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Propositional Logic

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Chapter 1a
Propositional Logic
Discrete Structures for Computing (CO1007)

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction

(Materials drawn from Chapter 1 in:

Basic and Derived Rules


Intuitionistic Logic

Michael Huth and Mark Ryan. Logic in Computer Science: Modelling and
Reasoning about Systems, 2nd Ed., Cambridge University Press, 2006.)

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form

Nguyen An Khuong, Huynh Tuong Nguyen


Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering
University of Technology, VNU-HCM

Homeworks and Next


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1a.1

Contents

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

1 Propositional Calculus: Declarative Sentences


2 Propositional Calculus: Natural Deduction

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Excursion: Intuitionistic Logic

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

3 Propositional Logic as a Formal Language

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

4 Semantics of Propositional Logic

Meaning of Logical Connectives


Preview: Soundness and Completeness

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

5 Conjunctive Normal Form


6 Required Texts/Materials

Normal Form
Homeworks and Next
Week Plan?
Required
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1a.2

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

1 Propositional Calculus: Declarative Sentences


2 Propositional Calculus: Natural Deduction
Contents

3 Propositional Logic as a Formal Language

Introduction
Declarative Sentences

4 Semantics of Propositional Logic

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules

5 Conjunctive Normal Form

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics

6 Required Texts/Materials

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.3

Propositional Calculus

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Study of atomic propositions

Propositions are built from sentences whose internal structure is


not of concern.
For atomic propositions, see slide 1a.59

Contents
Introduction

Building propositions

Boolean operators are used to construct propositions out of


simpler propositions.

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Example for Propositional Calculus

Formal Language
Semantics

Atomic proposition: One plus one equals two.


Atomic proposition: The earth revolves around the sun.
Combined proposition: One plus one equals two and the

earth revolves around the sun.

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.4

Goals and Main Result of Propositional Calculus

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Meaning of formula

Associate meaning to a set of formulas by assigning a value true or


false to every formula in the set.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences

Proofs

Symbol sequence that formally establishes whether a formula is


always true.

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

Soundness and completeness

The set of provable formulas is the same as the set of formulas


which are always true.

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.5

Uses of Propositional Calculus

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Hardware design

The production of logic circuits uses propositional calculus at all


phases; specification, design, testing.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences

Verification

Verification of hardware and software makes extensive use of


propositional calculus.

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

Problem solving

Decision problems (scheduling, timetabling, etc) can be expressed


as satisfiability problems in propositional calculus.

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.6

Predicate Calculus: Central ideas

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Richer language

Instead of dealing with atomic propositions (bin mnh /mnh


nguyn t), predicate calculus provides the formulation of
statements involving sets, functions and relations on these sets.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences

Quantifiers

Predicate calculus provides statements that all or some elements


of a set have specified properties.

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

Compositionality

Similar to propositional calculus, formulas can be built from


composites using logical connectives.

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.7

The uses of Predicate Calculus

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Progamming Language Semantics


The meaning of programs such as
ifx >= 0theny := sqrt(x)elsey := abs(x)
can be captured with formulas of predicate calculus:

xy(x0 = x (x 0 y 0 = x) ((x 0) y 0 = |x|))

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction

Other Uses of Predicate Calculus


Specification: Formally specify the purpose of a program in order to
serve as input for software design,

Verification: Prove the correctness of a program with respect to its


specification.

Basic and Derived Rules


Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.8

An Example for Specification

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Let P be a program of the form


while a <> b do
if a > b then a := a - b else a:= b - a;
The specification of the program is given by the formula

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules

{a 0 b 0} P {a = gcd(a, b)}

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.9

Logic in Theorem Proving, Logic Programming, and Other


Systems of Logic

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Theorem proving

Formal logic has been used to design programs that can


automatically prove mathematical theorems.
Logic programming

Research in theorem proving has led to an efficient way of proving


formulas in predicate calculus, called resolution, which forms the
basis for logic programming.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules

Some Other Systems of Logic

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

Three-valued logic: A third truth value (denoting dont

know or undetermined) is often useful.


