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PS 015 604
Katz, Lilian G.
The Nature of Professions: Where Is Early Childhood
Education?
ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood
Education, Urbana, Ill.
Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),
Washington, DC.
Sep 85
400-83-0021
38p.; Based on a paper presented at the Early
Childhood Organisation Conference (Bristol, England,
United Kingdom, September 20, 1985). To be published
as a chapter in Current Topics in Early Childhood
Education, Volume 7, 1987, Ablex Publishing
Corporation, Norwood, NJ., Lilian G. Katz, Editor.
information Analyses - ERIC
Viewpoints (120)
Information Analysis Products (071)

MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.

Altruism; *Child Caregivers; *Early Childhood
Education; *Educational Practices; *Educational
Principles; Educational Theories; *Preschool
Teachers; Professional Autonomy; Professional
Development; Professional Education; *Professional
Recognition; Specialization; Standards; Teacher
Education
Professional Ethics; *Professionalism

ABSTRACT
Based on the current drive toward professionalism in
early childhood education and the low status and prestige afforded
teachers in this field, this paper applies some of the main concepts
of professionalism to the current state of the art of early childhood
education. Two uses of the term "professional" are delineated: the
"folk" concept and the scientific concept. The first use is explained
in terms of an honorific designation, and early childhood
Practitioners are not seen in the public mind to have achieved the
goals implicit in this concept. In the scientific conceptions of the
term "profession," eight criteria must be met: social necessity,
altruism, autonomy, code of ethics, distance from client, standards
of practice, prolonged training, and specialized knowledge. The
current status of different aspects of early childhood education is
then assessed in relation to meeting these individual criteria. In a
closing section, the work of several contemporary developmental
researchers is cited as rich in implications for principles of
education in the early years. Finally, the difficulty that the field
of early childhood education experiences in producing reliable and
persuasive empirical evidence for the activities of its practitioners
is discussed. (DST)
*A*********************************************************************
*
*
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
*
*
from the original document.
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U.S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC,

)(This

document has been reproduced as

received from the person or organization
originating it
Minor changes have been made to improve

Nature of Professions

rep. oduc von Quality

Points of slew or opinions stated in this doCu

ment do not necessarily represent Official NIE

position or policy

The Nature of Professions:

Where Is Early Childhood Education?

Lilian G. Katz

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED B"

Lib (R n

C.

F(0,1-Z.

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)"

'ERIC'

Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education

University of Illinois
805 W. Pennsylvania Ave.
Urbana, IL 61801
217-333-1386

RIThis publication was prepared with funding

from the Office of Educational Research and
Improvement, U.S. Department of Education,
Office of Educational
The
under
contract no. OERI 400-83-0021.
Research and Improvement
opinions expressed in this report do not
necessarily reflect the positions or policies
of OERI or the De.partment of Education.

Nature of Professions

of tnis

The purpose

paper is

to apply

some of

main

the

features of the concept of a profession to the current state

education.

of early childhood

of the art

However,

before

I would like to indicate some

launcning into tne discussion,

of tne oases for my interest in tnis topic.

There

present

at

is

professionalization

of

teacning and working

drive

strong

scnool

teaching

in preschool

in

settings in

toward

the

general

and

particular.

With respect to tne latter, the Illinois Association for the

Education of
Society of
open only

Young Children

has estaolished
Professionals, an

Carly Childhood
to specially

qualified members

the

Illinois

organization

of the

National

Association for the education of Young Children (NAEYC). The

Illinois society is expected to
other

state

interested

groups

professionalism among

be a model for adoption

strengthening

in

early childhood

oy

educators and

child

acknowledge

early

care workers.
Tne mounting

pressure

to identify

cnildhood "professionals" is in
over the very

low pay,

work in preschool

and

part due to grave

status, and prestige

settings. Indeed, the

concerns

of those

theme of the

who
1985

annual conference of NAEYC was "Early Childhood Education: A

Proud Profession!" 3ut this theme might oe seen as a case of
protesting too mucn. I,hiie

oe memoers

of

an

early cnildhood workers may

"ashamed"

profession,

considering

not
its

Nature of Professions
pablic image,

(Sinn, 1985)

and intellectual

financial status,
,

standing

it can hardly be described as a "proud" one.

Another basis for

early

of the

in the status

any interest

cnilanood practitioner is the assumption that we cannot nave

optimum environments
optimum for

are also
several

axiomatic,

who work

the adults

taking

years,

assumption

this

environments

unless the

for children

with them.
as

For

virtually

have tried to describe the factors required

teacners of young

create optimum environments for

to

children

(cf. Katz, 1977). By focusing on the needs of teacners,

I do

not intend in any way to diminish the centrality of parents'

children's welfare and

roles in tneir

development. On

the

contrary, it s:-..ems to me that it is in the best interests of

parents fa
wor'.ing

be concerned

conditions

of

about the

qualities, status,

children's

their

and

teachers

and

caregivers.

