite with subordinate amounts of biotite and feldspar. The gneiss
also contains minor titanite, rutile and pyrite. The banding is due to variation in the graphite
and quartz content of the gneiss. Medium to coarse graphite-flakes (1-8 mm, Figure 13.31) are
enriched in 5-20 cm thick bands and lenses within a 2-3 m thick zone in the main open pit (see
Chapter 6.11). During this study relatively rich graphite ore was sampled. The total thickness
of the graphite-bearing sequence in the mining area is 10-20 m. It has an undulating, nearly
flat-lying foliation and seems to comprise the top of an open antiform with orientation
northwest-southeast in the pit. There are steeply dipping sequences southwest of the pit. Local
enrichment of graphite and thickening of the graphite-rich bands is observed in minor folds
(Figure 13.30). Very coarse-grained graphite occurs along quartz veins. Pyrite is found in
association with minor quartz veins in the graphite gneiss.
Figure 13.30: Local enrichment of graphite associated with a minor fold and layer of coarsegrained graphite in the open pit at Ancaube graphite mine (UTM 37S 608377, 8561868).
Figure 13.31: Photomicrograph of graphite flakes and granular quartz in the gneiss in the
Ancuabe graphite mine, reflected light (sample 33230, Field of view: 3x2,4 mm).
724
13.7.2 Graphite occurrences in the Xixano Complex

Graphite-bearing sequences occur frequently in the Xixano Complex, especially on sheet 1338
Namuno (Table 13.8). Several horizons of graphite-bearing schist/gneiss were noted northwest
of the road between Montepuez and Balama on the Namuno sheet. At the top of Monte Ricolo
there is a 5 m long and 0,3-0,5 m wide trench in graphite gneisses (UTM 37S 478217,
8543012). The gneiss is homogeneous, fine-grained and comprises graphite, quartz, muscovite,
sillimanite and epidote. The graphite-bearing horizon is at least 4-5 m thick, and analysis yields
19,4 % total C. However, the graphite grains are fine-grained, commonly 0,1-0,3 mm, although
flakes up to 1 mm are recorded along more medium- to coarse-grained (1-5 mm) muscovite
laminae. Several minor horizons exist southwest of the mountain, where graphite gneisses
transect the road over an extent of at least 15 m (UTM 37S 477905, 8542748) (Figure 13.32).
The content of graphite in these gneisses is not known, but the graphite is probably too finegrained to be of any economic interest. However, at Monte Machilala (UTM 37S 464144,
8527556), coarse-grained graphite is found in mica schist in a probable southwestern extension
of these horizons. Several prospecting pits were found in this area (Figure 13.32).
A 100-200 m wide zone of fine grained, graphite-bearing quartz-feldspar gneiss is
found north of Morrola (UTM 37S 444146, 8543073) in an area where graphite has previously
been reported (Jourde & Wollf 1974). Further north enrichment of graphite partly attributed to
tectonic processes in meta-arkose is found. For example, by the Rio Nampaua, graphite schist
occurs exclusively in steep shear zones, which cut through the otherwise graphite-free
metasediments (UTM 37S 434208, 8549406).
Medium-grained (1-3 mm) graphite flakes occur disseminated in quartz-mica schist
some 10 km southeast of Lusaka on sheet 1238 Xixano. Analysis shows a concentration around
10 % C (Table 12.8). Although only one outcrop was observed in the poorly exposed area, this
area may be worth further investigations.
Figure 13.32: Fine-grained graphite schists exposed in the road southwest of Mt. Ricolo (left,
UTM 37S 477905, 8542748) and coarse-grained graphite-bearing mica gneiss in small pit at
Mt. Machilala, 10 km ESE of Balama (UTM 37S 464144, 8527556).
13.7.3 Graphite occurrences on sheet 1340 Mecufi
Several graphite deposits and occurrences are known from the Mazeze-Meguruma area, north
of the Rio Lurio, and extensive trenching was performed in the area in the 1980s
(Bulgargeomin, 1989, Saranga, 1997). The deposits appear to occur in various tectonic
complexes: three were visisted and sampled during the mapping programme (Table 12.8).
The Taquinha (Rio Nametili) deposit is situated close to the map boundary a few km north of
the Mazeze road (UTM 37S 610336, 8529262). It consists of 5-10% graphite as 1-2 mm flakes
725
in quartz-feldspar-biotite gneiss of the Montepuez Complex. The occurrence has been

investigated in a 50 m long north-south-trending trench. The thickness of the zone is
impossible to define on the basis of surface exposures. Analysis of one sample gives 8,84 %
total carbon (sample 40774, Table 12.8). Saranga (1997) reported that the graphite-bearing
sequence is 2.5-3 km long and comprises graphite layers over a thickness of 40-100 m.
The Mazeze graphite occurrence was found near the Mazeze road in the gneisses close to the
contact to the Rovuma Basin sediments (UTM 37S 645465, 8516670). A small overgrown
trench is located in the forest beside the road. The graphite occurs as mm-sized flakes in
quartz-feldspar gneiss. The rock has an almost mylonitic texture and belongs to the Montepuez
Complex. Analysis of one sample gives 8,88 % total carbon (sample 40782, Table 12.8).
Several graphite-bearing horizons that occur in the Monte Nipacue area a few km further north
(UTM 37S 640500, 8521250, Bulgargeomin, 1989), were not visited.
Graphite-bearing biotite gneiss is found in outcrops along the Rio Megaruma (UTM
37S 631030, 8532580). The graphite flakes are fine- medium-grained (1-3 mm) and enriched
in thin bands in the quartz-rich gneiss. Only subordinate amounts of biotite and plagiclase are
present. Analysis reveals a concentration of 14,5 % total carbon in one sample. No work has
been done on this locality, but this graphite probably represents a continuation of graphite
occurrences reported further west, close to the Rio Uanapula (UTM 37S 614200, 8537850,
Saranga 1997), both of which form part of the Lalamo Complex as does the graphite gneiss in
Ancuabe.
13.7.4 Namapa graphite occurrence
Coarse-grained graphite flakes are found in several localities in quartz-feldspar gneiss west of
Namapa on sheet 1339 Montepuez (Figure 13.33). The graphite gneiss often occurs in
association with the marble. The Namapa occurrence is located along the road some 7 km west
of Namapa, and could be traced over at least 1 km. The thickness of the horizons is hard to
define because of the lack of exposure. A sample of the gneiss shows 12 % total carbon
(sample 33333. UTM 37S 583269, 8482288, Table 12.8)
Figure 13.33: Coarse-grained graphite flakes in quartz-feldspar gneiss (left, UTM 37S
583269, 8482288) and in pegmatite (right, UTM 37S 582577, 8481731).
13.8 Carbonate minerals
Marble and limestone are recorded in different sequences of Mesoproterozoic to Mesozoic age.
In this section the use of carbonate rocks as industrial mineral is discussed, while their
utilisation as dimension stone is described in Section 13.11. Only limited exploitation of these
726
rocks for lime and cement production is reported. Small-scale lime production has been carried
out from the limestone of the Geci Group (590 Ma) at Malulo in the Niassa Province. Highly
variable CaO/MgO proportions are found, and utilisation of this rock for lime production will
require further refinement. At Plantacao Pinto, close to Pemba in the Cabo Delgado Province
limestone of the Pemba Formation has been exploited for use in cement production.
Table 13.8: Carbon analyses (LECO) of graphite-bearing rocks in the Cabo Delgado
Province.
13.8.1 Marble in the Meso- to Neoproterozoic gneiss complexes
Meso- to Neoproterozoic marble (around 1100 Ma) forms major proportions of the Xixano,
Montepuez, and Lalamo Complexes in the Cabo Delgado Province. The composition of these
medium- to coarse-grained marbles varies, but pure calcite marble seems to form only minor
parts (Table 13.9). Commonly they are variable dolomitised as in the well-known Montepuez
marble, or are dolomite marble. Additionally, magnesite has been noted in marble in the
Lalamo Complex, 14 km north of Lalamo (see Chapter 6.12).
13.8.2 Malulo limestone deposit
(Sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono UTM 36S 736600, 8576700)
The Maluluo limestone deposit occurs in Geci meta-carbonate rocks (see Chapter 6.17) that
have been intensively sheared and jointed, which prevents their use as dimension stone (Figure
13.34). The low metamorphic grade and essentially calcitic composition of the rocks is
favourable for lime and cement production. Small-scale production of lime has taken place in
the area since the 1970s. However, whole-rock analyses of the Geci meta-carbonate rocks
(Jourdan & Paulis, 1979) show relatively low, though highly fluctuating contents of SiO2 and
Al2O3 (0.5-10, and 0,6-6 wt %, respectively) as well as MgO/CaO ratios (0,05-0,7, 0,15 0,18,
n = 94) (see Chapter 6.17). The field observations suggest that dolomitisation of the limestones
is locally pervasive, and that it occurs irregularly throughout the lens. Because dolomitised
limestone cannot be used for production of lime and cement, the raw material could only be
supplied after selective extraction of non-dolomitised limestones. This would create serious
obstacles even for medium-scale industrial use of the Geci limestones.
727
1,2
8656464
1239 Pale pink, brecciated, dolomitised
486037
619423
8538898
8527248
Calcite, partially dolomitised marbles

33301
37
605605 8522054
33268
37
490427 8543592
33271
37
490376 8543668
33368
37
605501 8521986
Calcite marbles
33272
37
40764
37
1339
1338
1338
1339
Grey, medium-crystalline
Grey, impure, tremolite-bearing
Impure, tremolite-bearing
Pale grey, medium-crystalline
1338 White, coarsely-crystalline

1340 Pale grey, medium-crystalline
Montepuez Complex (occurrences outside Montepuez quarries)
Magnesite marbles
40670
37
573236
Calcite marbles
33240
37
577275 8548564 1339 Marble
40666
37
567810 8643328 1239 Impure, tremolite-bearing
Lalamo Complex
2,9
19,7
14,3
2,1
1,8
0,14
6,1
1,8
0,05
0,29
0,01
-
0,01
0,04
0,037
0,03
0,015
0,038
0,013
0,04
0,32
0,14
0,16
0,38
0,17
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
0,41
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
Al2O3 Na2O K2O TOC

wt %
0,57
2,2
1338 Pale grey, medium-crystalline
Calcite, intensively dolomitised marbles

40747
37
510296 8752896 1139 Pale grey, medium-crystalline
8497779
SiO2
7,6
14,3
438831
Sheet Lithology