Intuitionistic logic: A mathematical object is accepted only

if a finite construction can be given for it.


Temporal logic: Integrates time-dependent constructs such

as (always and eventually) explicitly into a logic


framework; useful for reasoning about real-time systems.

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.10

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

1 Propositional Calculus: Declarative Sentences


2 Propositional Calculus: Natural Deduction
Contents

3 Propositional Logic as a Formal Language

Introduction
Declarative Sentences

4 Semantics of Propositional Logic

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules

5 Conjunctive Normal Form

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics

6 Required Texts/Materials

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.11

Declarative Sentences
The language of propositional logic is based on propositions or
declarative sentences.

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Declarative Sentences

Sentences which one canin principleargue as being true or


false.
Contents

Examples

Introduction
Declarative Sentences

The sum of the numbers 3 and 5 equals 8.

Jane reacted violently to Jacks accusations.

Every natural number > 2 is the sum of two prime numbers.


All Martians like pepperoni on their pizza.

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives

Not Examples

Preview: Soundness and


Completeness

Normal Form

Could you please pass me the salt?


Ready, steady, go!
May fortune come your way.

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1a.12

Putting Propositions Together


Example 1.1

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

If the train arrives late and


there are no taxis at the station then
John is late for his meeting.
John is not late for his meeting.

Contents
Introduction

The train did arrive late.

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

Therefore, there were taxis at the station.

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules

Example 1.2

If it is raining and
Jane does not have her umbrella with her then
she will get wet.
Jane is not wet.
It is raining.

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
Homeworks and Next
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Therefore, Jane has her umbrella with her.


1a.13

Focus on Structure
We are primarily concerned about the structure of arguments in
this class, not the validity of statements in a particular domain.

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

We therefore simply abbreviate sentences by letters such as p, q, r,


p1 , p2 etc.
From Concrete Propositions to Letters - Example 1.1

If the train arrives late and


there are no taxis at the station then
John is late for his meeting.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction

John is not late for his meeting.

Basic and Derived Rules


Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

The train did arrive late.

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives

Therefore, there were taxis at the station.

Preview: Soundness and


Completeness

Normal Form

becomes
Letter version

If p and not q, then r. Not r. p. Therefore, q.

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1a.14

Focus on Structure

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

From Concrete Propositions to Letters - Example 1.2

If it is raining and
Jane does not have her umbrella with her then
she will get wet.
Jane is not wet.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents

It is raining.

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Therefore, Jane has her umbrella with her.

Formal Language
Semantics

has
the same letter version

If p and not q, then r. Not r. p. Therefore, q.

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.15

Logical Connectives

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Notations/Symbols

Sentences like If p and not q, then r. occur frequently. Instead


of English words such as if...then, and, not, it is more
convenient to use symbols such as , , .

Contents
Introduction

: negation of p is denoted by p.
: disjunction of p and r is denoted by p r, meaning at least
one of the two statements is true.
: conjunction of p and r is denoted by p r, meaning both are
true.
: implication between p and r is denoted by p r, meaning
that r is a logical consequence of p. p is called the antecedent
(mnh ng trc), and r the consequent (mnh kt
qu).

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.16

Example 1.1 Revisited

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

From Example 1.1

If the train arrives late and


there are no taxis at the station then
John is late for his meeting.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences

Symbolic Propositions

We replaced the train arrives late by p, etc.

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules

The statement becomes: If p and not q, then r.

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics

Symbolic Connectives

With symbolic connectives, the statement becomes:

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form

p q r

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1a.17

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

1 Propositional Calculus: Declarative Sentences


2 Propositional Calculus: Natural Deduction

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Excursion: Intuitionistic Logic

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

3 Propositional Logic as a Formal Language

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

4 Semantics of Propositional Logic

Formal Language
Semantics

5 Conjunctive Normal Form


6 Required Texts/Materials

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
Homeworks and Next
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1a.18

Introduction

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Objective

We would like to develop a calculus for reasoning about


propositions, so that we can establish the validity of statements
such as Example 1.1.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences

Idea

We introduce proof rules that allow us to derive a formula from


a number of other formulas 1 , 2 , . . . n .

