Definition

Definition

Topology

Finite complement topology

Topology
Definition

Topology
Definition

Coarse/Fine

Basis

Topology
Proposition

Topology
Lemma

Let X be a set equipped with a basis B.

Then B consists of all possible unions
of elements in B.

Generated topology

Topology

Topology
Lemma

Proposition

Then E is basis for a topology on X and

E = .

Let X be a set, B, B 0 are bases for

topologies and , 0 the generated
topologies, respectively. Then the
following are equivalent:
0
(1) is finer than ( 0 )
(2) x X B B such that for x
B B 0 B 0 such that x B 0 B.

Topology

Topology

Let (X, ) be a topological space. Let

E such that
U , x U C E s.t. x C U

Definition

Definition

Lower/Upper limit topology

Topology

Subbasis

Topology

f = {X \ V ||V | < } {}
Proof
(i) is obiviously satsified
T



S
T

(ii) U := X \ V
and  V  < S
U = X \
VT
n
n
(iii) Ui = X \ Vi ,
i = 1, . . . , n
Ui = X \
i=1
i=1 Vi and
S

 n

 i=1 Vi  <

Let X be a set. A basis for a topology on X is a collection B of subsets of X

such that
(i) x X B B such that x B
(ii) if x B1 B2 with B1 , B2 B, then B3 B such that x B3
B1 B2
The topology B generated by B is defined as the collection of subsets
U X :

x U

[
xU

Hence U =

Let X be a set and , 0 topologies on X.

0 is finer than 0 is coarser than 0 . If the inclusion is
required to be strict, i.e.
0 it is called strictly finer/coarser

B B : x B U

Proof
Let U be a union of elemetns in B. In particula, U is a union of elements B .
Since B it follows U B .
Conversely, take U B . For any x U Bx B such that x Bx U .
Then
U

Let X be a set. A topology on X is a collection of subsets of X, i.e.

P)(X) such that
(i) , X
(ii) Any union of elements inS belongs to :
(U ) , U

U
(iii) any finite intersection of T
elements in belongs to :
(Ui )iI , Ui

iI Ui

Bx

{x} = U

xU

S
xU B.

The topology B generated B is indeed a topology.

Proof
(i) , X B is obvious
S
(ii) Let (U ) , where U B . For any x U i sucht that x U
i
S
Thus, B B such that x B U U
i
(iii) Let U1 , U2 B . For any x U1 U2 , x Ui i = 1or 2, so Bi such
that x Bi Ui .
Therefore x B1 B2 . From the definition of B follows the existence of
B3 B such that x B3 B1 B2 U1 U2 .

Proof
1.

Proof
(2)(1): Assume that (2) is satisfied. Let U . We want to prove
that U 0 .
For any x U B B such that x B U . Since (2) is satisfied,
there exists B 0 B0 such that x B 0 B U . Therefor U 0 .
(1)(2): Assume that 0 . Let x X and B B such that x B.
Note that B B 0 . Since 0 is generated by B0 and B 0
there exists B 0 B0 such that x B 0 B.

First, one hast show that E is a basis:

E, X because the above condition becomes condition (ii) of
the definition of a basis of a topology.
E C1 , C2 E then C1 C2 .
2. Now we to show that E = :
Any U E als belongs to because is a topology and due to the
previous lemma. So E .
If U then it is a union of elements in E, namely x U Cx E
sucht that x Cx U . Since
U

Cx

xU

{x} = X

xU

we have U E and hence E .

Let X be a set. S
A subbasis for a topology on X is a collection S of subsets
of X such that V S V = X Remark: This is a weaker notion than a basis
but still generates a topology.
The topology S generated by S consists of all unions of finite intersections
of elements in S.

The lower limit topology on R is given by intervalls of the form [a, b) with
a < b.
The upper limit topology on R is given by intervalls of the form (a, b] with
a < b.
Claim: The lower limit topology is strictly finer than the standard one while
the upper limit topology is neither finer nor coarser than the lower limit
topology.

Proposition

Definition

S is indeed a topology.