In other words, improving the lot

antitnetical to the interests

way

of parents. Indeed, there

persuasive evidence that young

to tne moods,

of teachers is in no

children are very

emotional states,

ana morale

is

sensitive

of the

adults

around them (Cumminjs, Iannotti, & Zahn-Waxler, 1985). Thus,

it seems

useful

to

illuminate issues

relating

to

tnose

factors affectinj the status and morale of teacners of young

cnileran. However, .e must acknowiedge that much of wnat

required

to

upgrade

tne

conditions

and

wages

is

of

Nature of Professions

practitioners would place a heavy burden upon precisely that

portion of the

population that can

least afford to

accept

it.

WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PROFESSION?

scholars began analyzing the

Early in this century,

of professions. Analyses
more occupational
professional status

as more

continue apace today

groups strive

to upgrade

and

themselves

& Danisiewicz,

(Forsyth

nature

1983;

to

Goode,

1983). tIany definitions of the term "professional" appear in

tne literature. While I

have attempted to synthesize

these

various definitions, for the purpose of this discussion I am

drawing most heavily on tne work

of H. S. Becker (1962)

in

his classic paper "Tne Nature of a Profession."

Becker

distinyuisnes

.. professional":

the

between

scientific

two

uses

concept

and

term

the

of

the

"folk"

concept. The former refers to tne way social scientists

tne term, and

the latter corresponds

use

to meanings given

to

the term in everyday language.

Popular uses of the term "profession"

According

to

Bec,:er

the

(1962) ,

fOIK

conception

profession is evaluative in that it is used as an

designation. In popular use, the
spirit,

an

exceptional

level

of

nonorific

term denotes a quality

of

dedication

to

of

morally

Nature of Professions
praiseaortny work. It
status aoci

is

is also associated

often assumed

income. As is apparent
early

childnoou

professiooalization

with high

to be correlated

from the realities

euucaulon,
is

muco

based

of

social

high

with a

of the fielu
drive

the

popular

on

of

toward

ratner

than

scientific connotations of tne term.

Witn respect to achieving the goals implicit in the

popular

cooception of professionalism, early childhood practitioners

do not seem to be doing very well. It is my impression
extensive experience with

colleagues in many

from

parts of

worlu that toe younger the child with whom the

tne

practitioner

works, toe less trainininLj is required, the less ability

is

ex)2cteu, tne lower tne .ay, the fewer the working benefits,
anu toe poorer tne working conditions.
while it

may seem

uo us

that our

moral

praiseworthiness

snosld be obvious to all, acknowledgment of this fact is not

wiuespread.

thiok

possibility that,

in many

tnat young children

enjoying

wnat

is

koc.:weilian" version
youn.3 cniluren

this situation

is due in

part to

countries, people really

should be

at hone
referred

so.netimes

of family

participate in

life.

the

believe

with their

.others

as

"Norman

to

ile

various kinds

tne fact
of

tnat

presencol

set,:ings is not to oe blamed on tne workers wno staff

tnem,

maoy laypersons believe tnau tne work involved in caring for

Nature of Professions

children is no

Daolos whose motners

more than minding

are

otnerwise engaged.

cnilaren .learn

young

surprising,

strongly asserted

consistently and

1,ye ourselves nave

cnen,

through

perhaps

is

It

makers

policy

find

to

play.

tnat
not

otners

and

sugyestiny that children might just as well ne left to

at none

or on

the

frequently assert
require

not

contemporary

equipment. However,

specialized buildings, or

do

personnel,

trained

hignly

of

critics

experiences

such learniny

tnat

provision

tne

Such

neignoorhood playground.

play

research and scholarship concerning the role and effects

very

complex

pnenomenon

(cf.

Carpenter, 1903) . ere must oe

play experiences
stress that

are more

adults

play to oe

or development shows

play on various aspects

have a

Brown

Gottfried,

&

than others

major

role in

1985;

careful to indicate tnat

beneficial

of

some

and

maximizing

to

tne

Oene;.its cniluren may derive from tnum.

to cur status, good reason exists to believe that, as tne

proportion of women in

an occupation increases,

its

status
tnere

ddcreases (toc)lfle, 1978). As if that were not enouyn,

IS di30

evluence

tnat

tne status

of

correlated with the status or the client.

the

then

teachers

and nannies

practitioner

If tnis is

wno

work

greater status

than those

wno

uric

with tne

indeed

with

otfspring or nigh status ana niyh income families may

is

tne

enjoy

children

of

Nature of Profession;

door

inner -city

parents.

unemployed

or

altered

much

present

tne

oy

status

Sucn

diffusion, applicable to many fields of work,

be

is unlikely to
drive

toward

-foiessionaiization.