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

Notation

We write a sequent 1 , 2 , . . . , n `
to denote that we can derive (conclusion - kt lun) from
1 , 2 , . . . , n (premises - cc tin ).

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.19

Example 1.1 Revisited

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

English

If the train arrives late and


there are no taxis at the station then
John is late for his meeting.
John is not late for his meeting.

Contents
Introduction

The train did arrive late.

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents

Therefore, there were taxis at the station.

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Sequent

Formal Language
Semantics

p q r, r, p ` q

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form

Remaining task

Homeworks and Next


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Develop a set of proof rules that allows us to establish such


sequents.

Required
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1a.20

Propositional Logic

Rules for Conjunction

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Introduction of Conjunction

Contents

[i]

Introduction

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules

Elimination of Conjunction

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics

[e1 ]

Meaning of Logical
Connectives

[e2 ]

Preview: Soundness and


Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.21

Propositional Logic

Example of Proof

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

To show
p q, r ` q r.

How to start?
Contents

pq

r,

Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

q r.

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Proof Step-by-Step
1

p q (premise)

r (premise)

q (by using Rule e2 and Item 1)

q r (by using Rule i and Items 3 and 2)

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.22

Propositional Logic

Graphical Representation of Proof

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

pq

Introduction

[e2 ]

Declarative Sentences

Natural Deduction

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction

[i]
qr

Basic and Derived Rules


Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.23

Where are we heading with this?

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

We would like to prove sequents of the form

1 , 2 , . . . , n `
We introduce rules that allow us to form legal proofs
Then any proof of any formula using the premises

1 , 2 , . . . , n is considered correct.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents

Can we say that sequents with a correct proof are somehow

valid, or meaningful?
What does it mean to be meaningful?
Can we say that any meaningful sequent has a valid proof?
...but first back to the proof rules...

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.24

Rules of Double Negation and Eliminating Implication

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Double Negation

[e]

[i]

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

Eliminating Implication

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

[ e]

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form

Example

p:= It rained, and p q:= If it rained, then the street is wet.


We can conclude from these two that the street is indeed wet.

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1a.25

Propositional Logic

Modus Ponens

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

The rule

[ e]

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

is often called Modus Ponens (or MP)

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction

Origin of term

Modus ponens is an abbreviation of the Latin modus ponendo


ponens which means in English mode that affirms by affirming.
More precisely, we could say mode that affirms the antecedent of
an implication.

Basic and Derived Rules


Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.26

Propositional Logic

Modus Tollens

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

A similar rule of Modus Ponens,

[M T ]

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents

is called Modus Tollens (or MT).

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Origin of term

Modus tollens is an abbreviation of the Latin modus tollendo


tollens which means in English mode that denies by denying.
More precisely, we could say mode that denies the consequent of
an implication.

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.27

Propositional Logic

Example

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

p (q r), p, r ` q
1
2
3
4
5

p (q r)
p
r
qr
q

premise
premise
premise
e 1,2
MT 4,3

Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.28

How to introduce implication?

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Compare the sequent (MT)


p q, q ` p

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

with the sequent

Sequents

p q ` q p
The second sequent should be provable, but we dont have a rule
to introduce implication yet!

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.29

Propositional Logic

A Proof We Would Like To Have

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

p q ` q p
1

pq

premise

Contents
Introduction

2
3

q
p

assumption
MT 1,2

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents

q p

i 23

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

We can start a box with an assumption, and use previously proven


propositions (including premises) from the outside in the box.
We cannot use assumptions from inside the box in rules outside
the box.

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.30

Propositional Logic

Rule for Introduction of Implication

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Introduction of Implication

Contents
Introduction

..
.