Linear Order

Topology
Definition

Topology
Definition

Order topology

Interior, Closure

Topology
Theorem

Topology
Definition

Let B be a basis for the topology on X

and let x X. Then the following are
equivalent:
(i) x A
(ii) for any open subset U suhc that x
U , then U A 6=
(iii) for any B B such that x B, then
B A 6=

Continuity

Topology

Topology
Definition

Theorem

Continuity at a point

Topology
Definition

f : X Y a map. Then the following

are equivalent:
(i) f is continuous
(ii) for any A X, f (A) f (A)
(iii) if C is a closed subset in Y , the
f 1 (C) is closed in X
(iv) f is continuous at x X for every
xX
Topology
Definition

Limit

Homeomorphism

Topology

Topology

Let X be a set. A liner order in X is a relation < on X such that

(i) If x 6= y then either x < y or y < x
(ii) @x such that x < x (non-reflexsive)
(iii) x < y and y < z x < y (transitivity)

Proof
It is suffiecient to prove that BS = {finite intersections of S} is a basis. Then
B
= S .
S
S
x X V S BS such that x V because V S V = X.
B1 = V1 Vn , B2 = W1 Wm for Vi , Wj S and hence B1 , B2 BS .
Then B1 B2 = V1 Vn W1 Wm BS . So BS is a basis for a
topology.
Remark: Any basis is a subbasis and any topology is a basis for itself.

Let X be a topological space, A X an arbitrary subset. The closure A of A

is
A :=

CA
closed

The interior A of A is

A:=

On a linearly ordered set, the order topology is generated by the following

basis
1. (a, b) for a < b
2. [a0 , b) for a0 minimal and a0 < b
3. (a, b0 for b0 maximal and a < b0
The order topology on R is the standard one (no smallest biggest elements
and (a, b) are exactly the open intervalls) and on Z it is the discrete one.
Then {n} = (n 1, n + 1) is open for the order topology. Therefore, -(again,
we only have (a, b), a < b in Z) -, the open subsets for the order topology on Z
are all the subsets.

U A
open

A map f : X Y is continuous if for any V Y , f 1 (V ) X

Remark:
If B is a basis for a topology on Y , then it is sufficient to demand


S
S
1 (U ))
B B f 1 (B) X . (Since f 1

U = f
2. If S is a subbasis for the topology on Y , then it is sufficient to demand
1
B S f
(B) X .
It is not necessary to require that f 1 (B) is a basis element.
1.

e.g. for f : R R, x 7 x2 , f 1 ((1, 4)) = (2, 1) (1, 2) is open

but not an basis element.

Proof
(i)(iv): Let V be an (open) neighbourhood of f (x) Y, x X.

Then U := f 1 (V ) is open and contains x. Moreover, f (U ) V V .

In other words, f is continuous at x.
(iv)(iii): Let x A. We want to prove that f (x) f (A). Take a
(open) neighbourhood V of f (x). there exsists a neighbourhood U of
x such that f (U ) V .
x A U A 6= 6= f (U A) f (U ) f (A) V f (A)
Hence, f (x) f (A)
(ii)(iii): Take C a closed subset of Y (C = C). Define A := f 1 (C).

Proof
(1) If x
/ A then U = X \ A contains x and does not intersect A. i.e (i)
(ii)
Assume there is an open subset U such that x U and U A = . Then
there exists B B such that x B U and consequently B A = , i.e.
(ii) (iii)
Assume there is B B such that x B and B A = . Then X \ B is closed
and contains A. Therefor A X \ B and thus x
/ A, i.e. (iii) (i)

f : X Y is continuous at x X if for any (open) neighbourhood V of

f (x) there exists an (open) neighbourhood U of x such that f (U ) V .

So f (A) C. This f (A) f (A) = C = C. Therefore, A f 1 (C) =

A and consequently A = A
(iii)(i): obvious (take the complement).

A homeomorphism is a bijective continuous f : X Y such that its inverse

f 1 is also continuous. Note: If f is a homeomorphism, then we have a
bijection:
X Y
1
V 7 f
(U )
U 7 f (U )

limx (f ) = y0 for any (open) neighbourhood V of y0 there exists a

0
(open) neighbourhood U of x0 such that f (U \ {x0 }) V
Remark: f continuous at x limx (f ) = f (x)

Definition

Lemma

pull-back topology

Open in ambient and subspace topology

Topology
Example

Topology
Definition

Subspace versus order topology

Convex

Topology

Topology

Definition

Theorem

Coincidence order and subspace

topology
Let X be a linearly ordered set, A X
a convex subset.
Then the order and subspace topologies
on A coincide

Let Y X, X a toplogical space and Y

endowed with the subspace topology,
A Y . The closure of A in Y is A Y ,
where A denotes the closure of A in the
ambient space.

Topology

Topology

Theorem

Definition

1. The box topology is finer than the

product topology
2. It is strictly finer if I is infinite and
there are infinitely many X s with
a non-trivial topology

Quotient topology

Topology

Topology
Proposition

Definition

is the finest topology on Y such that

p : X Y is continuous.