40653
37
40662
37
Calcite marbles
33386
37
Xixano Complex
Samp.No. Zone UTM_E UTM_N
4,01
6,04
7,96
10,5
0,34
0,38
10,5
1,1
0,22
10,2
2,7
4,0
0,4
Mg
30
16,9
18,4
21,2
37,2
37,2
9,9
33,7
36,8
22,9
29,4
22,5
36,2
Ca
947
1330
528
3240
155
715
249
63,3
36,4
373
236
225
798
Fe
19
81
45
103
17
41
23
14
15
18
117
65
81
Mn
ppm
240
67
67
178
4120
1070
235
n.d.
2160
88
58
70
1140
Sr
0,13
0,36
0,43
0,5
0,01
0,01
1,06
0,03
0,01
0,45
0,09
0,18
0,01
0,08
1,22
0,67
0,58
0,004
0
0,1
n.d.
0,007
0,2
2,0
0,9
0,07
Mg/Ca Mn/Sr
8506266
Dolomite marbles
40693
37
619085
Impure, tremolite-bearing
White, pure, medium-crystalline
White, pure, medium-crystalline
White to grey, medium crystalline
Grey, medium-crystalline
Dark grey, medium-crystalline
Dark grey, medium-crystalline
1,24
0,09
0,21
1,04
0,19
-
0,19
0,02
0,01
0,17
0,39
0,003
0,01
0,01
0,34
0,33
0,36
n.d.
n.d.
0,13
0,25
0,27
0,53
0,57
Al2O3 Na2O K2O TOC

wt %
Table 13.9: Chemical composition of marbles from the Meso- to Neoproterozoic complexes.
7,9
1,3
2,1
Calcite, intensively dolomitised marbles

33365
37
33371
37
33425
37
6,7
0,09
0,22
1,5
4,2
1,5
5,3
1340 Grey, medium-crystalline
1338
1338
1338
1338
1338
1338
1339
SiO2

33363
37
592213 8494648 1339 Grey, medium-crystalline
33364
37
40796
37
Nampula Complex
Ocua Complex
8543592
8543614
8543655
8552579
8552523
8552514
8522054
490427
490427
490398
498176
498224
498230
605605
Dolomite marbles
33267
37
33269
37
33270
37
33293
37
33294
37
33295
37
33302
37
.Sampno. Zone UTM_E UTM_N Sheet Lithology
6,07
8,65
6,62
3,78
1,53
n.d.
12,1
10,8
12,9
12,8
12,7
12,3
12,1
11,3
Mg
22,4
24,3
26,3
31,9
34
n.d.
21,3
19,4
20,6
21,1
21,1
20,4
20,2
19,9
Ca
1590
792
321
736
1030
n.d.
331
794
667
447
577
4070
420
847
Fe
230
186
201
271
187
n.d.
150
32
45
45
36
117
10
28
Mn
ppm
347
189
163
234
239
n.d.
139
55
42
67
59
52
64
102
Sr
0,27
0,36
0,25
0,12
0,05
n.d.
0,57
0,56
0,63
0,61
0,6
0,6
0,6
0,57
0,66
0,98
1,23
1,16
0,78
n.d.
1,1
0,59
1,07
0,67
0,61
2,23
0,15
0,27
Mg/Ca Mn/Sr
Figure 13.34: Sheared and jointed limestone

(left) and old kilns for lime production in the
Malulo limestone deposit (UTM 36S 736600,
8576700).
13.9 Quartz, quartzite

A few quartz bodies forming small hills in the Niassa and Cabo Delgado Provinces may well
represent a potential source for silica. Detailed studies of the chemistry and quality of the
deposits have however not been carried out. Of greater interest might be kyanite quartzite as a
resource for production of high-purity quartz. Kyanite quartzites have been noted in the
Muaquia and Unango Complexes.
13.9.1 Rio Levele kyanite-quartzite
This occurrence of kyanite quartzite is located 47 km south-southeast of Mavago, 17 km south
of Niassa Wildlife Reserve, inside hunting concession E. It has been described in Chapter 6.8.
The unit caps several hills and consists of medium-grained to pegmatitic flaggy rocks with blue
kyanite grains set in an equigranular quartz matrix with variable amounts of interstitial
muscovite. The amount of kyanite is highly variable, from <5 % to pure kyanite rocks. Two
kyanite-quartzite horizons separated by various gneisses were mapped, but they are interpreted
to constitute a folded unit. They are at least 30 m thick and can probably be traced for a few
km.
Chemical analyses have been conducted on samples from each of the horizons,
revealing 24,8 and 35,9 % Al2O3, with 71,4 and 59,9 % SiO2 respectively. Although the
chemical composition and size could be of interest, the economic prospects for this kyanite as
an alumina source are limited, due to the lack of infrastructure in the area, relative to the value
of a potential product. Andalusite is the major commercial alumina silicate commodity today,
but kyanite quartzites with 20-50 % kyanite are mined in the USA.
Of greater interest might be use of the kyanite quartzites as a resource for production of
high-purity quartz. Preliminary analyses of quartz were carried out by LA-ICP/MS in order to
determine the economic quality of the quartz (Table 13.10). The average concentrations of Al
and Ti in quartz in the kyanite quartzite from the Rio Levele are 42 and 8 ppm, respectively.
Li, Be, B, Mn, Ge, K, Ca and Fe are below the limits of detection. Generally, the trace element
730
concentrations are relatively low. However, due to the relatively high Al concentration the
quartz has medium chemical quality and cannot be considered as "high purity quartz". Figure
13.35 and Figure 13.36 illustrate the trace element concentrations in quartz of the kyanite
quartzite from the Rio Levele in comparison to concentrations of quartz from Norwegian
kyanite quartzites, pegmatite quartz and refined quartz. These results are preliminary and
further studies are recommended.
Sample#
MOZAM1-A
MOZAM1-B
MOZAM1-C
Li
<1
<1
<1
Be
<2
<2
<2
B
<3
<3
<3
Mn
<0,3
<0,3
<0,3
Ge
<0,5
0,6
<0,5
Na
<100
<100
<100
Al
34,9
52,7
37,3
P
<5
<5
<5
K
<3
<3
<3
Ca
<60
<60
<60
Ti
6,8
9,6
6,8
Fe
<2
<2
<2
Table 13.10: Laser ablation ICP-MS analyses of trace elements in quartz of the kyanite
quartzite from the Rio Levele. Concentrations are in ppm. Concentrations marked in yellow
are considered as high purity quartz (Al <25 ppm and Ti <10 ppm).
Figure 13.35: Histogram of trace elements (Al, Ti, Li) in quartz of the kyanite quartzite from
the Rio Levele, Norwegian quartz products (Drag, Drag NC1, Drag NCA, Glamsland) and
American quartz products (Iota STD, Iota 8). Quartz with <35 ppm Al+Ti+Li can be
considered as high purity quartz. Quartz from the Rio Levele contains more than 35 ppm
Al+Ti+Li due to its relatively high Al concentration.
Despite its remote location, the rock occurrence should also be evaluated as a
dimension- and block stone for high quality slab and tile production. A hand specimen has
been test-polished at the Geological Survey of Norway, and has been characterized as
"promising" (Figure 13.37). Similar rocks have been as a dimension stone in Sweden.
13.9.2 Hydrothermal quartz
Nearly pure, coarse-grained quartz of probable hydrothermal origin is found in several areas.
These occurrences could be of economic interest if the quality and volume of quartz are
appropriate. Localities of possible interest are shown below. Samples from most of them have
been analysed by XRF (Table 13.11):
Sheet 1234 Metangula:
x
Meluluca (UTM 36S 693948, 8578886): Outcrop and float indicate a white, coarsegrained quartz dyke/vein with min. dimensions 25 m x 5m.
731
Figure 13.36: Plot of the Al vs. Ti concentration in quartz of the kyanite quartzite from the Rio
Levele, of Norwegian kyanite quartzites and pegmatite quartz and of international high-purity
quartz products (Drag, Drag NC1, Drag NCA) and U.S.A. quartz products (Iota STD, Iota 8;
see Figure 13.35). Quartz with <10 ppm Ti and <20 ppm Al can be considered as high purity
quartz. However, quartz from the Rio Levele plots not in the "high purity field".
Figure 13.37: Polished slab of the kyanite-quartz rock. The slab is 9 cm across.
Sheet 1239 Meluco:
x
Hill S of the Rio Maulo (UTM 37S 574059, 8654400, sample 40669): A small hill
south of the river and 12 km north of Lalamo is comprised of coarse-grained (4-6 mm),
milky to clear quartz (Figure 13.38). The quartz is commonly pure, but a few crystals of
feldspar are present.
Sheet 1338 Namuno:
x
Monte Cambir (UTM 37S 440079, 8545636, sample 33219): Coarse-grained quartz is
well exposed over the mountain in the north-central part of the sheet. The quartz body is
thought to comprise a lens that is at least 50 m thick. It is located within banded
paragneisses and cuts the foliation in the gneisses in the northeast side of the mountain.
Typical quartz grains are greyish, clear and 5-10 mm across. Feldspar occurs only in
accessory amounts.
732
x
Ridge south of the Rio Nampuquia (UTM 37S 496595, 8539366, sample 33212):
Recrystallised, coarse-grained quartz with subordinate feldspar comprises a small ridge.
Neither stratification nor brecciation was observed in this assumed hydrothermal zone that
is at least 20 m thick.
x
Monte Balama is located west of the village of Balama (UTM 37S 450131, 8523288)
and consists of pure, massive, coarse-grained, white, milky quartz. The rock consists of
centimetre-scale quartz crystals with extremely rare millimetre-scale impurities of a dark
mineral. The rock does not show any oriented fabric. The outcrop displays abundant
fractures without preferred orientation. The deposit covers the whole of Monte Balama,
implying that it has a minimum thickness of 700 m. Its strike extent is difficult to evaluate
because of lack of exposure. The quartz is thought to be of hydrothermal origin. Thin
sections show pure quartz with trace amounts of carbonate.
Sheet 1339 Montepuez:
x
Metoro (UTM 37S 580578, 8551342, sample 33238): Clear, coarse-grained (3-8 mm)
quartz occurs in boulders 14 km west of Metoro. It is hard to estimate the dimensions of the
deposit, but quartz boulders were observed for 30 m along a small road. Only one feldspar
crystal was observed.
Figure 13.38: Sampling of coarse-grained hydrothermal quartz 12 km N of Lalamo (UTM 37S