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules

Intuitionistic Logic

[ i]

Formal Language
Semantics

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.31

Propositional Logic

Rule for Disjunction

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Introduction of Disjunction

[i1 ]

[i2 ]

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

Elimination of Disjunction

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

..
.

..
.

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form


[e]

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1a.32

Propositional Logic

Example

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

1
2
3

p (q r)
p
qr

premise
e1 1
e2 1

4
5
6

q
pq
(p q) (p r)

assumption
i 2,4
i1 5

7
8
9

r
pr
(p q) (p r)

assumption
i 2,7
i2 8

10

(p q) (p r)

e 3, 46, 79

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.33

Special Propositions

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Recall: We are only interested in the truth value of

propositions, not the subject matter that they refer to.


Therefore, all propositions that we all agree must be true are

the same!

Contents
Introduction

Example: p p, p p

Declarative Sentences

We denote the proposition that is always true (tautology)

Natural Deduction

using the symbol >.

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Another Special Proposition

Formal Language
Semantics

Similarly, we denote the proposition that is always false

(contradiction) using the symbol .


Example: p p

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.34

Propositional Logic

Rule for Negation

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Elimination of Negation

[e]

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

Introduction of Negation

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

..
.

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form

[i]

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1a.35

Propositional Logic

Elimination of

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Elimination of

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences

Natural Deduction

[e]

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.36

Propositional Logic

Basic Rules (conjunction and disjunction)

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

[i]

[e1 ]

[e2 ]

Contents

Introduction

[ii ]

..
.

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
[e]
Preview: Soundness and

[i2 ]

Natural Deduction

..
.


Declarative Sentences

Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.37

Propositional Logic

Basic Rules (implication)

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

..
.

Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

Sequents

[ i]

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules

[ e]

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.38

Propositional Logic

Basic Rules (negation)

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

..
.

Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

Sequents

[i]

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules

[e]

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.39

Propositional Logic

Basic Rules ( and double negation)

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

[e]

Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction

Basic and Derived Rules


Intuitionistic Logic

[e]

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.40

Some Derived Rules: Introduction of Double Negation

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents
Introduction

Declarative Sentences

[i]

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.41

Example: Deriving [ i] from [ i] and [ e]

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

1
2
3

premise
assumption
e 1,2

Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction

i 23

Basic and Derived Rules


Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.42

Propositional Logic

Some Derived Rules: Modus Tollens

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents
Introduction

Declarative Sentences

[M T ]

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.43

Some Derived Rules: Proof By Contradiction

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

..
.

Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

Sequents

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules

[PBC]

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

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1a.44

Some Derived Rules: Law of Excluded Middle

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences

[LEM]

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
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1a.45

Propositional Logic

Motivation

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Consider the following theorem.


Theorem

There exist irrational numbers a and b such that ab is rational.


Let us call this theorem . We give a Proof Outline for .
Let p be the following proposition.

Contents
Introduction

Proposition p

Declarative Sentences

Natural Deduction

is rational.

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction

Then the proof of goes like this:




Basic and Derived Rules

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

[LEM ]
p p


p
..
.

p
..
.

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form

[e]

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1a.46

Propositional Logic

In detail (1)

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

p
..
.

Contents

Natural Deduction

Introduction
Declarative Sentences

Sequents

Assume 2 is rational. Choose a and b to be 2, and we have


found irrational a and b such that ab is rational. Thus Theorem
holds under the assumption p.

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.47

Propositional Logic

In detail (2)

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

p
..
.

Contents
Introduction

Declarative Sentences

Assume 2 is irrational. Choose a to be


Then we have

a =( 2
b

2 2


( 2 2)

and b to be

Natural Deduction

2.

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

= ( 2)2 = 2.

As 2 is rational, Theorem holds under the assumption p.

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
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1a.48

Propositional Logic

Summary of Proof for

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Proposition p

is rational.

Contents


[LEM ]
p p


Introduction
Declarative Sentences

p
..
.

p
..
.

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

[e]

There exist irrational numbers a and b such that ab is rational...