Topology

Open/Closed Map

Topology

Let X be a topological space, A X an open subset equipped with the

subspace topology, Thenany open subset U of A is also open in X. The same
statement holds for U, A closed.
Proof
Assume that A X is open, U A open in A. U is an open subset of A for
the subspace topology means that U = V A for some open subset V of X.
Hence U is open in X (because U is a fnite intersection of open subsets of X).
The proof for closed U, A is identical.

A X is a convex subset if for a, c A with a < b < c it follows that

b A.

Proof
1. A is closed in X and hence A Y is closed in Y . Since A A Y , the
closure of A in Y is included in A Y .
2. Let B be the closure of A in Y . Then B = C Y with C closed in X.
C is closed and contains A. Therefore C = A.
Finally, B = C Y A Y

f 1 ( ) := {f 1 (U )|U } is called the pull-back-topology on X

Remark: If B is a (sub)basis of , then f 1 (B) is a (sub)basis of f 1 ( ).
Examples
1. f : X {y0 } = Y . There is no choice for the topology on Y then the
trivial one. f 1 (, {y0 }) = {, X}. So the pull-back topology on X is
trivial.
2. If f : X , Y is an inclusion tehn we call thhe pull-back topology
the subspace topology. Open subsets for the subspace topology are
f 1 (U ) = U X, where U X

Let X be a linearly ordered set, endowed with the order topology, A X.

There are two natural topologies induced on A by the one on X:
1. the subspace topology
2. A inherits a linear orderfrom the one of X. Hence we can also consider
the order topology on A
1. and 2. do not necessarily coincide:
Example: X = R in the order topology,
A

 = [0, 1) {2}
1. in the subspace topology, {2} = A 3 , 5 is open in A
2 2
2. in the order topology, the open neighbourhoods of 2 have to contain a
basis element of the form (a, 2]A with a A.
(Note: (, ]A means x (, ]A : x A)
Either a 6= 2, then a [0, 1) and thus (a, 2] 6= {2}, or a = 2, then
(a, 2] = and hence {2} cannot be open in A.

Proof
Idea: Let (a, b)A be a basis element for the order topology on A, x (a, b)A .
Then (a, b)X is also a neighbourhood of x in X.
1. Lemma: The subspace topology is always finer than the the order
topology
2. We must prove that if A is convex, then the order topology on A is
finer than the subspace topology.
Recall from an exercsie sheet that we have the following subbasis for
the order topology:
(, a)X = {x X|x < a}

(, a)X A =

The quotient topology on Y with respect to p is defined as

1
:= {U Y ; p
(U ) X }

(b, ) = {x X|x > b}

if a is an lower bound for A

Aif a is an upper bound for A

half ray in Aotherwise

Proof
1. Let us consider an element of the subbasis generating th product topology:
1 (U ), U
It has the form
X . This is an open subset in the box topology:
1 (U ) = Q

6= X U

Proof
1.

A continuous map f : X Y is called open (closed) if the images of any

open (closed) subset in X is open (closed) in Y .

and

It follows by convexity that

We first have to prove that is a topology:

(i) p1 () = and p1 (Y ) = X. Hence , Y
S
S
1 (U ). Hence, if U
(ii) p1 ( U ) =

for all ,
p
S
1 (U ) =
1 (U ) . Therefore
then
p

X and thus
X
p
S
U .
T

n
(iii) the same works for intersections (use that p1
=
i=1 Ui
Tn
1 (U ) and that
i
X is stable by finite intersection)
i=1 p
2. Check that p is continuous for :
For any U , p1 (U ) X by definition of .
3. We will now prove that is the finest topology such that p is continuous:
Consider another topology 0 on Y such that p : (X, 0 ) (Y, 0 )
is continuous. For any U 0 we have p1 (U ) X (because p is
continuous).
Then U and hence 0

Definition

Definition

If f : X Y is a surjective, continuous
map between topological spaces X, Y ,
and if moreover f is open or closed or
both, then the topology on Y is the
quoitent topology.

Hausdorff

Topology

Topology

Proposition

Theorem

Every point, i.e. singelton {x}, is closed

in a Hausdorff space.

Let f : X Y be a continuous function.

Assume that Y is Hausdorff and
consider x X such that {x} is no open.
(so as to avoid a situation where Ux
open Ux \ {x} = )
Then, if y0 = limx f and y1 = limx f , then
y0 = y1 , i.e. the limit is unique.

