Pitot-Static Systems[edit]

Altimeter[edit]
Main article: Altimeter

The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above sea-level by measuring the difference between
the pressure in a stack of aneroid capsules inside the altimeter and the atmospheric pressure
obtained through the static system. It is adjustable for local barometric pressure which must be
set correctly to obtain accurate altitude readings. As the aircraft ascends, the capsules expand
and the static pressure drops, causing the altimeter to indicate a higher altitude. The opposite
effect occurs when descending. With the advancement in aviation and increased altitude ceiling
the altimeter dial had to be altered for use both at higher and lower altitudes. Hence when the
needles were indicating lower altitudes i.e. the first 360 degree operation of the pointers was
delineated by the appearance of a small window with oblique lines warning the pilot that he/she
is nearer to the ground. This modification was introduced in the early sixties after the recurrence
of air accidents caused by the confusion in the pilot's mind. At higher altitudes the window will
disappear.[1]:3-3

Airspeed indicator[edit]
Main article: Airspeed indicator

The airspeed indicator shows the aircraft's speed (usually in knots ) relative to the
surrounding air. It works by measuring the ram-air pressure in the aircraft's Pitot
tube relative to the ambient static pressure. The Indicated airspeed (IAS) must be corrected
for nonstandard pressure and temperature in order to obtain the True airspeed (TAS). The
instrument is color coded to indicate important airspeeds such as the stall speed, neverexceed airspeed, or safe flap operation speeds.[1]:3-7 to 3-8

Vertical speed indicator[edit]

Main article: Vertical speed indicator

The VSI (also sometimes called a variometer, or rate of climb indicator) senses
changing air pressure, and displays that information to the pilot as a rate of climb or
descent in feet per minute, meters per second or knots.[1]:3-8 to 3-9

Compass Systems[edit]
Magnetic compass[edit]
Main article: Compass

The compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to magnetic north. Errors
include Variation, or the difference between magnetic and true direction, and
Deviation, caused by the electrical wiring in the aircraft, which requires a Compass
Correction Card. Additionally, the compass is subject to Dip Errors. While reliable in
steady level flight it can give confusing indications when turning, climbing,
descending, or accelerating due to the inclination of the Earth's magnetic field. For
this reason, the heading indicator is also used for aircraft operation, but periodically
calibrated against the compass.[1]:3-9 to 3-13, 3-19

Gyroscopic Systems[edit]
Attitude Indicator[edit]
Main article: Attitude indicator

The attitude indicator (also known as an artificial horizon) shows the aircraft's
relation to the horizon. From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are level
(roll) and if the aircraft nose is pointing above or below the horizon (pitch).[1]:3-18 to 319
This is a primary instrument for instrument flight and is also useful in
conditions of poor visibility. Pilots are trained to use other instruments in
combination should this instrument or its power fail.

Schempp-Hirth Janus-C glider Instrument panel equipped for "cloud flying". The turn
and bank indicator is top centre. The heading indicator is replaced by a GPS-driven
computer with wind and glide data, driving two electronic variometer displays to the
right.

Heading Indicator[edit]
Main article: Heading indicator

The heading indicator (also known as the directional gyro, or DG) displays
the aircraft's heading with respect to magnetic north when set with a
compass. Bearing friction causes drift errors from precession, which must
be periodically corrected by calibrating the instrument to the magnetic
compass.[1]:3-19 to 3-20 In many advanced aircraft (including almost all jet aircraft),
the heading indicator is replaced by a horizontal situation indicator (HSI)
which provides the same heading information, but also assists with
navigation.

Turn Indicator[edit]
Main article: Turn and slip indicator
These include the Turn-and-Slip Indicator and the Turn Coordinator, which
indicate rotation about the longitudinal axis. They include an inclinometer to
indicate if the aircraft is in Coordinated flight, or in a Slip or Skid. Additional
marks indicate a Standard rate turn.[1]:3-20 to 3-22

Flight Director Systems[edit]

Main article: Horizontal situation indicator
Main article: Attitude Director Indicator
These include the Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) and Attitude Director
Indicator (ADI). The HSI combines the magnetic compass with navigation
signals and a Glide slope. The navigation information comes from
a VOR/Localizer, or GPS. The ADI is an Attitude Indicator with computerdriven steering bars, a task reliever during instrument flight. [1]:3-22 to 3-23,7-10