574059, 8654400).
Sample Zone East

North
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 TiO2 CaO
33219 37 440079 8545636 98,44 0,25 0,35 0,38 0,02
33212 37 496595 8539366 99,67 0,18 0,17 0,04 < 0,01
40669 37 574059 8654400 99,48 0,01 < 0,01 < 0,01 0,03
33238 37 580578 8551342 99,51 < 0,01 0,02 < 0,01 0,01
Na2O K2O
< 0,1 0,07
< 0,1 0,08
< 0,1 < 0,01
< 0,1 < 0,01
Nb
6
<5
<5
<5
Zr
112
68
18
20
Y
<5
<5
<5
<5
Table 13.11: XRF-analyses of selected major (%) and trace (ppm) elements in hydrothermal
quartz.
733
13.10 Talc
Several of the ultramafic lenses/bodies in the Lalamo Complex are interesting as regards their
talc content. It seems that they have been investigated by trenching at only one place, namely
at Namaruha (sheet 1340 Mecufi, UTM 37S 631780, 8541740) where an 8 m long, 1,5 m wide
and up to 3,5 m deep trench is oriented approximately east-west (see Chapter 6.10). The
occurrence consists of a 30-40 cm wide zone of chlorite schist with 5-10 cm thick lenses of talc
schist. Otherwise in the area, there are boulders of ultramafic rocks consisting mostly of
greenstone and a coarse-grained rock dominated by amphibole needles.
Enrichments of talc are also noted in the large ultramafic body that forms Monte
Nicuculo along the main Pemba-Metoro road, and in small bodies south of this, e.g. at UTM
37S 631219, 8545982.
13.11 Dimension stone
There is a great potential for exploitation of metamorphic and igneous rocks as dimension
stone. Both massive and decorative rocks are found. Until now, only marble and minor
volumes of soapstone have been quarried. Further exploitation is heavily dependent on
infrastructure and the market situation.
13.11.1Montepuez marble quarries
(Sheet 1338 Namuno, UTM 37S 497498, 8551917)
The Montepuez marble deposit is the major dimension stone deposit in the Cabo Delgado
Province. It is located 4 km north of Montepuez and is owned by the company Marmonte.
Production is, however, presently low (50m3/year) and involves the employment of only 53
people (Figure 13.39). Blocks produced in Montepuez are transported by truck 200 km to
Pemba, on the coast, where the company operates a slab production factory. The production
exceeded 1,100 m3 in 1998. The Montepuez deposit consists of 4 quarries within a radius of
200 m, 3 of which are currently being exploited. There are three main types of marble
produced; white (branco), light grey (cinzento) and mixed (magram). Calculated reserves over
2km2 to a depth of 200 m were (Stanev & Guergov, 1984):
5.5 Mm3 white
19 Mm3 grey
5.3 Mm3 magram
The marble beds are 0,5 - 5m thick with thin lenses of amphibolite and shale between. The
marble is gently folded and strikes northeast-southwest, with a moderate dip to the southeast
(Figure 13.40). Pegmatites cut the marble beds.
x Quarry "B1" (Branco 1)

The quarry trends southwest-northeast parallel to the regional foliation and exploits white
marble with minor bands of amphibolitic gneiss. The northwest wall of the quarry consists of a
pegmatite of unknown thickness. The marble close to the pegmatite is white with grey colour
variations, and is folded. The central part of the quarry consists of bedded marble with a
monoclinal structure. The beds are 20 cm to 1 m thick. The bottom of the quarry is a sawed
horizontal surface, showing thin layers of fine-grained amphibolite and amphibolite boudins.
The separation between the boudins suggests that the rock was affected by pronounced
stretching parallel to the lineation. The central part of the quarry probably corresponds to a
shear zone.
x Quarry "B2" (Branco 2)

The quarry trends southwest-northeast, parallel to the regional foliation and the southwest wall
is the main exploitation site. This consists of a white to grey bedded marble interlayered with
734
thin layers of shale and amphibolite. The southwest wall is made of marble beds 20 cm to 3-5
m thick with a monoclinal structure. Numerous fractures are present.
x Quarry "Grey"
This consists of a grey marble with very few amphibolite boudins or layers. The marble shows
undulating or folded layering defined by variation in grey colour. The orientation of the
layering is variable. Locally the marble is bedded. In the quarry the foliation has a constant
orientation around northeast-southwest with moderate dip to the southeast (054/62).
x Quarry "Mix" (Magram)

This consists of grey and white marble with a few irregular amphibolite boudins. The marble
shows undulating or folded layering defined by variation in colour, with even some pink
colouration. Some layers consist of very coarse-grained marble. The orientation of the layering
is variable.
Figure 13.39: Production of blocks of marble in the Montepuez quarries.
Figure 13.40: Tight to open folding of marble

in the Montepuez quarries.
735
13.11.2Mazeze marble quarry

An interesting marble occurrence is found 10 km west of Mazeze, north of the Chiure-Mecufi
road. This marble unit is at least 200 m thick and consists of very coarse calcitic marble (grains
up to 1 cm). It is mostly white, but at its northern boundary it is red to yellow in folded bands.
Test quarrying has been carried out (Figure 13.41). The coloured bands make it very
decorative, but the coarse grains may be a problem for polishing and produsing larger blocks.
Figure 13.41: The Mazeze test quarry (left) and folded, yellowish marble (right) (UTM 37S
619420, 8527250)
13.11.3Soapstone
Minor lenses of soapstone and talc schist occur in the Ponta Messuli Complex. They are locally
associated with lenses of anthophyllite rocks. They are thought to represent altered ultramafic
magmatic rocks. The soapstone has been used locally as a dimension stone, e.g. in tombstones
(Figure 13.42).
Several ultramafic bodies are mapped in the Lalamo Complex, especially on sheet 1340
Mecufi. They could also have a potential as soapstone, but no exploitation of these as
dimension stone was noted.
Figure 13.42: Soapstone quarry southeast of Ponta Ngoo (sheet 1234 Metangula, UTM 36S
686396, 8619672).
736
13.11.4Other types of dimension stone

No other dimension stone quarries have been reported during the mapping programme, but
several potential resources have been identified. However, the listing in this section is based on
visual inspection and no detailed tests have been carried out. Only potentially decorative rocks
are included in this section. Examples from various lithodemic units are given. The outlines of
the most easily accessible parts of these bodies are marked on the 'Areas of resource potential'
maps.
Sheet 1334 Meponda:
x
Monte Chande alkali granite: The potential for dimension stone in the ring-shaped
Monte Chande was intensely studied in the early 1980s (Brodoimpex, 1985b). The redcoloured part of the alkali granite in the central zone of the structure caught the interest of
these authors. It looks fresh and is, and there is only limited sericitization of the feldspar
(Figure 13.43). However, the red granite is only a subordinate part of the total volume of 60
Mm3 of granite estimated down to a depth of 10 m (Geol. Inst. of Belgrade 1985).
Sheet 1335 Lichinga:
x
Alkali granites and syenites of the Niassa Suite comprise several mountains along the
main road between Lichinga and Cuamba (see Chapter 6.18). They are massive and have
an attractive pink to red colour, and parts of these deposits are easily accessible, e.g. the
Massangulo granite (UTM 36S 763000, 8462000).
x
Monte Lingasse charnockite: Granofelsic rocks of the Unango Complex are well
exposed on minor hills and mountains along the road that runs northeastwards from the
village Nambilange in the eastern part of the sheet, some 25 km southwest of Majune (see
Chapter 6.4). A buff coloured, feldspar phyric charnockitic orthogneiss, only slightly
retrograded, predominates. Randomly orientated feldspar crystals with slightly schillereffect might be attractive, and the homogenous structure indicates that it should be possible
to produce blocks of suitable size (Figure 13.43).
Figure 13.43: Close-ups of the alkali granite at Mt. Chande (left, sheet 1334 Meponda UTM
36S 710585, 8518325) and porphyric charnockite at Mt. Lingasse (right, sheet 1335 Licinga
UTM 36S 822967, 8489034).
Sheet 1435 Mandimba:
x
The late granites of the Niassa Suite form large kopjes and inselbergs also on the
Mandimba sheet, such as Monte Lissiete (UTM 36S 770500, 8432000). These massive
rocks have an attractive pink colour, are easily accessible and should be investigated as
potential building stone resources.
737
Sheet 1436 Cuamba:

x
Syenitic gneiss comprises an elongate ridge, Serra Lipembecue along the CuambaMandimba sheet boundary (e.g. UTM 37S 177000, 8420000) and a kopje, Monte Maulo
next to the Cuamba-Lichinga railway line (e.g. UTM 37S 196983, 8424062). The syenite
has an intense white colour and is a potential building-stone resource.
Sheet 1236 Mavago:
x
Variably deformed and foliated K-feldspar phyric and biotite-bearing granitic gneisses
occur along the road southeast of Mavago. In some localities they are decorative and
homogeneous, and might be of interest as dimension stone (Figure 13.44)
Figure 13.44: Close-up photo of

granitic gneiss of the Unango
Complex, some 7 km southeast of
Mavago (UTM 37S 208178,
8604836).
Sheet 1240 Quissanga-Pemba:

x
Strongly migmatitic granitic to granodioritic gneiss of the Meluco Complex is exploited
in a rock quarry (Figure 13.45) close to the main road between Metoro and Macomia, just
south of the Rio Montepuez (see Chapter 6.7.2). It is very decorative and areas without
intense jointing should be examined in detail.
Figure 13.45: Rock quarry in migmatitic granitic to granodioritic gneiss south of the Rio
Montepuez along the main road (UTM 37S 611174, 8600264).
13.12 Precious/semi-precious stones
A large variety of precious and semi-precious stones are found in northern Mozambique, most
commonly tourmaline, beryl (aquamarine), garnet, corundum, amazonite and crystalline
quartz. Most frequently they occur in granitic pegmatite veins, but alluvial and eluvial
738
occurrences are also found. Small-scale mining has been reported in the Unango, Marrupa,
Lalamo and Nampula Complexes. Some areas with clusters of occurrences are described in the
following sections.
13.12.1Occurrences in the Marrupa area
The orthogneisses around Marrupa in the north-central part of sheet 1337 Marrupa, are
intruded by numerous granite pegmatite veins and bodies. Many of these contain semiprecious
minerals like tourmaline and beryl, the latter often as aquamarine. Crystalline quartz and green
amazonite are also quite common.
Three deposits where mining was taking place, were visited during the fieldwork.
According to the local people several more deposits exist in the area around Marrupa.
However, the people are afraid to tell where the deposits are located, because they fear that
others may exploit them.
Meperia deposit (UTM 37S 344101, 8549056): At this deposit, trenches have been dug in the
weathered part of a pegmatite body. The trenches were 3-5 m deep and 5-6 m long. The
pegmatite consisted mainly of quartz and K-feldspar, with the quartz occurring as up to 2-5 cm
long and 1 cm thick crystals, which were oriented in one direction in the feldspar. Subordinate
phases were fine-grained muscovite, some biotite and flakes of haematite up to a cm in size.
Some parts of the pegmatite contained crystals of black tourmaline (schrl) in up to 2 cm long
crystals. We could not find beryl in the deposit, but the man working there could show us a
good handful of specimens of green and light blue, transparent, clear aquamarine (Figure
13.46). He also showed some specimens of amazonite, found in the deposit.
Figure 13.46: Aquamarine from pegmatite in the Marrupa area (UTM 37S 344101, 8549056).
Nambaica deposit (UTM 37S 340640, 8546100): This deposit consisted of a 7 m long, 1.5 m
wide and 3 m deep trench in a weathered pegmatite. The pegmatite consisted of quartz,
microcline, biotite, muscovite, magnetite, haematite and lesser plagioclase. The grain size
varies from 2-3 mm to several cm, with microcline as the coarsest mineral. The pegmatite
displays a texture reminiscent of "graphic-granite", with up to several cm large quartz crystals.
739
Biotite was also quite coarse, occurring in flakes up to a cm in size. According to the local
guide the deposit was mined for aquamarine (not found during our visit).
Nambaica southeast deposit (UTM 37S 340827, 8545918): This deposit is only about 300 m
southeast of the main Nambaica deposit. Here are several small diggings covering an area of
about 100 x 50 m. One of the diggings was very shallow, only into the soil above the bedrock.
People had here obviously just panned the soil to get the precious stones. As in the main
deposit the pegmatite was granitic in composition with red microcline and quartz as dominant
phases. Muscovite was locally present in flakes up to cm in size. A small grain of yellowishgreen beryl was found in one of the blocks of coarse pegmatite. Otherwise, the guide told us
that tourmaline had been found in some of the small pits.
13.12.2Occurrences southeast of Mueda
Granitic pegmatites occur commonly commonly intrude the granitic to granodioritic orthogneisses of the Lalamo Complex which occurs on both sides of the Rio Messalo, southeast of
Mueda. A few locations with minor exploitation of these have been visited in the northeastern
part of sheet 1239 Meluco.
Rio Opa (UTM 37S 565914, 8669754): This locality is a small pit on the slope of a small hill.
The pegmatite contains black tourmaline (schrl), which reaches sizes up to 10-20 cm in length
and 2-3 cm in thickness (Figure 13.47). Large, up to 50 cm, flakes of muscovite were also
found. On the top of the hill there is massive crystalline quartz in 10-30 cm long crystals, with
some aggregates of "books" of muscovite a few cm across. Other pegmatite localities
containing black tourmaline in this area are found at UTM 568323 8670018, 564648 8667932
and 569995 8669154.
Rio Messalo (UTM 37S 594740, 8670716): At this locality there is a small pit 10 x 3 m in
extent and up to 1 m deep. The granitic pegmatite trends north-south and is 1,2 m wide. It is
dominated by K-feldspar (5-10 cm) and contains clear to milky-quartz lenses, minor biotite (34 cm), magnetite aggregates and tourmaline. A few grains of aquamarine were also found. The
wall-rock is a weathered, mica-rich, granitic gneiss.
Chumbaindo (Rio Messalo) (UTM 37S 595090, 8669122): In this locality there are 4-5 pits
over 100 m in a north-south direction. The length of the walls in the northernmost pit, is 5 m in
the bottom, and the pit is up to 4 m deep. The granitic pegmatite is K-feldspar-dominated with
clear to milky quartz that contains black tourmaline (2-3 cm in length) and amazonite (Figure
13.47). In two large pits further southeast, coarse-grained (several cm) amazonite is common,
and thick tourmaline crystals up to 10 cm long and 2-3 cm across occur. Aquamarine has also
been detected in this locality. Very schistose, weathered gneiss constitutes the wall rock.
740
Figure 13.47: Pit in granitic pegmatite in the

Chumbaindo occurrence (left, UTM 37S
595090, 86669122) and black tourmaline in
pegmatite in the Rio Opa occurrence (above,
UTM 37S 565914, 8669754).
Other pegmatites that have been exploited in this area include (Njange, 2000):
Name
UTM zone
UTM East
UTM North
Type
Mt. Chinalu
37
578268
8676478
Gemstone
Rio Muedi
37
588446
8671780
Gemstone
Lagoa Shuvi
37
589226
8669658
Gemstone
13.12.3Occurrences in the Mirrote area
Several trenches with quartz-feldsparmica pegmatites or coarse-grained scapolite-diopside
rocks are found in an area north and northwest of Mirrote in the southwest part of sheet 1339
Montepuez. Tourmaline and beryl are the most common accessory minerals, but stones of
gemstone quality can rarely be identified. The larger pegmatites seem to be confined to areas
where the bedrock comprises mainly paragneiss.
Mirrote scapolite-diopside-beryl occurrences: Several small trenches/outcrops in scapolitediopside rocks have been noted:
UTM 37S 557947, 8474322: 2x3 m and up to 1,5 m deep.
UTM 37S 557974, 8474296: 4x2 m and 2 m deep.
UTM 37S 558071, 8474472: possible bedrock and boulders.
UTM 37S 557713, 8474756: 3-4 m in diameter and 1,2 m deep.
Coarse- to very coarse-grained scapolite-diopside rock with minor quartz, garnet, carbonate,
bluish green beryl(?) and yellow green serpentine are found in big boulders in and around the
trenches. The scapolite comprises ruler-formed, radiating aggregates intergrown with dark
green dioside. Very coarse-grained (pegmatitic) and coarse-grained scapolite-diopside rocks
occur in the same exposure. A very coarse-grained (2-6 cm), bluish green mineral, probably
beryl, is found in this locality (Figure 13.48). Quartz and fine-grained serpentine seem to be
741
associated. The origin of the rock is not clearly identified, but may be related to metasomatic
alteration of the paragneisses.
Figure 13.48: Coarse-grained, pegmatitic scapolite-diopside rock with bluish green beryl in
the Mirrote area (UTM 37S 558071, 8474472).
Walima (Uante) quartz-feldspar-tourmaline pegmatite (UTM 37S 560601, 8478026): The
largest quartz-feldspar-mica pegmatite reported is located just south of the Rio Lurio. The
pegmatite is not exposed, but is, according to local guides, very large. The dump exceeds 200
m3 in volume and substantial volumes of dunp material are thought to be overgrown with
vegetation. A Mr. Lima exploited the deposit 40-50 years ago. Extremely coarse-grained
(several cm up to 1-2 dm) pegmatite dominated by quartz and minor feldspar, mica and
tourmaline are found in the boulders. The quartz occurs in several varieties, including clear,
slightly milky, rose- and smokey-coloured. Some weathered feldspar and quartz-feldspar
intergrowth exist. The mica flakes are up to 30 cm across, and a small mica dump (2-3 m3)
indicates that this mineral has been of economic interest. Coarse-grained, black tourmaline
occurs in minor amounts.
Mirrote quartz-feldspar-tourmaline pegmatite (UTM 37S 559325, 8472124): Midway between
the Rio Lurio and Mirrote a quartz-feldspar pegmatite comprising a 1-1,5 m thick quartz core
with a more than 1 m wide feldspar-quartz rim is found in the bottom of a trench. It is 12 m
from east to west, 4-5 m wide and up to 4 m deep. The quartz is clear and rose-coloured
(Figure 13.49). Feldspar and quartz in the rim are intergrown normal to the core. A few rather
coarse, black tourmaline crystals (up to 10 cm long and 2-3 cm in diameter) have been
observed.
742
Figure 13.49: Pit in Mirrote quartz-feldspartourmaline pegmatite with rose quartz in the
core (UTM 37S 559325, 8472124).
Mirrote quartz-feldspar-beryl pegmatite (UTM 37S 562339, 8472012): A small trench, 5x3 m
in horizontal section and 1,5 m deep, in sand and gravel without exposed bedrock was noted.
Very coarse-grained quartz and feldspar crystals and a few pale green beryls, not of gem
quality occur. The pegmatites in this area also seem to be oriented east-west. According to the
local guides, gemstone-quality beryl, aquamarine, exists in another trench in the area, but they
were not able to locate the workings.
13.12.4Namahaca corundum occurrence
(Sheet 1339 Montepuez, 37S 520130, 8556346)
Two major pits and several minor diggings occur in a flat area of 50x100 m, some 21 km east
of Montepuez and north of the main Pemba-Montepuez road. There are no outcrops nearby.
One of the pits is 3 m in diameter and 3 m deep, the walls in the other are 2x4 m and it is 5 m
deep (Figure 13.50). Red-brown to pinkish corundum crystals, up to 24 mm across occur.
Commonly they are plate-shaped, but a 10 mm long crystal has also been found. They occur in
unsorted sand and gravel that mainly consists of quartz and pegmatite.
743
Figure 13.50: Pit in sand and gravel, dug in