Scientific definitions of the term "profession"

Most scholars of the subject agree that eight criteria

oe

oefore

met

profession.

In

field

endeavor

of

aosence

the

rationale for ordering the

shall introduce them in

of

mus,_

may

be

termed

formal

or

conceptual

importance of these criteria,

order of those

to oe treated

most

of a profession

that

uriefly fitst and ,post fully last.

Social ,ecessity

Most scnolars Include

its work

ue

as a criterion

essential to

the

functioning of

society,

tecnniques

suggesting tnat the absence of its knowleaye and

would weaken the society in some way.
Tae evidence b2ariny

on whether

cniidnood eaucato,:s

is essential

zest. .flil

early

recent

childhood

Studies, 1934) are

reports of the
education

or not tne

work of

society is

mixed

at

longitudinal effects

of

to

(Consortium

very encouraging,

large scale replication. .e still nave

for

they are
a

Longitudinal
in need

lolly way to go

make a con\,incing case teat temers 01 tne hignest

early

to

quality

Nature of Professions

can provide services to young children witnout which society

is at risk.

Gi'en the

power

adolescence

of

experiences

offset

to

experiences, we must

the

childhood

later

in

benefits

be very careful

good

of

and

early

in the statements

make aoout what we can acnieve. lic can be no more sure

tne effects

of good

early experiences

we
that

cannot be

reversed

tnan that early bad experiences can be remediated.

Haskins'

(1985) recent

primary school

report

of a

children

indicated that such

long

who

naa

term follow-up
been

children are more

in

day

stuay

care

aggressive in

of
ha'

their

1)rimary school_ years than children not in day care and

that

those

more

wno

been

had

in

" cognitive"

aggressive than those in other

programs

were

types of settings. Since

we

do not know wnat Haskins meant by "cognitive," these results

are highly

susceptible to

policy makers.

misinterpretation and

abuse

by

or is it likely that any of the subjects

in

tne quality to which most

of

his stuuy were in programs of

us are commiLted.
Altruism

Tric:: mission ot a profession is said to oe altruistic in tnat

it

is

service-oriented

rather

tnan

profit-oriented.

Protessionuls are said co nave clients ratner than customers

or consumers. Ideally, professionals are expected to perform

Io

Nature of Professi.ns

tneir

services

with

dedication,

unselfish

necessary

if

working beyond normal nouns and yiviny up personal

comforts

in tne interests of society. Professions identify tne

of tneir work with
strong empnasis
tangiole

or

the good of

humanity at large,

social ends

on

immediate

contrast to

in

served

ends

goals
placilg

more

the

tradespersons,

oy

merchants, or entertainers.
On this criterion, we

ought to be doing

very well. No

can claim that teachers of young children are busy

riches or engaged in work that is simply easy or
the service
see,c,s clearly

and client-centeredness

ideal

characteristic

of teaching

of
in

one

amassing
glamorous!

professions
general

and

early cniiunood teacning in particular.

Autonwly

Most scnoiars in

the saciology of

professions agree

that,

ideally, a profession is an occupation that is autono.nous in

at least two ways (Forsyth & Danisiewicz, 19b3). The

is autonomous in

that ne

practitioner wnat services

are to De received.

or she

does not

are to be

client

dictate to

rendered or how

the

they

Ideally, professionals who practice

in

large oryanizations or institutions are also autonomous wit,

respect to their employer, wno

does not dictate the

of practice out hires toe protessional to exercise

Dased on sp-_:ializeu kno4led;e, principles, anti

it

nature

judgment

techniques.

Natuie of Professions

10

A5 Bratioe (cited in Forsytn & Danisiewicz, 1983) points out,

"fo

tne

degree

p,rformance of

that

worker

work by

tiis

tne

is

constrained

controls and

tne

in

demands

of

otners, tnat individual is less professional."

Issues concerning

witn

autonomy

respect

clients

to

are

complex for tne early cnildhood educator. Our profession has

at least

groups: parents,

three client

children, and

tne

larjer society or posterity. All of us are challenged by the

paradoxical. situation of wanting to strengthen and

increase

parent invoivement in children's education while 3t tne samL

our pest professional judgment

t ime wisning to exercise

to wnat is .n children's het Interests. We still have

be more sensitive to parents

to learn aJcut how to

o'l,

seens so

that

d ifficult

to

our apparent

understand.

involvement proolem

much

without

tnex. To laypersons, parent involvement

Jk2111.j Ini.niJateu

simple

large

is that

resistance
part

Jarents are

to

not a

a nc.

JletnoLis

are

appropriate

for

is

parent

the

of

it

mbnolithic

agjregate. Unuerstandaol'i, parents do not all agree on

j oa 1 -3

as

early

wnat

cnildhood

edacation. LLt us nope tnat we work in a country that prizes

o lversity of views, values, opinions, and cultures among the
parents oi tne c,lildren we teach. However, the more
tn, cilent ..irou:),
of

ar,2 one

diverse

tne less likely it is tnat all the parents

te,:,ener's pu,,iis will

be equally

atistied.