Topology

Topology

Definition

Proposition

{Bd (x, ); x X, > 0} is a basis for a

topology.
The topology generated by this absis is
called the metric topology

Metric

Topology

Topology
Definition

Definition

Uniform Continuity

Standard bounded metric

Topology
Propostion

Topology
Theorem

The topology inducede by d is the same

as the one induced by d

Topology

prod unif box

Topology

A topological space X is called Hausdorff, if for any pair (x1 , x2 ) of distinct

elements of X, there exist U1 , U2 X such that xi Ui , i = 1, 2 and
U1 U2 = .

Proof
Assume that f is an open map and let U Y be such that f 1 (U ) X .
Then f (f 1 (U )) = U is open in Y and hence Y .
Now assume that f is a closed map and let U Y be such that f 1 (U ) X .
Then f (f 1 (U )) = Y \ U is closed in Y and hence U Y .

Proof
Let i = 0 or 1. For any Vi Y such that yi Vi , there exsits Ui X such
that x Ui and f (Ui \ {x}) Vi .
|
{z
}
6=
Then let U = U0 U1 3 x and we have that f (U0 U1 \ x) V0 V1 .
Therefor V0 V1 6= and since we assume that Y is Hausdorff, it follows
y0 = y1
Remark If X = N {} and x = , then the theorem saysthat a sequence
(index by N admits at most one limt in a Hausdorff space Y .
Example (where this fails)
The topology on the line with two origines is an example of a quotient
topology: consider Ru t RD =: Z with the map p : Z Y . ADD

Proof
Let X be Hausdorff and x X. We want to prove that {x} is closed.
For any y 6=
/ Uy . Then
S x theres exists Uy X such that y Uy and x
X \ {x} = x6=yX Uy is open and hence {x} is closed.

Proof
(i) for any x X, Bd (x, 1) 3 x.
(ii) Let y Bd (x, ). There exists a > 0 such that B(y, ) Bd (x, ),
because:
Let := d(x, y). Then for any z Bd (y, ) we have
d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) < d(x, y) + = 

(iii)

and thus z BD (x, )

Assume that y Bd (x1 , 1 ) BD (x2 , 2 ). Then 1 2 such that
Bd (y, i ) Bd (xi , i ) for i = 1, 2. Define := min(1 , 2 ), then:

A metric on a set X is a map d : X X [0, ) such that

(i) d(x, y) = 0 x = y
(ii) d(x, y) = d(y, x) for any x, y X
(iii) d(x, y) + d(y, z) d(x, z) for any x, y, z X

Bd (y, ) Bd (y, 1 ) Bd (y, 2 ) Bd (x1 , 1 ) Bd (x2 , 2 ).

A map f : X Y is uniformly continuous if

(

d(x,
y) :=

d(x, y)d(x, y) 1
1else

Proof
We have already seen that prod box
Lets first prove that prod unif :
Q
Consider
x = (x )I
I U basic open set of prod and pick Q
Q
U
.
We want to find V unif such that x V I U .

I
All but finitely many U are in X , i.e. 1 , . . . , n such that
/
{1 , . . . , n } U X .
We can assume that U = B (x , ) where = 2 if
/ {1 , . . . , n }.
d
Q
Take := min{1 , . . . , n } and define V := B
(x, ) =
(x , )
Bd
Q
B
(x
,

).

d
It remains to prove that the uniform topology si coarser than the box topology:
Consider a basic open set B
(x, ) for the uniform topology.
Q

Since if for y I Bd
(x , /2) then we have for any d (x , y ) < 2
such that

(x , y )
supI d
<
2
Q
we have that
(x , /2) B
(x, ).
I Bd

> 0 > 0 : s.t. x, y : d(x, y) < d(f (x), f (y)) <

Proof
We will show that id : (X, d ) (X, ) and id : (X, ) (X, d ) are
d
d
(uniformly) continuous:
1. id : (X, d ) (X, ) is uniformly continuous.
d

Let > 0, take = . If d(x, y) < = , then d(x,

y) < .
2. id : (X, ) (X, d ) is (uniformly) continuous.
d

Let > 0, take = min(, 1). If d(x,

y) < , then d(x, y) < .
So (X, ) and (X, d ) are uniformly homeomorphic.
d

Definition

Theorem

Metrizable

Metrizability of products

Topology
Lemma

Topology
Theorem

Sequence Lemma
Let X be a topological space, A X
(i) If there exists a sequence (xn )n0 in
A such that lim (xn ) = x X then
x A.
(ii) The converse is true if X is metrisable.