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.49

Propositional Logic

The Magic of LEM

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

There exist irrational numbers a and b such that ab is rational.


But: If they exist, do you have an example?
Probablya =

that

Note:

and b =

Introduction

2..., but we havent proven

is irrational!

2

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction

=2

Using
LEM, we can make use of the probable irrationality of

Contents

without having to prove it!

Basic and Derived Rules


Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
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1a.50

Propositional Logic

Intuitionistic Logic

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Intuitionistic logic does not accept the derived rule LEM.


The underlying argument for LEM is elimination of double
negation.

Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

Sequents

[e]

Contents

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.51

Propositional Logic

Deriving LEM using Basic Rules

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

1
2
3
4

( )

assumption
assumption
i1 2
e 3,1

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

5
6
7
8
9

( )

i 24
i2 5
e 6,1
i 17
e

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

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1a.52

Intuitionistic Logic
Intuitionistic logic is obtained from natural deduction by removing
the rule e.

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

History of Intuitionistic Logic


Late 19th century: Gottlob Frege proposes to reduce

mathematics to set theory.

Contents

Russell destroys this programme via paradox.

Introduction

In response, L.E.J. Brouwer proposes intuitionistic

Declarative Sentences

mathematics, with intuitionistic logic as its formal foundation.


An alternative response is Hilberts formalistic position.

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

Applications of Intuitionistic Logic

Semantics

Intuitionistic logic has a strong connection to computability


For example, if we have an intuitionistic proof of

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
Homeworks and Next
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Theorem
b

There exist irrational numbers a and b such that a is rational.

Required
Texts/Materials

then we would know irrational a and b such that ab is rational.


1a.53

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

1 Propositional Calculus: Declarative Sentences


2 Propositional Calculus: Natural Deduction
Contents

3 Propositional Logic as a Formal Language

Introduction
Declarative Sentences

4 Semantics of Propositional Logic

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules

5 Conjunctive Normal Form

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics

6 Required Texts/Materials

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.54

Recap: Logical Connectives

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

: negation of p is denoted by p.
: disjunction of p and r is denoted by p r, meaning at least
one of the two statements is true.
: conjunction of p and r is denoted by p r, meaning both are
true.
: implication between p and r is denoted by p r, meaning
that r is a logical consequence of p.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.55

Formal itemize Required

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Use of Meta-Language

When we describe rules such as

[LEM ]

we mean that letters such as can be replaced by any formula.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

But what exactly is the set of formulas that can be used for ?
Allowed

(p (q))

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics

Not allowed

) p q(

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
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1a.56

Definition of Well-formed Formulas

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Definition
Contents

Every propositional atom p, q, r, . . . and p1 , p2 , p3 , . . . is a

well-formed formula.
If is a well-formed formula, then so is ().
If and are well-formed formulas, then so is ( ).
If and are well-formed formulas, then so is ( ).
If and are well-formed formulas, then so is ( ).

Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

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1a.57

Propositional Logic

Definition very restrictive

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

How about this formula?


p q r
Usually, this is understood to mean

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents

((p (q)) r)

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

...but for the formal treatment of this section and the first
homework, we insist on the strict definition, and exclude such
formulas.

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
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1a.58

Backus Naur Form: A more compact definition

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Backus Naur Form for propositional formulas

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences

::= p|()|( )|( )|( )

Natural Deduction
Sequents

where p stands for any atomic proposition (bin mnh /mnh


nguyn t).

Rules for natural deduction


Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.59

Inversion principle

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

How can we show that a a formula such as

Contents
Introduction

(((p) q) (p (q (r))))

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

is well-formed?
Answer: We look for the only applicable rule in the definition (the
last rule in this case), and proceed on the parts.