.:.en oL tne patents Is tne teacner tc accede? Ail of

1')
4...

rio

them?

Nature of Professions

voice? The highest status? In

Tne one with the loudest

United

states,

11

schools

parentsbut not to all parents

responsive

seen

always

have

to

just to the one or two

wao nave power and status in the community. To develop as

profession requires

the

learn how

to respond

on

the

professional judgment, based on

the

best available khowledge and practices, to desires that

are

tnat we

basis of our very best

sometimes strident and often contradictory.

Altnougn parents

at large

and society

are served

by

our

profession, most teachers think of cnildren as their primary

clients. A possible

pitfall exists in

the client group. Specifically,

this narrow view

every "school of

of

thought,"

euucational mthod, or approacn in part argues its merits on

tne basis tnat
fact that

"tne children

children "love"

love it." Maybe

activity is

an

so. But

sufficient

not

justification for its inclusion in the curriculum.

consider

television

Inappropriate

cnildren's prrerences

Children

cartoons, and what many of

love candy, junk food, silly

programs.

be taken

must

the

us

Altnough

consideration,

into

decisions concerning curriculum should not De made solely )n

tne oasis of tne enjoyment

of one client- group.

Enjoymen:,

in and of itself, is not an appropriate goal for

education.

The appropriate goal

for education - -at

engaje the learner's

mind and

etfurts to

make

better

to assist that

and deeper

13

every level - -is

sense

of

mind in

to
its

significant

nature of Professions

experiences.

accomplish tnis

end,

here

add

snould

most children

12

that,

when

teachers

find

their

education

enjoyable. In otner words, enjoyment is a by-product

rather

than a yoal of food teaching.

In a sense, society or posterity is the educator's

client. But societies
acnievements. They
cooperative

and

initiative. It is

want

young to

the

competitive.

incompatible

often demand

like ours

They

be

both

conformity

and

learn

want

to

to help children

no simple matter

communities

say

that,

gnat

principles

such multiple

ana

learning,

of

and testing

curriculum, evaluation,

of

development,

apply to

meet

expectations

(cf.

can we

contradictory

often

want

tney

ac,lievement, and equality

excellence, hign standards of

opportunity.

least,

the

at

learn

appropriate.

wnere and when such different dispositions are

Our

ultimate

Green, 19B3)?
.2oae of Etnics

Consistent with client-centeredness, professional

societies

subscribe to a code of

ethics intended to protect the

Interests

and

of

clients

reAlptations inherent in the

addition, professional

to

minialize

yielding

to

practice of the profession.

societies institute

disciplining members in cases of

etnics.

14

procedures

violations of the code

pest
the
In

for

of

13

Nature of Professions

Tne development
educators

not

is

an

easy

dilemmas

inherent

colleagues, employers,
people are

childhood

process

involves

confronted in the

course
ethical

The code should address

relations

in

The

task.

identifying tne major temptations

oL practice (Katz, 1984c).

early

ethics for

code of

of a

children,

with

the general

and

public.

lay

tne usefulness

skeptical about

parents,

of such

any

codes.

However, It seems to me that the ethical norms of a yroup of

give individual

colleagues

feeling.that

members the

can help

of ethics,

a code

colleagues, articulated in

to take a risky out

back them up when they have

stand on a controversial ethical

to

will

courageous

issue. It is likely

that,

same

when we believe our fellow practitioners will take tne

stands as ourselves or would censure us if we failed to live

up

to

the

code,

commitment

our

right

to

action

is

work on

the

strengthened.

Tne titiEYC

nas formed

a special

code

development

of

oranL:nes of

the association

for

its

com.nittee to

members.

nave already

Several

state

developed

their

own. Inasmuch as local values and cultural variations play a

strong role in
seem wise

conceptions of ethical

for each

country, region,

develop its own code.

15

standards,

or cultural

it

would

unit

to

Nature of Professions

14

Distance from Client

S:ncc, by definition, the practice of a profession

of knowledge and principles to

bringing to bear a body

problems

and

predicaments,

practitioner

and

client

is

marked

disinterest,

or

"detached

soiution of
between

emotional

distance,

requires
the

relationship

the

optimum

by

concern"

(Katz, 1984a). This distance from the client is reflected in

the strong

their on

families;

such situations,

in

empathy might

emotional attachment and

it is

not

preclude

such feelings

is

intended

to

compassion but

place

expected

favorites among
tendency

to

predilection

to

minimize the

children and

respond
or

to

impulses

clients
rather

that

these

or

feelings

in

temptation

than

distance
develop

to

to inhibit

terms

in

the

empathy

as

parents, and

on

of

professional

on such optimum

a)propriate perspective. Emphasis

is also

felt

interfere with

exercise of reasoned judgment. This feature of

practice does

members

treating

against physicians

taboo

of

the

the

personal
oasis

of

reasoned judgment.