(i) If f : X Y is continuous, then

lim (xn ) = x lim f (xn ) = f (x)
(ii) If X is metrisable,then the converse
is true, i.e:
if (xn )n0 in X converges to x
lim (f (xn )) = f (x), then f is continuous.

Topology

Topology

Corollary

Definition

+, , : R R R are continuous,
/ : R R R is contniuous

Uniform Convergence

Topology
Theorem

Topology
Definition

If X is a topological space. fn are alle

continuous and (fn )n0 f . Then f is
continuous.

Connectedness

Topology
Proposition

Topology
Definition

The following are equivalent:

(i) X is connected
(ii) X = U V , U V = , U, V X then
U = or X
(iii) A continuous map f : X {0, 1} is
always constant
Topology

Separation

Topology

If I is (infinite) countable, the

I X endowed with the product topology

is metrizable.

A topological space is called metrisable if there exists a metric d on X such

that the induced topology is the original one X.

Proof
(i) Consider a neighbourhood V of x in X.
Proof
(i) Assume f is continuous. For any neighbourhood V of f (x), f 1 (U ) is a
nehigbourhood of x.
Then, (xn )n0 X such that lim (xn ) = x, N such that n > N ,
xn f 1 (V ) adn f (xn ) V .
(ii) Assume that X is metrisable and that f : X Y sends sequences converging to x to sequences converging to f (x). Claim: f (A) f (A) for
any A X.
Let x A. By the sequence lemma (xn )n0 such that lim (xn ) = x.

lim(xn ) = x N 0 : xn V

(ii)

But xn A, so V A 6= .
Conversely, assume that X is metrisable, and that x A, So n 1,
Bd (x, 1/n) A 6= .
Take xn Bd (x, 1/n) A for every n 1.

By assumption, lim (f (xn )) = f (x), n 0 : f (xn ) f (A) such that

by the lemma we have f (x) f (A).
Remark: In the previous lemman and theorem, we only used that every point
x X has a countable basis of neighbourhoods, i.e. that (UN )nN sequence
of neighbourhoods of x such that V P(X), n 0 : Un V .
Spaces with theis property are called first countable

> 0 N :

Hence, n N , xn
lim (xn ) = x

Let fn : X Y be maps, n 0. Assume Y is a metric space. (fn )n0

converges uniformly to f if
> 0, n > N x X : d(fn (x), f (x)) <

A space X is connected if it has no proper clopen subsets. Examples

1. R, [a, b], S 1 , Rn are connected
2. N, (0, 1) (2, 3) are non-connected spaces

1
<
n

Bd (x, 1/n)

Bd (x, ), and consequently

Proof
If (xn , yn ) (x, y) R2 , then (xn + yn ) (x + y).
Conequence: If f, g : X R are continuous, then f + g, f g, f g are alle
continuous, If g(x) 6= 0 x X, then f /g is continuous.

Proof
We want to prove the equivalent statement that for any x0 , limx f = f (x0 ).
0
Define y0 := f (x0 ). For > 0, we want to find an open neighbourhood U of
x0 in X such that f (U ) Bd (y0 , ).Note the following:
Uniform convergence N such that n N : d(fn (x0 ), f (x)) < /3.
Continuity of fN U neighbourhood of x0 such that fN (U )

Bd (fN (x0 ), /3)

Now, for any x U , we have:
d(f (x), f (x0 )) d(f (x) , fN (x)) + d(fN (x), fN (x0 )) + d(fN (x0 ), f (x0 ))
< /3 + /3 + /3 =

A space X cannot be separetf iff

A, B X : X = A B and
AB = = AB

Proof
(i) (ii) is obvious
(ii) (iii): f : X {0, 1}. Define U := f 1 (0) and V = f 1 (1).
Either f 1 = (f 1) or f 1 (0) =(X (f 0)
0, x U
1, x V
Examples: Rl is not connected [0, ) is open, (, 0) is open.

(iii) (ii): Define f : X {0, 1},

Definition

Lemma

Summary of charactarizations of
connectedness

X space, Y X subspace. If one cantt

write Y = A B with A B 6= and
separated in X, then Y is connected.

Topology
Theorem

Topology
Definition

Let (C )J such that C X and C is

connectedT( J). Assume that
S J C 6= .
Then J C is connected.

Connected Components

Topology
Theorem

Topology
Theorem

If A X is connected, then for any

A B A, B is also connected.