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.60

Propositional Logic

Parse trees

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

A formula
(((p) q) (p (q (r))))

...and its parse tree:

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences

Natural Deduction
Sequents

Rules for natural deduction

Basic and Derived Rules


Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.61

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

1 Propositional Calculus: Declarative Sentences


2 Propositional Calculus: Natural Deduction
3 Propositional Logic as a Formal Language

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences

4 Semantics of Propositional Logic

Meaning of Logical Connectives


Preview: Soundness and Completeness

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

5 Conjunctive Normal Form

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives

6 Required Texts/Materials

Preview: Soundness and


Completeness

Normal Form
Homeworks and Next
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1a.62

Meaning of propositional formula

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Meaning as mathematical object

We define the meaning of formulas as a function that maps


formulas and valuations to truth values.
Contents

Approach

We define this mapping based on the structure of the formula,


using the meaning of their logical connectives.

Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction

Truth Values

The set of truth values contains two elements T and F, where T


represents true and F represents false.
Valuations

Basic and Derived Rules


Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form

A valuation or model of a formula is an assignment of each


propositional atom in to a truth value.

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1a.63

Propositional Logic

Meaning of logical connectives

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

The meaning of a connective is defined as a truth table that gives


the truth value of a formula, whose root symbol is the connective,
based on the truth values of its components.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
F
F
F

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.64

Propositional Logic

Truth tables of formulas

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Truth tables use placeholders of formulas such as :

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
F
F
F

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction

Build the truth table for given formula:


p
T
T
..
.

q
T
T

r
T
F

(p q)
T
T

((p q) r)
T
F

Basic and Derived Rules


Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.65

Propositional Logic

Truth tables of other connectives

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
T
T
F

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
F
T
T

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

T
F

F
T

Formal Language

>
T

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

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1a.66

Constructing the truth table of a formula

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

p
T
T
F
F

q
T
F
T
F

(p)
F
F
T
T

q
F
T
F
T

p q
F
T
T
T

q p
T
F
T
T

(p q) (q p)
T
F
T
T

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.67

Validity and Satisfiability

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Validity

Contents
Introduction

A formula is valid if it computes T for all its valuations.

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

Satisfiability

Sequents

A formula is satisfiable if it computes T for at least one of its


valuations.

Basic and Derived Rules

Rules for natural deduction

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.68

Semantic Entailment, Soundness and Completeness of


Propositional Logic

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Semantic Entailment

If, for all valuations in which all 1 , 2 , . . . , n evaluate to T, the


formula evaluates to T as well, we say that 1 , 2 , . . . , n
semantically entail , written:

Contents
Introduction

1 , 2 , . . . , n |=

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules

Soundness

Let 1 , 2 , . . . , n and be propositional formulas. If


1 , 2 , . . . , n ` , then 1 , 2 , . . . , n |= .
Completeness

Let 1 , 2 , . . . , n and be propositional formulas. If


1 , 2 , . . . , n |= , then 1 , 2 , . . . , n ` .

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.69

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

1 Propositional Calculus: Declarative Sentences


2 Propositional Calculus: Natural Deduction
Contents

3 Propositional Logic as a Formal Language

Introduction
Declarative Sentences

4 Semantics of Propositional Logic

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules

5 Conjunctive Normal Form

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics

6 Required Texts/Materials

Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.70

Propositional Logic

Conjunctive Normal Form

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Definition

A literal L is either an atom p or the negation of an atom p. A


formula C is in conjunctive normal form (CNF) if it is a
conjunction of clauses, where each clause is a disjunction of
literals:

Contents
Introduction

L ::= p|p,
D

::= L|L D,

::= D|D C.

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

Examples
(p q r) (q r) (r) is in CNF.
(p q r) ((p q) r) (r) is not in CNF.
(p q r) (q r) (r) is not in CNF.

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

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1a.71

Propositional Logic

Usefulness of CNF

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Lemma

A disjunction of literals L1 L2 Lm is valid iff there are


1 i, j m such that Li is Lj .
How to disprove

Contents
Introduction

|= (q p r) (p r) q?

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction

Disprove any of:

Sequents
Rules for natural deduction

|= (q p r)

|= (p r)

|= q.

Basic and Derived Rules


Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

How to prove

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives

|= (q p q) (p rp) (r r)?