am

aware

that many

specialists

and teacners

cnildhood education resist this as)ect of

in

early

professionalism--

ano not without reason. Among otner things, they worry about
meetin.3

ehiluren's

apparent

need

for

closeness

aLLection. tio,iever, young children generally are capable

16

and
of

Nature of Professions

experiencing such feelings even

an optimum

distance.

intimate knowledge
frequent contact,

pupils,

of

maintains

when the teacher

effective

Tnough

this

be

and listening

observz-tion,

acnieved

without

kind of emotionality

required of

addition, many early

childhood educators associate

distance

with

family relationships.

stereotypical

requires

teaching

can

15

view

of

oy
the
In

optimum
remote,

unresponsive, and intimidating expert who is likely to breed

resentment among parents. In
teacher

to protect

the

"burn-out"

that

can

fact, optimum distance

from the

endanger

risks

serves

of

an

emotional

functioning

as

well

undermine effectiveness with children.

I want to

as

empnasize

that the emotional distance should be an optimum one in that

it

permits

the

teacher

be

to

responsive,

caring,

compassionate, as well as to exercise professional

and

judgment

and bring 'knowledge to bear on responses to children.

Standards of Practice

Most scnolars also agree that a profession adopts

standards

of practice that are significant in three ways:

1. Tne profession adopts standards below whicn it
hoped no practitioner
are

meant

to

insure

will fall. These

that

every

applies the standard procedures

is

standards

practitioner

in the course

of

exercising professional judgment. In some measure,

17

Nature of Professions

these

standards

result

standardization

in

performance

professional

16

physicians

all

(e.g.,

of

follow standard procedures in making diagnoses out

exercise

their

actions

to

own

take).

Rather

from

tradespersons, technicians,

does not simply

rules of

following

than

what
least,

at

is distinguished

bureaucrats in that it
fixed routines,

decidiny

tneory,

In

professional practice
work of artisans,

in

t_lcig.flent

set

professional practitioner

acts

or

implement

regulations.

thumb, or
a

the

recipes,

of

basis

on the

the
of

accepted principles that are taken into account in

tne formulation of professional judgment.

2. Tne standards developed and adopted are

addressed

to the standard predicaments that every member can

be expected
course

of

applied to

practice.

The

the standard

the course of

fairly

encounter

to

often

standard

in

procedures

problems encountered

L:actice are

tne

accumulated into

in

the

body of professional knowledge.

3. Another goal of a profession is that its standards
f

performance

particularistic.

are

Universalistic

performance imply that

insight,

universalistic

ingenuity,

18

rather

standarus

possessed

of

skill,

all the knowledge,

etc.

tnan

py

tne

Nature of Professions
pract4.tioner

available

is

17

client

every

to

independent of such irrelevant personal attributes

social and

client as

of the

background,

ethnic

ability to pay, or personal appeal.

One of the
develop

major tasks anead

articulate

and

stanuards.

One

that

early childhood educators

I see

is

consider

is

predicaments that

confront in the

sucn effort of

it,

course of

my own (Katz,

a tricycle.

use

is to

responses of a professionally
with the

responses

of

In this

all

1984b),

whose

examination,

trained teacher are

an untrained

person

in

to

their

depicts a situation in which 4-year-olds quarrel over

turn 1,

to

professional

of

might

we

the standard

enumerate and describe

as

perceptions

our

approach

day-to-day work. One

for us,

the

compared
order

to

highlight now professional judgment comes into play.

A colleague
standard

and

working on

are now

predicaments

teachers

a paper
young

of

concerning

children

encounter in tneir work with parents (Katz & Becher,

we

nave

identified

differences

between

pedagogical issues;

types

five
a
(b)

parent

and

of
a

1985).

predicaments:
teacner

(d)

teacher's need

to

own

cniluren

(c) parental nostility, anger, or denial of

teacner's co.npetence;

(a)

concerning

parents' expectations for their

cniluren that miynt undermine the welfare of other

in tne group;

may

infonn

a
a

parent that his or her child's development is not going well

19

Nature of Professions
an

that

special

perception tnat

nelp is

required;

behavior

parents'

the

and

(e)

puts

18

teacner's

cnild's

the

development at risk.

Our task is to suggest professionally appropriate responses

types of predicaments and to

for each of the five

wnat

knowledge,

and

principles,

professional

indicate
techniques

might be applied. Our hope is that this kind of effort

help in developing

the body of

knowledge, principles,

techniques that should underlie professional practice.

more work
requires
important

needs to
identifying
and

be done

along these

the

predicaments

articulating

will

our

and

Much

lines; such

work

considered

most

understanding

of

tne

knowledge and practices that can help in problem resolution.