The image of a connected space by a

continuous map is connected.

Topology

Topology
Corollary

Definition

Intermediate Value Theorem:

If X is connected, Y equipped with the
order topology and f : X Y
continuous.
Then, for any x, y X and any
r [f (x), f (y)] there exists z X such
that f (z) = r

Local Connectedness

Topology

Topology
Theorem

Example

A space X is locally connected if and

only if for any U X the connected
components of U are open.

Topology

Connected Components of the real line

R

Topology

Proof
Assume Y = A B (A, B Y ).
If A and B are separated in X (A B = and A B = )
then A and B are separated in Y (A Y B = and A B Y = )

The equivalence classes of are called the connected components of X.

Remark: Connected components are indeed connected.
Proof : Let C X be an equivalence class of and choose p C
For anySq C, p q, thus C
T p,q C connected such that p, q Cp,g .
The C = qC Cp,q . But p qC Cp,q . Hence C is connected. Therefore,
connected components are maximal among connected subspaces ( for C).
Moreover, connected components are closed, which is a consequence of the
following theorem.

Proof
Let f : X Y be a continuous map. Assume that X is connected. We now
prove that f (X) is connected.
Lets write again f as the surjective continuous map:
X f (X),

x 7 f (x)

Let g : f (X) {0, 1} be a continuous function.

Then g f : X {0, 1} is continuous and thus constant. Therefore g is
constant.

A space X is locally connected if for any x X and any (open)

neighbourhood U of x, there exists a connected (open) neighbourhood V of x,
s.t. V U
Examples:
[0, 1] is connected and locally connected
[0, 1] [2, 3] is connected but locally connected
Q is not connected and not locally connected
S is connected and not locally connected

Let (L, ) be a linearly ordered set and endow it with the order topology.
Let C L be connected.
Then C is convex.
Proof:
Let a < b in C. We have to prove tthat for any c (a, b), c C.
If not, then (, c) C = U and (c, ) C = V . U and V are non-empty
open subsets of C. Moreover U V = (L {c}) C = C, and U and V are
disjoint.

X non-connected
U u V, U, V , U, V 6=
C u D, C, D P(x), C, D 6=
: f [0, 1] non-constant and continuous

A X, X 6= , X A\ A (A is clopen)
X = A B, A, B 6= , A B 6= , A B 6= (A and B are separated)

Proof
S
Assume that J C = U V and U, V X and U V = .
T
Take p J C and assume that p U . Then for every J, p C .
But C connected either C U = or C V = .
Therefore
either C U or C V . This holds for all . But U V = and
T
J 3 p
Then either C
S U for all (then V = ) or C V for all (then U = ).
Conclusion: J C is connected.
Back to the claim:
x y
C connected x, y C
y z
D connected x, y D
Hence x, y C D connected because y C D

Proof
Let f : B {0, 1} be continuous.
f |a : A {0, 1} is continuous and thus constant (A connected). Therefore f
has to be constant (e.g. f |A 0). Then for any b B, f (b) = 0.
Namely, if f (b) = 1, then f 1 ({1}) is an open neighbourhood of b. Since
B A, then f 1 ({1}) A 6= .
Remark: Conneceted components are open. Are they necessarily open?
NO, e.g. Q = X.
The connected components are points, which are not closed. Q is an example
of a non-locally connected space)

Proof
Connected subspaces in the order topology have to be convex (proof later).
Now f (X) is connected, and thus convex.
Example: S = {(x, sin 1 )|x (0, 1]} R2 is connected, since it is the
x
images of the connected set (0, 1] under the continuous map x 7 (x, sin 1 ).
x
Then S is also connected (S = {0} [1, 1] U ).

Proof

Assume X is locally connected and consider U X , and C a connected component of U .

For any x C, there exists V X such that x V U and V
connected. Thus V C because C is maximal. Hence C is open.

For U X, and x U
Take V to be the connected component of x in U

Definition

Definition

Path

Path Connectedness

Topology
Theorem

Topology
Definition

Any path-connexted space is connected

Locally path connected

Topology
Theorem

Topology
Theorem

X is locallay path connected if and only

if for any U X path components of U
are open.

(i) Any path component P is included

in a connected component C.
(ii) If X is locally path-connected, then
connected components are exactly
path connected.

Topology

Topology

Definition

Theorem

A closed subset of a compact space also

compact.y

Compact

Topology
Proposition

Topology
Theorem

A compact Hausdorff space is closed

Topology

The image of a compact space via a

continuous map is compact

Topology

A path in X from x X to y X is a continuous map

A space X is path-connected if for any x, y X there exists a path from x
to y .