Normal Form

Prove all of:


|= (q p q)

Preview: Soundness and


Completeness

Homeworks and Next


Week Plan?

|= (p rp)

|= (r r).

Required
Texts/Materials

1a.72

Usefulness of CNF (cont.) and Transformation to CNF

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Proposition

Let be a formula of propositional logic. Then is satisfiable iff


is not valid.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences

Satisfiability test

We can test satisfiability of by transforming into CNF, and


show that some clause is not valid.

Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language

Theorem-Transformation to CNF

Every formula in the propositional calculus can be transformed


into an equivalent formula in CNF.

Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
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1a.73

Algorithm for CNF Transformation

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Eliminate implication using:


A B A B.
Push all negations inward using De Morgans laws:
(A B) (A B),

Contents
Introduction

(A B) (A B).

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction

Eliminate double negations using the equivalence A A.

The formula now consists of disjunctions and conjunctions of


literals. Use the distributive laws to eliminate conjunctions
within disjunctions:
A (B C) (A B) (A C),

Basic and Derived Rules


Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
Homeworks and Next
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(A B) C (A C) (B C).

Required
Texts/Materials

1a.74

Propositional Logic

Example

Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents

(p q) (p q)

(p q) (p q)

Introduction
Declarative Sentences

(p q) (p q)

(p q) (p q)

Sequents

(p p q) (q p q)

Basic and Derived Rules

>.

Natural Deduction
Rules for natural deduction

Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
Homeworks and Next
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Required
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1a.75

Homeworks
I. Write down the explanations (in Vietnamese, or in English if
possible) of the following terms, find examples for each term,
what are the differences between them:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

fallacy, contradiction, paradox, counterexample, example;


premise, assumption, axiom, hypothesis, conjecture;
tautology, valid, contradiction, satisfiable;
soundness, completeness;
sequent, consequence, implication, entailment, deduction,
inference.

II. What are the differences between the following notations:


, =, `, |= ? And what are the differences between
the following notations: , , a`, , = ? Find
examples to illustrate these differences.
III. It is recommended that you should do as much as you can
ALL marked exercises in [2] (notice that sample solutions for
these exercises are available in [3]). For this lecture, the
following are recommended exercises [2]:
1.1: 1; 2d), 2g);
1.2: 1d), 1g), 1m), 1q), 1u), 1w), 3a), 3b), 3c), 3f), 3g), 3l), 3o);
4; 6-9
1.3: 4; 5; 8;
1.4: 12d);

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
Homeworks and Next
Week Plan?
Required
Texts/Materials

1a.76

Next Week?

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Contents
Introduction

Exercises Session;
Chapter 1b: Predicate Logic.

Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form
Homeworks and Next
Week Plan?
Required
Texts/Materials

1a.77

Required Texts/Materials

Propositional Logic
Nguyen An Khuong,
Huynh Tuong Nguyen

Electronic copies of [2-6] are available on the WWW, or upon


request to instructors.
1. Handouts (Obtained via SAKAI after classes.)
2. Michael R.A. Huth and Mark D. Ryan.Logic in Computer
Science (2nd Ed.), Cambridge University Press, 2004.
(Chapters 1, 2)
3. Michael R.A. Huth and Mark D. Ryan. Logic in Computer
Science: Solutions to designated exercises (2nd Ed.),
Cambridge University Press, 2004. (Chapters 1, 2)
4. E.A. Bender and S.G Williamson, A Short Course in Discrete
Mathematics, Dover, 2005.
5. K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications,
McGraw-Hill Education; 7th ed., 2011.

Contents
Introduction
Declarative Sentences
Natural Deduction
Sequents
Rules for natural deduction
Basic and Derived Rules
Intuitionistic Logic

Formal Language
Semantics
Meaning of Logical
Connectives
Preview: Soundness and
Completeness

Normal Form

6. K.H. Rosen, Teachers Manual to Discrete Mathematics and Its


Applications, McGraw-Hill Education; 7th ed., 2011.

Homeworks and Next


Week Plan?
Required
Texts/Materials

1a.78

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