Prolonged Training

Most scholars of the sociology

of professions agree that

major defining attribute of a profession is that it requires

entrants to undergo prolonged

training. Although tnere

are

no standards by which to judge how long such trairing should

Do,

the training process itself

is thought to have

several

particular characteristics:

1. The training is specialized in order to ensure tne

acquisition of complex knowledge and techniques.

Nature of Professions

2. The training processes

cognitive strain.

screening, some

As

are difficult and

a

consequence

candidates

can

19

require
careful

of

expected

be

fail. Training should De marKed by optimum

and

resulting

sacrifice,

stress

dedication

in

to

and

commitment to tne profession (i.atz & Raths, 1986).

3.

professions,

In al:.

candidates are

required

to

master more knowledge than is likely to be applied

and

than

more

the

student

perceives

be

to

necessary. In all professions, candidates complain

about these excesses and the apparent

of much

of the

knowledge

they are

irrelevance

expected

to

master.

4. Insitutions responsible for professional

must

De

accredited

or

licensed

cry

training

processes

monitored by practicing members of the profession.

These institutions

award certificates,

diplomas,

or degrees under the supervision of memoers of the

profession.
5. All

training

professional

institutions

offer

trainees a common core oi Knowledge and techniques

so that the

entire memoership

of the

profession

snares a common allusionary base.

21
.1

Nature of Professions

institutions,

6. Professional societies and training

very often

p/ovide

concert,

In

20

systematic

ana

regular continuing education for members.

It is not clear unat ,:ind zInd amount of t-aining is required

for nign quality professional performance (see, for example,

Katz, 1904b).

In

general,

think

we should

being

stop

defensive about expecting candidates in teacher education to

study theory, research, history, and philosophy. My
for this

stance

the point

include

professions expose their candidates

mastered to

above

all

than

about a third

(The more

be retained.

that

to more knowledge

not more than

they ever apply, expecting

what is

made

reasons

studied,

of

tne

larger that third is.) Furthermore, e%,idence exists to

show

concepts

once

that, even

tnougn

one

foryets

facts

and

mastered, sucn knowledge enables one to go on absorbing

new

facts and concepts more easily lony after training has

completed (Broudy,

In

1983) .

suggest that tnere is a sense

practitioners to be "literate"
tney may never use

addition,

would

been

like

in whicn it is important
in their own fields:

Montessori's ideas, all early

practitioners snould know who she was and should

to

for

though

childhood

comprehend

tae main ideas she espoused.

In many

countries, there

is cause

for concern

about

c.iaracteristics of entrants into training. Too often,

tie

young

women are advised to enter early cnildhood education uecause

22
1

Mature of Ptofesqions

makes them

t:'eir snyness

unsuitable

21

witn

for work

older

pLpils or because they are not academically strong enough to

take up a more challenging or profitable occupation.

we nave heard reports from several countries that

Sadly,

preschool

teacners nave been urged to transfer into secondary teaching

because tney were judged "too good for infants."
evidence

Ctsneartening

exists

among

that,

degree programs, those

graduates of teacher education

tr

suggest

to

with

greatest ability last the shortest length of time in the

teacniny

service

(Schlecty

alternatives and attractive

&

Vance,

1981).

more

As

opportunities for women

become

aJailaDle, tnis "Drain drain" is likely to continue. it

Only De stemmed

if working

conditions and

can

pay scales

are

dramatically improved and if the needs of young children are

yiven niyner social priority. To
early childnood

some extent, the field

education -- especially

child care

day

and

nursery work -is caught in a vicious cycle: People enter

with few skills,

workers with

one wants

and no

few

skills.

Because

to pay
the

of

it

good wages

for

low,

the

pay

is

liKelinood is that those with little training and few skills

-will take up tne work. How

we must acknowledge
even amonj

that there are

those with

education can

nelp. ;:ut

oruak in the cycle

can we creak this cycle?

poor teachers at

extensive training,
wnat may

goou

be required

is public understanding and

23

nhile
work,

InservIcc
for a

real

recognition

Nature of Professions
of tre potential benefits of

22

hign quality education in

the

commitment to the welfare

early years and deeper puolic

of

young children.
It is not
know of

laypersons to point

uncommon for

Perhaps all of

has had

teacher who

an outstanding

out that

training.

no

encountered just such

us have

a gifted

"natural" teacher: This claim is, however, a dangerous

Aoraham Lincoln

was

a self-taught

lawyer,

they

or

one.

virtually

but

everything about rim was exceptional. Furthermore, there was

a great deal less to be learned by lawyers in his time.

a profession can never be

main point here is that

on

the

basis

professional

of

its

training

is

practitioners with alinimal

effectively.