the search for corundum crystals, and, above,
hexagonal plates of corundum, up to 24 mm
across (UTM 37S 520130, 8556346).
Fine- to medium-grained, pinkish white, some foliated granitic gneiss with a few muscovite
grains comprises a small hill 400 m northwest of the corundum occurrence. A few sub-parallel
quartz-veins (> 10 cm) occur.
13.12.5The Rio Muthicana (Odinepa) corundum occurrence
Some 2 km southwest of Odinepa there is an occurrence of corundum in bedrock. The
workings consist of an 18 m long, 3-4 m wide and up to 6 m deep trench with orientation 50.
In the side-walls, there is a very coarse-grained, schistose rock bearing amphibole-plagioclasephlogopite and red-coloured corundum (Figure 13.51a-d). Well-formed grains of corundum up
to 1 cm in size occur scattered in the rock. We do not know if gemstone rubies have been
found. Microprobe analyses of the corundum show moderate amounts of chromium (1,2-1,4 %
Cr2O3) as is commonly found in ruby. In thin section (Figure 13.51e,f) both euhedral and
skeleton-shaped crystals with twinning lamellae are seen, and tiny inclusions of rutile that
might cause a polished crystal to exhibit asterism. The amphibole is an Fe-Mg-Mn amphibole,
gedrite, while the plagioclase is andesinelabradorite. Minor amounts of quartz and a green
spinel (chrominum-bearing hercynite - picotite) are found.
Fine- to medium-grained, well-foliated granitic to granodioritic gneiss with elongate
feldspar blasts and several pegmatoid veins occur to the northwest. Some lensoid xenoliths of
biotite-rich gneiss on a m-scale are found. South of the trench a mega-boudin (several tens of
metres long and a few tens of metres wide) of mafic rock occurs in the gneiss. The mafic host
rock of the corundum mineralisation might represent a similar mega-boudin in the felsic
orthogneisses.
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Figure 13.51: The Rio Muthicana corundum occurrence (UTM 37S 610300, 8494990), a) View
of open pit looking towards the northeast, b) Schistose amphibole-plagioclase-phlogopite host
rock, c) Corundum crystal in host rock, d) Corundum crystals. e, f) Photomicrograph showing
corundum with twinning lamellae and rutile (rt) inclusions, green spinell (spl), plagioclase (pl)
and gedrite (ged), crossed nicols and plane-polarised light (Field of view: 5,4x4,4 mm).
13.12.6Cuamba garnet deposit
(Sheet 1436 Cuamba, UTM 37S 230206, 8358258)
The known garnet deposits immediately west of Cuamba (in the vicinity of UTM 37S 230072
8360671) had already been investigated in detail and were commercially exploited during the
second half of the last century. The future economic potential of this resource is thought to be
745
limited, as most of the garnets have already been removed (Topangu, 1994). Garnets are now
concentrated in basal river gravels and are found mostly in isolated potholes covered by finer
grained garnet-free alluvium (Figure 13.52). However, there are resources of alluvial garnet
elsewhere in the Cuamba sheet, notably associated with the central paragneisses of the EntreMontes area (e.g. at UTM 37S 255367, 8397903) that warrant more detailed investigations.
Abandoned workings for alluvial garnet are found in the southwest corner (UTM 37S 179345,
8354541) of sheet 1436 Cuamba.
Figure 13.52: Pit in the alluvium which was dug in the search for garnets within the mine area
west of Cuamba and gem-quality garnets recovered (near UTM 37S 230072, 8360671).
13.12.7Rose quartz and aquamarine in the Cuamba area
A number of small granitic pegmatites containing aquamarine with or without rose quartz were
found in the southeast part of sheet 1436 Cuamba as well as in and around Cuamba town.
Small exploration pits occur in all these pegmatites. The aquamarines form small, well-formed,
clear blue crystals that are too small to be worked as gemstones but could be sold as crystal
specimens. The rose quartz could be worked into beads, but again the resources are very small.
The best prospect is at UTM 37S 281034, 8358250 (Figure 13.53).
Figure 13.53: Left) Water-filled trench into pegmatite and rose quartz and Right) feldspar and
beryl crystals from this trench (UTM 37S 281034, 8358250).
13.12.8"Minerais rara"
This is not a mineral resource, but is briefly described as it was widely discussed locally. A
more than 30 m long and 1-1.5 m wide trench is located 2,5 km north of the village Taquinha.
It has probably been made in a search for graphite in the biotite gneiss. Stones of fine-grained,
746
relatively heavy, black rock with a conchoidal cleavage and a few 2x5 mm porphyritic grains
were found in an area of 1x3 m on top of this trench (Figure 13.54a). They looked odd in
association with the strongly weathered, nearly flat-lying biotite gneiss in the trench. Close to
the trench there is an outcrop of fine-grained, biotite gneiss with a few feldspar blasts and
several pegmatitic veins.
A thin section of one of the black stones (sample 40680) shows one large grain of
nearly/patchy isotropic, metamict allanite, with inclusions of euhedral to subhedral crystals of
titanite and probably pyroxene. These commonly have a reaction rim to the allanite host
(Figure 13.54b,c). The next question is to explain how this rock could form. The allanite might
represent a disintegrated part of a large crystal in a pegmatite, but neither quartz nor feldspar
crystals were observed in the area.
Figure 13.54: a) Trench where stones of allanite were found above the white line, b)
Photomicrographs of allanite (al) with inclusions of titanite (tit) crystal, crossed nichols, c) as
b) with parallel light, note reaction rim around titanite crystal. (Field of view: 5,4x4,4mm).
13.13 Coal
Coal beds are reported from several Permo-Jurassic sedimentary basins in northeastern
Mozambique. They occur in sediments of the Ecca Group, within the Lower Karoo
Supergroup. The most extensive coal resources are found in the Maniamba Graben in the
northwest part of the Niassa Province, and minor basins are known along the Rio Lugenda,
from its upper tributaries in the southwest up towards the Tanzanian border.
13.13.1Maniamba Graben
(Sheet 1234 Metangula, UTM 36S 713349, 8610202 outcrop by the Rio Lifutiche)
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Extensive coal seams in the southwest part of the Maniamba graben have been investigated on
several occasions (sheets 1234 Metangula and 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono). They are located in
the Lower Karoo Supergroup, within the Ecca Group (K2 and K4, see Chapter 6.19). In the
lowermost formation, K2, only thin, on average 20 cm, coal beds are found, in a 17-26 m thick
sequnce (Jourdan, 1982; Verniers et al. 1989). In K4, two coal-bearing series are found
(Jourdan, 1982), the lowermost is 1-4 m thick with individual coal seams 110-273 cm thick,
and the uppermost comprises induvidual 67-100 cm thick seams over 1-4 m. The total resource
estimate varies. Jourdan (1982) reported 118 Mt with < 40% ash, while another estimate was
given as 233,8 Mt (Lchelt, 2004).
13.13.2Lugenda southwest
The whole Karoo succession in Mancha de Montante (sheet 1335 Lichinga, around UTM 36S
800000, 8462500) is up to 200 m thick and may be entirely Ecca Group; although the upper
argillaceous beds (xistos superiors of Nunes 1948) may correlate with the Middle Karoo
Beaufort Group. The lowest coal seam, up to 1 m thick, is about 30 m stratigraphically above
the base of the succession, and another seam occurs about 10 m stratigraphically above within
a succession of shaly mudstones and thin sandstone. Towards the top of the succession the
shaly mudstones again contain thin impersistent coals and carbonaceous beds interbedded with
subordinate sandstones.
At Mancha de Juzante (sheet 1335 Lichinga, around UTM 36S 810000, 8472500) the Karoo
succession is about 100-200 m thick. Coal seams up to 0,5 m thick, are interbedded with
carbonaceous mudstones, mudstones with some thin coal beds and lenses, pebbly mudstones,
and sandstones, some of which are ferruginous.
No detailed information has been found concerning the coal beds at the Rio Lotcheze (sheet
1336 Majune; around UTM 37S 222100, 8535200) and the Rio Luambala (sheet 1336 Majune;
around UTM 37S 208300, 8515000), and they are assumed to be economically insignificant.
13.13.3Lugenda N
The Makaa-Itule (sheet 1138 Negomano UTM 37S 437000, 8691700) and Chipuputa (sheet
1238 Xixano, UTM 37S 429500, 8660600) coal beds are found within the Lower Karoo Ecca
Group as a thin north-south striking band that extends for several tens of kilometres. Details of
the Karoo stratigraphy in the area, and in particular the coal horizons, are described in
extensive detail by Verniers (1981). The coal-bearing sequence at Makaa-Itule is 19,1 m thick,
and it comprises 6 coal layers that are up to 0,77 m thick. At Chipuputa the coal-bearing
sequence is 16.5 m thick with up to 0,45 m thick coal layers. The total thickness of the coal
layers is 2,08 m (> 5 cm layers).
13.14 Kimberlite
The kimberlites in the Maniamba Graben are well documented in Chapter 6.19. Kimberlites
that cut into Karoo sedimentary rocks were found in the Maniamba Graben by a group of
Russian geologists in the late 1970s (Jakovenko et al., 1979). Forty-three kimberlite dykes, as
well as an unknown number of basaltic kimberlites and 4 isometric bodies (pipes) were
discovered in the southwest part of the graben. One of the pipes gives an age around 1389 Ma
(Chapter 11). Kimberlite dykes cut through the entire Karoo sequence and imply that the dykes
post-date all the Karoo sedimentary rocks. Various kimberlitic minerals (pyrope garnet, Mgmagnetite, Mg-ilmenite as well as fragmented diamonds) have been noted in the basal
conglomerates (K7 unit) of the upper Karoo and this suggests that there are pre-upper Karoo
kimberlites within the graben (Lchelt, 2004). It is therefore possible that more than one
748
generation of kimberlite dykes is present in the graben, and that more kimberlites are likely to
be found outside the studied area.
Diamondiferous kimberlites have not been verified so far. The samples studied in this
project indicate that the host rocks are macrocrystic hypabyssal Group Ia kimberlites based on
their mineralogy and whole-rock geochemistry as well as SEM analyses of various macrocrysts
and groundmass minerals. A general rule for Group 1 kimberlites is that the dykes associated
with diamondiferous pipes are often barren and the aim of any future prospecting should be to
find more pipes.
13.15 Stone aggregate
Major reported rock quarries are marked on the mineral resource maps. Only quarries with
substantial production for use in road construction are included. Most of them seem to be
abandoned, although minor exploitation by local people is still going on, as in a major quarry
on the north side of the main road, midway between Pemba and Metoro (Figure 13.55).
Figure 13.55: Abandoned major rock quarry north of the main Pemba-Metoro road (sheet
1340 Mecufi, UTM 37S 637239, 8549076). Small heaps of stones crushed by the local
manpower.
The use of rocks as construction materials for various purposes is, in addition, especially
common in the eastern part of the Cabo Delgado Province where rocks of the Rovuma Basin
are commonly used for house construction. These minor pits are not included.
13.16 Hydrocarbon seeps
A number of oil and gas seeps have been identified in both the Mozambican and Tanzanian
parts of the Rovuma Basin. Several of the seeps have been sampled and analysed, but only
limited results from these analyses have been published.
In the Tanzanian part of the basin oil seeps have been identified at Makukwa, Nyuruk
and on Msimbati Island, which is immediately north of the mouth of the Rovuma River and
near the Mnazi Bay field. Here there are several occurrences of bitumen trapped in the coastal
sands. It was originally proposed that these are genuine seeps. However, detailed analyses of
the Msimbati seep have shown that it is characterized by an extremely light isotopic
composition and a rather unusual terpane distribution, probably indicating a biogenic origin of
this seep rather than representing biodegraded residues of mature crude oil (Mpanju and Philp,
1994). The Nyuruko seep is possibly sourced from marine Cenozoic source rocks, while the
gas encountered in the Tanzanian part of the Rovuma Basin is suggested to be derived from
Mesozoic and/or Palaeozoic source rocks (Mpanju and Philp, 1994).
In the Mozambican Rovuma Basin oil and gas seeps have been sampled during
fieldwork carried out by Lonropet and PGS in 1999 and 2000. South of Pemba hydrocarbon
749
seeps were encountered at Ponta Uifundo where slicks can be found on the exposed reef at low
tide, and gas is seen bubbling to the surface from fissures in the sea floor. The Ponta Uifundo
was also visited during the NGU/BGS fieldwork in October 2005. No oil seep was found
during this visit, but the occurrence of oil seeps at this location were confirmed by local
fishermen, who use the crude oil to impregnate their dugout canoes (Figure 13.56).
Figure 13.56: Crude oil collected on the reef at Ponta Uifundo used by local fishermen to
impregnate their dugout canoes (UTM 37S 670168, 8517684).
According to the report of Lonropet (2000) oil seeps have also been reported from a
small lake connected to the Megaruma River near the village of Nicupa and near the village of
Marua on the northern flood plain of the Lurio River. The first locality was visited during the
fieldwork in October. A soil sample with possible oil stains was collected from the dried out
lake, but no further analyses were carried out on the sample.
Oil seeps are also well known from Wimbi Beach in the city of Pemba where oil
appears to seep out of fissures in the Tertiary sandstone. The location was visited during the
fieldwork in October, and spots of biodegraded oil and small stains of fresher oil seepage were
observed below the high water mark (Figure 13.57).
Figure 13.57: Spots of biodegraded oil in Tertiary sandstones on Wimbi Beach, Pemba (left);
Stain of fresher oil at the same locality (right) (UTM 37S 666741, 8565686).
According to the data of Lonropet (2000) analyses of the oil seeps suggest that they are
generated from a Jurassic and from an older, possibly Triassic, source rock.
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14 RESOURCE POTENTIAL AREAS