: [0, 1] X
such that (0) = x and (1) = y

Proof
X path-connected, x X. For any y X, there exists a path y from x to y.
Then y ([0, 1]) is connected and contains both x and y. Hence:
[

y ([0, 1]) = X

yX
x X and (open) neighbourhoods U of x, there exists a path-connected
(open) neighbourhood V of X such that V U .
is connected.
Examples:
P

n (x y )2 1/2 , is
In Rn , Bd (0, 1), for the metric d(x, y) =
i
i=1 i
path connected. For any x, y such that d(0, y) < 1.
Rn \ {0}: Not for n = 1, yes if n > 1
Unit sphere S n+1 = {x Rn |d(0, x) = 1}

Proof
(i) obvious (path connected connected)
(ii) Consider a path connected component P and a connected component C
such that P C. We Have that prove that P = C. If X is locally path
connected then P is open and so is C. Therfore, C \ P is closed in C.
But then C \ P is a union of path-components of C. It is this a union of
open subsets, and hence is open.
C \ P is clopen, so by the connectedness of C, C \ P = or C \ P = C.

Proof
Y X, X compact and Y closed in X.
Let B be a cover of Y by open subsets of X such that we have an open cover
A of A of Y :
A = {B Y |B B}

Proof

: Assume that X is locally path-connected and consider U X and

P U a path component.
x P U , V X path connected such that x V U :
v P (by definition of a path-connected component)
P is a neighbourhood of every of its points and hence open.
: Assume that U X , path-components of U are open. Let x X
and U X such that x U . Let P the path component of x inside
U.
P is open (by assumption).

A space X is compact if every open cover admits a finite subcover.

Examples
X, with the discrete topology, is compact iff it has finitely many elements
R is not compact:
A = {(n, n + 2)|n Z}
does not admit any proper subcover
(0, 1] is not compact

C = B {X \ Y }
A = {(1/x, 1]|x > 0}
an C is an open cover of X.
X compact C0 C a finite subcollection
Define B0 = C0 B X : B0 is finite and it covers Y .

Proof
f : X Y continuous map, X compact.
B cover of f (X) by open subsets. Define

A := {f

(B)|B B}

A is an open cover of X such that by compactness of X, there exists a finite

subcover A0 . Now
B0 := {B B0 |f

also has no open subcover.

X = {0} { 1 |n N} R is compact:
n
Namely, let A be a cover of X such that 0 U0
N such that n > N , 1 U0 .
n
Moreover i {1, . . . , N },Ui A such that 1 Ui
i
S
N
U

X
i=0 i

Proof
Y X, X Hausdorff, Y compact. We have to prove that X \ Y is open.
For any x X \ Y , we are going to prove the following:
Claim: U, V X disjoint such that x U any Y V :
y Y : Uy , Vy X such that
1. x Uy
2. y Vy
3. Uy and Vy are disjoint.
Observe that {Vy |y Y } covers Y and since Y is compact theres exists a
finite collection Vy1 , . . . , Vyn such that

Y V :=

(B) A0 } B

n
[
i=1

is finite, becaus e A0 is and it covers f (X)

Define U :=

Vy
i

Tn
i=1 Uyi , which is open and contains x.

Theorem

Proposition

If X is compact, Y Hausdorff and

f : X Y continuous and bijective,
then f is homeomorphism.

(Y, <) linearly ordered set, endowed

with the subspace toplogy.
Compact subsets of Y have a maximum
and a minimum.

Topology
Definition

Topology
Lemma

Extreme Value Theorem:

(Y, <) linearly ordered, with the order
topology, X compact.
If f : X Y is continuous, then
c, d X such that x X
f (c) f (x) f (d)

Tube Lemma
Y is compact. If N XY contains
{x} Y for some x X, then there
exists and open tube W Y , where
W X and W X N
Topology

Topology
Lemma

Theorem

x [a, b), y (x, b] such that [x, y] can

be covered by at most 2 elements of A.