If

aesigned

On
to

standards to

lawyers

all

qualities of mind and

exceptions.

had

designed
contrary,

the

provide

all

help them

Lincoln's

could teach themselves as

Tne

its

perform

remarkable
thorougnly

as ne did, we mignt have no need for law scnools.

Specialized Knowledge

Scnolars seem to agree that a major defining attribute of

profession is that it is

an occupation whose practices

are

eased on specialized knowledge. This Knowledge is thouyht to

nave several characteristics:

24

Nature of Professions

23

1. The knowledge is abstract ratner than concrete (as

in

the

case

crafts,

of

sports,

trades,

bureaucracies, in wnich the knowledge may

or

consist

of rules of thumb, rules, or regulations).

2. lne knowledge
reasonably
considered

consists

procession.

course

the

are

to

he

practicing

the

insist

prOfessional

underlying

knowledge

of

scholars

Some

that

generalizations

reliable
in

principles

of

that

the

practice

is

organized into a systematic body of principles.

3.

rhe

knowledge

practical rather

concerns. They
tecnniques of

principles

and

than

metaphysical

intended to

are

the profession

oriented to some

relevant

are

kind of

academic

or

rationalize

and, as

to

such,

practical and

tne

are

socially

useful end.

4. The body of knowledye is esoteric or exclusive

that it

is known

to practitioners

only

profession and is unknown

to layersons. In

has a monopoly

sense, the profession

of

on most

in

the

this
of

its relevant knowledye and techniques.

5. Practitioners

belong

to

tnat take

responsibility

knowledge

relevant

to

professional
for

societies

disseminating

practice

by

new

producing

Nature of Professions
and by

scnol,irly journals
and

through

worksnops

conferences

providing

members

which

24

are

Kept

informed.

Can we identify tne Jody of knowledge, specify the

reliabi

principles, and develop a consensus as to the best available

practices tnat

will

serve

as

oasis

for

professional

practice in early childhood education? It is not clear

procedures are to

in rinding

be followed

what

answers to

this

question. .,e each might begin ay listing those principles we

consider essential and worthy of inclusion and then

examine

the list in a systematic way. To what extent would we

on our lists? Finding answers

agree

to these questions is one

of

tne biggest tasks ahead of us.

Some principles

wish

to nominate

for inclusion

our

in

professional body of specialized knowledge are outlined very

briefly below.

These assertions

understanding of what constitutes

are

derived from

my

own

the best practice and

interpretation of the literature on children's learning

my
and

development.
1. Teachin,i strategies and
best

when

they

take

curriculum decisions

are

account

tne

into

both

potential value of immediate experiences and thy_

long-term

benefits.

Teaching

and

curriculum

practices that keep children ausy and/or amused in

the snort

term may

or ,nay

not provide

solid

+.1

Nature of Professions

foundation for

the long

course of

25

learning

and

development.
2. Young

learning

children's

when

optimized

is

active

children are engaged in interaction and in

ratner than passive activities.

3. Many of the experiences or factors that

development and

learning are

likely to

influence
be

most

beneficial when they occur in optimum rather

than

extreme amounts, intensities,

terms of

or frequencies.

strategies, for

teaching

example,

the

help, attention, or stimulation given can be

too little or too great
yiven individual's
extent to which
can also

be

In

both

for the development of

self-reliance.

Likewise,

the curriculum includes

excessive or

insufficient

the

routines
the

for

management of the life of a group of children.

4. The curriculum

for

young

children

is

oriented

toward nelping them to rake better sense of

their

own environment and experiences. As children grow,

the concepts,

extended

to

ideas,

include

and topics
others'

introduced

environments

are
and

experiences.

5. Many aspects of development and learning have

the

characteristic of a recursive cycle in that once a

27

Nature of Professions

26

child has a behavior pattern, the chances are that

in such a

way

be strengthened. Thus,

for

him or her

others will respond to

that the pattern will

example, a child who

with rejection and to

to De responded to
to rejection

such a

in

likely

is unlikable is very

way

respond
more

become

as to

principle of development

unlikaple. A related

is

tnat a child cannot effect a change on his or

her

interrupt

the

learning environment,

the

own; the

adult must

intervene to

recursive cycle.

6. The more

informal the

more access the teacher

where the

child is

learning. The more

more likely
appropriate

he

in terms

is

about

of development

informed the

or she

teacher is,
able

to be

to

and
the

make

what

teaching

and wnat curriculum

cctivities

decisions

strategies to use

has to information

about

to introduce. A related principle is that the life

of the group is likely

to De enhanced by

optimum

rather than maximium informality.