A separate set of maps highlights areas of perceived resource potential. These areas are
described in this section according to type of commodity as in Chapter 13.
14.1 Gold
The following areas with potential for gold are distinguished:
x The Niassa Gold Belt (NGB): Gold in the Txitonga Group and associated igneous
rocks.
x Macaloge gold lens: Gold in a complex tectonic lens mainly consisting of granite.
x Rio Lugenda/Rio Lureco: Alluvial gold with indications of gold-bearing quartz veins
and enrichment of gold in a copper prospect.
x Alluvial gold occurs in all these areas, while primary gold occurs in quartz veins
associated with major shear zones. The primary gold deposits can be classified as
orogenic gold deposits in metamorphic belts. These deposits develop in the forearc
regions of convergent continental margins over a wide range of crustal depths and may
also develop in deformed back-arc sedimentary sequences (Groves et al., 2003).
x
x No areas with potential gold deposits have been detected in the Cabo Delgado
Province. We have not been able to verify gold showings reported from areas on sheets
1338 Namuno and 1340 Mecufi, and hence it is not possible to estimate any potential.
x
14.1.1 Niassa Gold Belt (NGB)
(Sheet 1135 Lupilichi and 1036 Metangula)
Artisanal gold mining has been undertaken since 1990 in an area along Lago Niassa from the
Tanzanian border in the north towards Cobu in the south. Both alluvial gold and primary gold
in quartz veins are exploited. The estimated total annual gold production is 5-12 t/year (Lchelt
2004). The number of gold camps in the area is hard to determine exactly, but around 27 camps
(acampamentos) were registered already 10 years ago (Valoi & Manhica, 1994). The most
important areas today include Caguru, Long Bay/Miazini, M'Papa, 0A and M'Popo (0D) in
the northern part of the belt (A. Moniz pers. comm. 2004).
The productive zones in the alluvial gold fields are 0,5 - 5 m thick; on average about 22,5 m thick in M'Papa, one of the most important alluvial gold fields (Valoi & Manhica, 1994).
The gold content of the alluvium is 5-30 g/t (Lchelt, 2004). Primary gold occurs in quartz
veins in low-grade metamorphic metasedimentary rocks and associated mafic dykes in the
NGB. They are associated with north-south- to northeast-southwest-trending shear zones. In
the M'Papa area northeast-southwest-orientated quartz veins in a dextral shear zone are
observed, while north-south-orientated quartz veins are most common in the Caguru area. ReOs dating of the sulphide mineralisation gives a preliminary age of around 483 Ma.
The southwesterly extent of the area of gold potential in the belt is uncertain. It is
extended to the southwesternmost part of the belt. We know that gold panning has been carried
out there, in an area where extensive quartz veining is also observed. However, no gold
exploitation is known from the Cobu area. The highest activity of gold exploitation is in the
north, and most of the miners are from Tanzania. There seems to be an association between
primary gold depositions and metamorphosed igneous and volcanic rocks, which are most
widespread in the north.
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14.1.2 Macaloge gold lens

(Sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono)
The potential for gold in this area is not particularly well documented. DNG geologists and the
manager of the Niassa Wildlife Reserve provided information that gold mining activities took
place along the banks of the Rio Chimulicamuli and the Rio Lulimbo during the rainy season.
However, no sign of prospecting activity was found in the latter, while active gold exploitation
takes place along the Rio Chimulicamuli in the wet season. As no gold was noted during the
fieldwork it is difficult to evaluate the gold potential. The major imbricate sinistral shear zone
array cutting the granite is probably of similar age to the shear-zone hosted mineralisation in
the Niassa Gold Belt as it displays the same kinematics, geometry and metamorphic
characteristics. The shear zones in the two areas also display similar ages (483r72 Ma by ReOs from the Niassa Gold Belt and 444r5 Ma by U-Pb from the Macaloge shear zones). The
whole shear zone array structure, or at least part of this geometrical feature may therefore be of
interest in terms of mineralisation.
14.1.3 Rio Lugenda/Rio Lureco
(Sheets 1237 Mecula, 1237 Majune and 1337 Marrupa)
Gold panning was observed along the banks of the Rio Lugenda, and has also been reported
from the Rio Lureco, which is a tributary of the Rio Lugenda further upstream (see Chapter
13.1.5). Potential for gold in hard rock is demonstrated by slight enrichment of gold in a quartz
vein some 15 km upstream from the Rio Lureco alluvial gold occurrence (see Chapter 13.1.7)
and in the Rio Lureco copper prospect (see Chapter 13.2.1). The potential for enrichment of
gold in hard rock in this area could be related to regional northeast-southwest- trending
extensional structures as discussed in Chapter 9.6.4. These structures are observed as ductile
zones that could have been active in several periods. It is hard to delineate this area due to a
lack of adequate information, but the paragneisses of the Muaquia Complex may include
source rocks for various metals.
14.2 Copper and nickel-copper
The only area believed to have the potential to host copper deposits is that underlain by
metasiltstones along the Rio Lureco (see section 14.1.3 above and section 14.2.1 below). The
previously registered Ni-Cu showings, mainly associated with mafic igneous rocks in the
Xixano, Montepuez and Ocua Complexes show low metal contents (see Chapter 13.3). As for
most of the mapped area the scarcity of sulphides in these rocks is striking. Additionally, very
few layered mafic to ultramafic complexes have been found within the mapped area.
14.2.1 Rio Lureco copper prospect
(Sheet 1237 Mecula)
Although the observed copper mineralisation occupies only a limited area, this relatively
poorly exposed area is clearly worthy of follow-up work especially as the copper
mineralisation is similar to that seen in the Central African Copperbelt. The area that is
occupied by paragneisses of the Muaquia Complex is marked as a potential area for further
exploration, but further investigations in other parts of the Muaquia Complex may also be
warranted.
14.3 Iron and iron-titanium
Iron-rich deposits recorded in hard rock seem mainly to be of limited extent or do not have a
favourable mineralogy. The Mazogo, Mazua and Chiure Velho occurrences seem to be small.
The only occurrence that may warrant further investigation is the Mirrote deposit. The extent
of the deposit is not known, and it does not give any large, distinct magnetic anomaly. This
752
may be due to the high content of haematite. The latter indicates that the deposit may be better
suited for the production of pigment rather than iron metal.
The potential for the exploitation of iron-titanium is assumed to be significantly greater
in the heavy-mineral sands along the coast. In addition to ilmenite these coastal sand deposits
usually contain significant amounts of rutile and zircon. The maps of 'Areas of resource
potential' show areas of dune sand or areas with other indications. They are found all along the
coast, on sheets 1040, 1140, 1240 and 1340. The most prospective area recognised so far is the
Murrubue deposit, which has been investigated by Iluka Resources (Warland, 2002).
Successful development of the Moma deposit by Kenmare Resources further south
along the coast will influence the level of interest for other deposits of the same kind.
Development of additional giant projects along this very beautiful coastline could be
controversial.
The proven and probable reserves within the dredge-path design for the Moma project
are estimated at 469 million tons of ore grading at 4.3% Total Heavy Minerals of which 3.5%,
or some 16.4 million tons, is ilmenite. Total resources at Moma are estimated at 3.5 billion tons
of ore containing 101 million tons of ilmenite (Kenmare Resources, March 2006).
14.4 Special metals and uranium
Occurrences with enrichments in special metals; Nb, Ta, REE and uranium are registered in
peralkaline complexes. Occurrences of these metals could also be expected in granitic
pegmatites that are widespread in the mapped area. However, no sampling or evaluation of the
Nb, Ta and REE contents of these pegmatites has been undertaken and they have only been
investigated for their precious stone potential (Chapter 13.10).
14.4.1 Naumale alkaline complex
(Sheet 1236 Meponda)
The Naumale alkaline complex covers an area of about 15 km2, and was studied in detail in the
early 1980s (Mroz, 1983, Lulin et al., 1985, Brodoimpex, 1985, Hunting, 1988). The complex
comprises a suite of leucocratic alkaline syenitic rocks including nepheline syenite, alkalifeldspar syenite, and Na-pyroxene-amphibole rocks. The latter are particularly enriched in Nb,
Ta, REE and U (see Chapter 13.6.1). The best mineralisation recorded occurs in the north of
the complex as marked on the bedrock sheet that accompanies this report, but the entire 9 km
length of the complex has the potential to host special metals and uranium.
14.4.2 Monte Chissindo syenite
(Sheet 1235 Macaloge-Chiconono)
The Monte Chissindo nepheline syenite complex covers an area of about 15 km2, and was
studied in detail in the early 1980s (Drozdov et al., 1983, Mroz, 1983, Hunting, 1988). Arcuate,
lensoidal dykes of similar composition surround the main mass of nepheline syenite. Parts of
the suite comprise syenite, quartz syenite and alkali syenite. An evaluation of the alumina
potential of this area resulted in the discovery of Nb, Ta and U mineralisations. The
mineralisation is disseminated in a coarse-grained and locally pegmatitic leucocratic syenite,
containing nepheline, sodalite and biotite. Fine-grained pyrochlore and small grains of zircon
are most common. The most radioactive area is 1,800 x 400 m in extent, and comprises minor
mineralised zones containing 100-350 g/t Ta2O5 and 500-3,582 g/t Nb2O5 (Drozdov et al.,
1983).
753
The occurrences are too limited to be of any economic interest unless the nepheline
syenite itself could be exploited as a raw material for the glass or ceramic industries.
Corundum was registered in syenite pegmatites. However, the remote location and status of the
mountain as sacred for the local population do not favor exploitation of the occurrence.
14.4.3 Rio Lucuisse
(Sheet 1236 Mavago)
The Rio Lucuisse apatite - U, Nb, REE mineralisation is located about 27 km south of Mavago.
The mineralisation occurs in a metamorphosed, mafic alkaline complex. It was discovered
during follow-up work on airborne radiometric anomalies by a French team (Mroz, 1983).
Detailed investigations were carried out by Bulgargeomin (Obretenov et al., 1983). The
average grades reported for the mineralised samples are; 300-5200 ppm uranium, 0.5-4.35 %
niobium, 70-470 ppm tantalum (Mroz, 1983). Bulgargeomin calculated the ore reserves in the
regolith to be around 550 tons of columbite within 2.2 mill. m3 of ore grading 250 g/m3.
The present studies show lower metal values (Chapter 12.6); Nb, Ta and REE seem to be
enriched in the calcite-rich breccias and veins in the metapyroxenite. Mineralogical
investigations show that Nb is clearly the dominant element compared to Ta in pyrochlore (and
probably also in columbite?). The pyrochlore is U- and Ce-bearing, and REE-carbonates are
also found. The resource potential is rather well known, but the location is remote.
14.4.4 Special metals in pegmatites
Mineralisations of special metals in pegmatites are well known in the Alta Ligonha Pegmatite
Field (Lchelt, 2004), but have not been documented in the Niassa and Cabo Delgado
provinces so far. A great variety of pegmatites occur in Alta Ligonha, and they have been
classified in different ways (Dias & Wilson, 2000, Lchelt, 2004). Generally the pegmatites are
hosted in metasupracrustal rocks and especially if they are zoned and contain albite, they
include a greater variety of minerals and special metals.
ern (1982, 1991) divided the pegmatites with the highest potential for mineralisations
of the metals Li, Cs, Nb, Ta, REE, etc into two groups; the NYF- and LCT-pegmatites. NYFpegmatites are characterised by enrichments of niobium (Nb), yttrium (Y), rare earth elements
(REE), titanium (Ti) and fluor (F). LCT-pegmatites commonly include albite and are enriched
in lithium (Li), cesium (Cs) and tantalum (Ta) and may also contain tin (Sn). LCT-pegmatites
are formed during lower pressure metamorphism (2-4kb) than NYF pegmatites (3-6kb). The
NYF-pegmatites commonly occur within granitoids, whereas LCT-pegmatites are mostly
located outside granitoids (ern, 1991). Both types of pegmatites appear to be present in the
Alta Ligonha area.
Granitic pegmatites are found in several complexes in the investigated area, but are most
common within the Marrupa, Lalamo and Nampula Complexes (Chapter 13.12). Pegmatites in
the two former complexes are located within felsic orthogneisses, whereas pegmatites in the
easternmost part of the area are hosted in metasupracrustal rocks in the Nampula Complex.
Although data is scarce, according to ern (1991), a potential for NYF-pegmatites should
exist in the Marrupa and Lalamo Complexes, while there would be a greater potential for LCTpegmatites in the eastern part of the Nampula Complex.
14.5 Graphite
There is believed to be a high potential for graphite mineralisation with coarse-grained graphite
flakes, as known in various complexes, in the Cabo Delgado Province. The Ancuabe graphite
754
mine was in operation from 1994 to 1999, and is currently on care and maintenance while the
company is seeking a new investor. According to Kenmare Resources a reserve of 1 million
tons of ore grading 10 % graphite was defined. It should be possible to reopen this mine when
a reliable electrical power supply is obtained.
Samples with total carbon contents in the order of 8-20 % and coarse-grained graphite
flakes have been registered at several localities, in the Xixano, Montepuez, Lalamo and
Nampula Complexes (see Chapter 13.6). The location of some of these localities could also be
favourable for exploitation. In addition, graphite occurrences have also been reported within
the Ocua Complex (Saranga 1997).
The following areas with potential for exploitable graphite occurrences have been
noted:
x
Ancuabe: Extensive mapping was carried out in the 1980s (Bulgargeomin 198x) and
there is a potential for exploitable graphite outside the mined area.
x
Balama-Montepuez: A large area on sheet 1338 Namuno, extending from Reteta in the
southwest to Montepuez in the northeast. Although the grain size of the graphite flakes
varies along the zone, good quality graphite was identified. The graphite occurrences in the
north-central part of sheet 1338 Namuno seem to be of more limited extent.
x
Mazeze region: This is a large area on sheet 1340 Mecufi, where coarse-grained
graphite flakes occur in different tectonic complexes. The western limit of this area is
uncertain; the field defined mainly shows the area with highest density of registered
occurrences. Graphite is also observed further west of Namapa to the south of the Rio
Lurio.
Electromagnetic measurements should have been conducted as part of the newly performed
airborne surveys, and are recommended for the future. These would allow better identification
and recognition of graphite-bearing rocks (and other conductive zones), as well as favourable
structures for more local enrichments.
14.6 Carbonate minerals
14.6.1 Marble in the Meso- to Neoproterozoic complexes
No areas of carbonate rocks within these complexes have been delineated on the accompanying
resource potential maps. The mapped marbles are shown on the bedrock maps. There is
insufficient analytical data to indicate which marbles have a better potential for use as
industrial minerals, but some samples of pure calcite marble have been found. Calcite marble is
ideal for lime production. The presence of magnesite in the marble north of Lalamo on sheet
1239 Meluco is also worth noting. Magnesite of sedimentary origin is a preferred resource for
magnesia production compared to magnesite derived from the alteration of ultramafic igneous
rocks because it has much lower Cr and Ni contents.
14.6.2 Geci meta-carbonate rocks
The Geci meta-carbonate rocks occur in several tectonic lenses south of the Maniamba Graben.
They have been intensely sheared and jointed which prevents their use as dimension stone. The
low metamorphic grade and essentially calcitic composition of the rocks is favourable for lime
and cement production, and small-scale production of lime has taken place periodically in the
area since the 1970s. However, irregular and locally pervasive dolomitisation create serious
obstacles even for a medium-scale industrial use of the limestone.
755
14.7 Quartz, quartzite