7. The

three

basic

functions

of

language--

communication, expression and reason--are acquired

and strengthened through conversation rather
by passive exposure or systematic instruction.

than

Nature of Professions
8. Young

children's

development

27

learning

are

enhanced by a curriculum including activities

and

materials

for

provide

that

and

with

them

content

conversation that is relevant, vivid, interesting,

familiar, and/or significant to them.

9. 'ppropriate teaching strategies and curricula

into account

those that take

the acquisition

are
of

knowledge, skills and dispositions, especially the

on learning and

dispositions to go
knowledge and

to apply

acquired. Emphasis

skills

on

acquisition of knowledge and on practicing

is excessive when it undermines such
as

creativity,

curiosity,

tne

skills

dispositions

other

and

the

types

of

intrinsic motivation.

10. Tne younger children are, the greater the

of

teaching

strategies

and

the

variety

greater

the

flexibility of the curriculum required. The use of

a single

pedagogical method

or narrow

range

curriculum materials and activities increases

likelihood

that

significant

proportion

of

the
of

children will experience feelings of incompetence.

Many more principles can be added

to these ten, and

urge

members of the early childhood community both as individuals

29

Nature of Professions
and as

develop

society to

a professional

members of

28

and

share more.

WHAT LIES AHEAD?

It seems to me that the research on development and learning

currently being

reported

journals

the

in

much

is

more

applicable tc pedagogical practice than it was when I

first

entered the field 20 years ago. In Britain, the work of such

scholars as

Clark

(Clark

Wade,

&

Wells

1983),

Karmiloff-Smith

Donaldson (1983), Dunn (Dunn & Dale, 1984),

1983) and many others

(1984), Rutter (Garmezy & Rutter,

rich in

early years.

In the

of education

principles

implications for

(1983),

the list

United States,

in

is

tne

scholars

of

whose work supports th. "informal," or intellectually rather

than academically
education is

oriented,

also long.

approach

I commend

(drown & Campione, 1984),

to

early

the research

childhood
of

Nelson (Nelson & Seidman,

and Rogoff (1982),

Gottman (1983), Carpenter (1983),

Brown
1984),

among

many others. These investigators support the view that--with

the help of very skilled, observant, attentive,
and

thoughtful

adults--children

construct

understandings and sharpen their skills through

with their environment. In this
contemporary

developmental

reflective,
their

interaction

sense, it seems to me

researchers

are

own

that

painstakingly

rediscovering the insights of John Dewey.

30

Nature of Professions

recently came across a copy of D. E. M. Gardner's

29

Testing

Results in the Infant School, a DOA published in England in

1941 and not widely known among early childhood educators in
the United

States.

begins

describing

by

was surprised

to find

contrasting

two

schools. Although she refers

to the two

and academic and

the other as
can

used

infant

to one as

informal or

be

of

types as School

would most likely refer

descriptions

Gardner

types

and School B, we

These

that

of the

parts

many

world.

about appropriate

Gardner makes

formal

child-centered.

almost

verbatim

characterize contrasting early childhood education

today in

The

basic

to

settings

arguments

learning environments

for

young children still have to De made today. Although current

children's intellectual

research on

Gardner's views

how

of

marshal the kind

development

children learn,

of compelling

reaffirms

have

we

evidence we

yet

need to

to

prove

that the methods advocated by Gardner and Marianne Parry are

more effective than others--particularly in the long tern.

There are several reasons why we cannot produce the kind

persuasive

empirical

evidence

we

need.

First,

difficult to conduct longitudinal studies of young

it

of
is

children

and their teachers that would take into account the accepted
canons of social

more rigorous
valid

the

science research. It

the research

data,

and

design,

vice

31

versa.

seems as though
the less
Second,

relevant
to

the
or

conduct

Nature of Professions
investigations

that

would

scientific

standard

satisfy

30

requirements would very likely be unethical: it is unethical

one has reason to

to subject others to experiences

for them for the

may not De good

suspect

sake of research--or

for

any other purpose.

Inevitably, then, we work in a field in which reliable

are difficult to obtain. In any field in which the

is

slippery,

informational

the

ideologies or doctrines

hold most strongly about

certain). Thus,

even in the

our

pest or right, is in the

reject

is

datapase

filled

Dy

systems of beliefs that

the things of

commitment to

apsence of

risks attendant upon

(i.e.,

vacuum

aata

which we are

particular

compelling evidence

we

least

approaches,

that they

are

nature of the field. However,

the

such conditions

counter-evidence

and

resist

are that
others'

we tend

to

views.

professional code of ethics should remind us to keep an open

mind, to look

the available evidence,

to

as being based respectively

on

carefully at all

clearly identify our stands

evidence, on experience, and on ideology. Such reminders are

among the important functions of professional societies.

It

may De that, when we are clear about the oases of our views,

we shall oe getter aple to increase public understanding

of

them and

to

therepy

gain

their support

improve provisions for young children.

32

in

our

efforts

Nature of Professions

31

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Author Note
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