Bodies of rather pure hydrothermal quartz have been identified by preliminary sampling and
analyses. Some of these deserve follow-up investigations. Preliminary analyses also indicate
interesting kyanite-quartzites that might represent a resource for high purity quartz (HPQ).
Kyanite-quartzites, other than the Rio Levele deposit, which has been investigated, should be
investigated and tested.
Ihlen (2000) presented three general models for the development of kyanite quartzites:
x Metamorphosed advanced argillic alteration zones composed dominantly of quartz, Alsilicates (clays) and subordinate Al-hydroxides (gibbsite). During metamorphism the
clay minerals transform to quartz and kyanite, andalusite or sillimanite, depending on
the metamorphic grade.
x Metamorphism of high-alumina sediments; aluminous clays and quartz sand, which are
weathering products of altered subvolcanic and volcanic rocks. The Al-rich siliceous
sediments were redistributed and deposited in basins, in which further Al-enrichment
occurred due to the hydrothermal activity of adjacent volcanic centres.
x Structurally controlled syn-metamorphic metasomatism. The close proximity of some
kyanite quartzites to faults and shears in metamorphic terrains has led to models
advocating shear-induced syn-metamorphic metasomatism of quartz-feldspar rocks.
The three models of formation of kyanite quartzites explain the strong enrichment of alumina
and silica in the protoliths and the depletion of alkalis in different ways. However, the
formation of HPQ in these is not well understood.
14.8 Talc
Ultramafic bodies in the Lalamo Complex on sheet 1340 Mecufi should be investigated for
their talc potential. During the mapping programme enrichments of talc were noted in several
localities, both in a large body at Monte Nicuculo along the main Pemba-Metoro road, and in
small bodies south of this, e.g. at UTM 37S 631219, 8545982. Three of these bodies, in which
talc was observed, have been marked on the area of resource potential maps. The same bodies
could also be evaluated as a resource for soapstone.
Talc has a wide variety of uses as a filler in different products, e.g. paper, plastics, paint and
pharmaceutical products. Additional advantages include oil and grease absorption capabilities,
which are relevant for use of talc in e.g. paints, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products.
14.9 Dimension stone
Several rocks that have a potential to be used as dimension stone are described in Chapter
13.10.4. The outlines of the most easy accessible parts of these bodies are shown in the 'Areas
of resource potential' maps. Further exploitation is heavily dependent on infrastructure and the
market situation. The use of the rocks in local construction activities is widespread, but is not
further evaluated here.
14.10 Precious/semi-precious stones
A few areas with small deposits exploited by local people are marked on the maps. The areas,
in which clusters of occurrences of stones in pegmatites have been registered include:
x Marrupa (sheet 1137 Marrupa)
x Southeastern part of Mueda (sheets 1139 Mueda and 1239 Meluco)
x Mirrote (sheet 1339 Montepuez)
Minor exploitation of semi-precious stones has also been registered in other geological
settings. One of the more interesting occurrences is the Rio Muthicana corundum occurrence
756
on sheet 1340 Mecufi, although we do not know if gemstone quality rubies have been found.
The corundum occurrences in the Nanlicha area, in the west-central part of sheet 1238 Xixano,
might be of a similar type. The investigated area comprises about 80 km2 in the Nanlicha
region, and some good red 'pigeon blood' rubies (up to 2 carats) are found in hornblendites and
in eluvial deposits (1,5 m thick) (Marques & de Sousa, 2002).
14.11 Coal
Coal seams have been investigated in detail in several Permo-Jurassic basins in northeastern
Mozambique. The most extensive of these, the coal seams in the southwest part of the
Maniamba Graben, are well documented and shown on the maps, but their location, quality and
size (see Chapters 6.18 and 13.12) do not favour exploitation in the near future. The coal seams
in the minor basins are insignificant, and are, in any case, located in remote areas.
14.12 Kimberlite
Kimberlites that intrude Karoo sedimentary rocks were found in the Maniamba Graben by a
group of Russian geologists in the late 1970s (Jakovenko & others, 1979). 43 kimberlite dykes,
as well as an unknown number of basaltic kimberlites and 4 isometric bodies (pipes) were
discovered in the southwestern part of the graben (in the basins of the Lunho and Fge rivers).
One of the pipes gives an age of around 138 Ma (see section 11.16). The kimberlite dykes cut
through the entire Karoo sequence, implying that the dykes post-date all the Karoo sedimentary
rocks. Various kimberlitic minerals (pyrope garnet, Mg-magnetite, Mg-ilmenite as well as
fragmented diamonds) have been registered in the basal conglomerates (K7 unit) of the upper
Karoo (Lchelt 2004), suggesting that there are also pre-upper Karoo kimberlites within the
graben. It is therefore possible that more than one generation of kimberlite intrusives is present
in the graben, and that more kimberlites are likely to be found outside of the studied area.
Prospective areas include the northern sides of the Rio Lunho and Rio Fge, and the Rio
Messinge basin where indicator minerals have been found. It is suggested that the amount of
erosion decreases towards the source of the Rio Messinge where there is a better chance of
finding less eroded (and therefore larger) kimberlite pipes.
Diamondiferous kimberlites have not been verified so far. The samples studied in this
project (see section 6.19) indicate that the host rocks are macrocrystic hypabyssal Group Ia
kimberlites based on their mineralogy and whole rock geochemistry, as well as on SEM
analyses of various macrocrysts and groundmass minerals. A general rule for Group 1
kimberlites is that the dykes associated with diamondiferous pipes are often barren and the aim
of any future prospecting should be to find more pipes.
The new, high-resolution airborne magnetic data are useful in helping locate additional
kimberlites (Figure 14.58). New, interesting anomalies are mainly located north of the
previously mapped kimberlites and the inferred dykes have similar trends, mostly northnorthwest south-southeast. In addition to the assumed kimberlites shown in Figure 14.58, a
small circular magnetic anomaly is registered in the northernmost part ot the graben; UTM 36S
772500, 8703000, sheet 1136 Lupilichi. These indications should be verified on the ground,
especially the assumed pipes. It is recommended that the whole area of the Karoo graben, as
well as its immediately adjacent basement, should be surveyed using high-resolution airborne
gravity. Heavy-mineral sampling of the area, including analysis of indicator minerals should
also be performed.
757
Sm-Nd data (Saranga, 2004) suggests that there may be Archaean crust beneath the
Ponta Messuli Complex/Txitonga Group in the west, and it could be of great importance if that
extends beneath the Maniamba Graben.
Figure 14.58: Magnetic map (vertical gradient, 1st derivative) of the southwest part of the
Maniamba Graben showing; above) the outline of the graben (yellow line), the area previously
studied in detail showing mapped kimberlites (white lines) (Stajilo-Alekseev, 1983) and below)
interpreted additional kimberlite dykes and pipes (blue lines). (Grid of 1:50.000 scale maps
width of area about 75 km). (The prominent southwest-northeast-trending feature in the centre
of the graben is the boundary between Blocks 6 E and 6W in the geophysical contract, in which
flight directions differed).
758
Rocks resembling lamproites (an ultrapotassic, mantle-derived volcanic rock) have been
discovered in the Xixano Complex: such rocks can be diamond-bearing, as illustrated by the
Argyle field in West Australia.
14.13 Petroleum systems and hydrocarbon potential
Potential source rocks for hydrocarbons are thought to be present in the syn-rift and early drift
sequence throughout the Rovuma Basin, but little has been documented. Analyses of the
several seeps encountered in the basin point to two distinct types of oils, proving the existence
of active petroleum systems. These are interpreted as having been derived from source rocks of
Jurassic and/or older age.
The basin contains several intervals of good-quality reservoir rocks. The pre-late drift
continental deposits (pre-Lower Cretaceous) found onshore in the northwest Rovuma Basin are
generally expected to show mostly low effective porosity due to diagenesis, but the
contemporaneous paralic and shallow marine clastics towards the east and southeast are
expected to have fair to good reservoir potential, with moderate to small reduction of porosity.
The Aptian-Albian succession comprises reservoir sands of good quality.
In the Mocambia-1 well, oil traces were recorded in limestones and sandier horizons
below 1715 m (i.e Oligocene and older strata). The main reservoir unit is, however, in channel
sandstones of Albian age deposited towards the proximal part of a turbidite fan. Strong gas
shows, and possibly condensate, were encountered in the sand horizons within the interval
from 3291-3409m.
The recent onshore mapping program has documented that similar Aptian-Albian
turbidite sandstone systems are present over larger areas to the south in the Rovuma Basin
(Key et al., 2006; Smelror et al., 2006). As in the Aptian-Albian fans found in the onshore parts
of the basin, good reservoir units are expected in Upper Cretaceous-Lower Tertiary fan
systems in the offshore domain. Good-quality reservoir rocks are also proven in the delta plain
and slope, and pro-delta sandstones in the Upper Tertiary Rovuma Delta. The Mnazi Bay-1
well drilled in Tanzania just north of the Mozambican border in 1982 tested gas rates up to
14mmcf/d from Oligocene sands of the Rovuma Delta Complex.
Potential hydrocarbon plays in the Rovuma Basin include traps in pre-rift fault blocks
(Late Carboniferous to Triassic), stratigraphic traps in Middle-Upper Jurassic shelf-edge
carbonates and Middle-Upper Cretaceous sands. Younger hydrocarbon plays include
stratigraphic traps in Lower Tertiary basin-floor fans and structural traps associated with
deltaic growth faults in Oligocene-Miocene deltaic sands, as proven by the Mnazi-Bay 1
discovery in the Tanzanian sector. There is also interest in potential structural traps for Upper
Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sand reservoirs on the Ibo High (Coster et al., 1989; Salman &
Abdula, 1995).
14.14 Summary
Gold in the Niassa Gold Belt is economically the most significant known mineral resource in
northeastern Mozambique today. The kimberlites of the Maniamba graben have great potential
if they are found to be diamondiferous. Heavy minerals, graphite, copper, special metals and
high-purity quartz could also be of great economic interest, while construction material and
precious stones are important on a local scale. Economically viable hydrocarbon fields, if they
were to be discovered in the Rovuma Basin, could overshadow all other resources.
759
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Ministry of Mineral Resources and Energy

National Directorate of Geology

CREDIT NO. NDF 335

MINERAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Norconsult (Mozambique) Lda

MINERAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT CAPACITY BUILDING PROJECT,

REPORT No. B6.f

MINISTRIO DOS RECURSOS MINERAIS E ENERGIA

DIRECO NACIONAL DE GEOLOGIA

Escala / Scale 1:250 000

MINERAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Electronically available on CD-ROM from:

+27 (012) 8411018

Price available on request

Rognvald Boyd, NGU

Leucogranitic gneiss (11239 Ma, U-Pb) (Mocuba Suite) (Unit P2NMlc)........61

Ultramafic rocks (Unit P2UNpx) ..................................................................... 118

Quartz mica gneiss and schist, locally graphite-bearing (Unit P3Xqm)...........163

Syn- to post-tectonic intrusions in the Xixano Complex .................................291

Background ...................................................................................................... 439

Asymmetric north-verging, thrust-related folds ...............................................487

Structures observed on sheets 1535-1536 Insaca-Guru, 1635 Milange and 1636

Zircon U-Pb data ..............................................................................................649

Mirrote/Maravone haematite-magnetite occurrence........................................ 713

Copper and nickel-copper.................................................................................752

1.1 Geology, geochemistry and geochronology

Figure 1.1: Overview of the main geological units in northeastern Mozambique.

regional north-northeast - south-southwest-trending synform. The paragneisses include various

Mainly shoshonitic Atype

High/variable Zr, Ba, Sr

Mafic, low-K to intermed.

Partly high Ba and

1.3 Pre-Karoo Geochronology, Metamorphism and Tectonics

Figure 1.2: Tectonostratigraphic overview of the Proterozoic units in northern Mozambique.

x The high-resolution geophysical data allow the identification of a crustal-scale set of

north-south-/northeast-southwest-trending shear zones of probable Ordovician age, related to

Carbonate minerals: Marble and limestone are registered in different sequences of

2.1 Geologia, geoqumica e geocronologia

Figura 2.1: Panormica das principais unidades geolgicas do nordeste de Moambique.

Complexo de Nampula: O Complexo de Nampula estruturalmente composto por blocos

grosseira, incluindo variedades bandeadas e migmatticas. Com base nas assembleias

Complexo de Lalamo: O Complexo de Lalamo est situado a leste e norte do Complexo de

Complexo de Ocua: O Complexo de Ocua uma mistura tectnica, composta

dolomite. H stios em que as caractersticas primrias de deposio se encontram bem

Zr, Ba, Sr e LREE

rochas mficas de baixo K

Calcula-se que a sequncia de eventos tectnicos se tenha realizado da seguinte maneira:

Figura 2.2: Panormica tectono-estratigrfica das unidades proterozicas do Nordeste de

resultantes da extrema tenso de cisalhamento que afectou toda a regio. As dobras

3.1 Project background

3.4 Regional studies from neighbouring countries

3.6 Critical questions on the geology of the region

GEOGRAPHY OF THE REGION

4.1 Physical geography

METHODOLOGIES AND PROCEDURES

5.1 Existing data sets

5.1.5 Mineral resource maps

LITHODEMIC AND LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNITS

6.1.1 Overview of the geology

Figure 6.1: Overview of the main geological units in northeastern Mozambique.

Ponta Messuli Complex

Figure 6.2: Typical migmatitic gneiss with

Figure 6.3: Migmatitic gneiss with large