K Rn is compact K is closed and

bounded (for the square metric on Rn

Topology

Topology

Theorem

Lemma

X is a compact metric space, Y is

metric space. If f : X Y is continuous
then f is uniformly continuous

X non-empty compact Hausdorff space

with no isolated points
x is isolated {x} is open
If U is a non-empty open subset of X
and x U . Then V U (non-empty,
open) subset such that x
/V

Topology

Topology

Theorem

Proposition

X non-empty compact Hausdorff space

with no isolated points
Then X is uncountable

X is compact if and only if for every

collection E of closed subsets in X such
that
\
C1 , . . . , C n E
6=
i=1

Then
Topology

CE

6=
Topology

Proof
Assume that X does not have a minimum. Then {(, a)|a X} is a cover
of X by opens of Y.
By compactness of X, a1 , . . . , an such that {(, a1 )|i = 1, . . . , n} still
covers X.
Define M := max{ai |i = 1, . . . , n} and we get that X (, M ).

Counterexample to the tube lemma when Y is not compact.

}
X = Y = R, N = {(x, y)||x| < 21
y +1

Proof
K compact, Rn Hausdorff K is closed.
{B(0, R)|R > 0} open cover of K
K is compact and can be covered by finitely many B(0, R)
R > 0 such that K B(0, R)
Conversely, if K is closed and bounded. Then there exists R > 0 such that
K B(0, R) = [R, R]

Proof
We are going to prove that f sends closed subsets to closed subset (i.e. that
f 1 =: g is continuous.
A X is closed A is compact f (A) is compact f (A) is closed in Y
(since Y is Hausdorff)

X compact f (X) compact and has a minimum and maximum by the above
claim.

Proof
Two Cases:
1. Either x has an immediate succesor y then [x, y] = {x, y} which admits
a cover by two elements of A.
2. Otherwise we can chosse A A such that x A and A contains an
open interval containing x:
A [x, a] 3 x

is compact. As a closed subset of a compact subset, K is compact

x does not have an immediate successor: y (x, a).

Then [x, y] A

Proof
Let > 0. We must find > 0 such that d(x, y) < d(f (x), f (y)) < .

Proof
Pick y U \ {x} (possible because {x} is not open)
Let V, W open subsets such that y V , x W and V W = .
Then x
/ V.

Let A = {f 1 (B(y, /2))|y Y }, be anSopen cover of X. Since X is compact

there exist A1 , . . . , An A sucht that n
i=1 Ai = X.
Claim: > 0 s.t. d(x, y) < k {1, . . . , n} such that x, y Ak
Pn
Proof: Let Ci \ Ai and define g : X R x 7 1
i=1 d(x, Ci ) Recall that
n
for any x X, g(x) > 0 since i {1, . . . , n} such that x
/ Ci with Ci being
closed.
Now X compact g(x) compact in R > 0 such that g(X) [, +)
and is thus closed in R
P
Conclusion: d(x, y) < 1
i=1 d(x, Ci ) d(x, Cm ) for some m
n
{1, . . . , n} and hence x Am and y Am .
d(x, y) <

A A s.t. x, y A

f (x), f (y) B(z, /2) for some z Y

Proof
Let A = {X \ C|C E}. Then

A is an open cover

C 6=

CE
E s.t. C1 , . . . , Cn E :

n
\

6=

i=1
A s.t. A1 , . . . , An A :

n
[

Ai 6= X

i=1

[
AA

A 6= X

\
CE

6=

d(f (x), f (y)) <

Proof
Then consider a map f : N X. We are going to prove that f cannot be
surjective.
Let xn := f (n) for all n N
Claim: (Vn )nN where Vn X non-empty, open such that xn
/ V and
Vn Vn1
Proof of the Claim: By induction:
From the lemma follows the existence of V0 X such that x0
/ V0 .
Assume that Vn1 exists, then again, by the lemma, there exists Vn Vn1
such that xn
/ Vn
From the compactness of X follows x
ty). T
Then nN V n is disjoint from f (N).

T
nN Vn (Finite intersection proper-

Example

Definition

The Cantor Set C

Sequentially compact

Topology
Definition

Topology
Definition

Accumulation point

Limit point compact

Topology
Theorem

Topology
Theorem

If X is compact then X is limit point

compact

If X is metrizable, then the following

are equivalent:
1. X is compact
2. X is limit point compact
3. X is sequentially compact

Topology
Definition

Topology
Definition

Cauchy sequence

Completeness

Topology
Proposition

Topology
Corollary

The image of a Cauchy-sequence

through a uniformly continuous map is
a Cauchy sequence

Topology

Being Cauchy for d or for d is

equivalent

Topology

Recall

T
0
nN An where we define the An s by induction:

An = An1 \

n
[
k=0

A space is X is sequentilly compact if any sequence (xn )nN in X has a

converging subsequence.

A space X is limit-point-compact if any subset A X has an

accumulation point

A0 = [0, 1]
!
2 + 3k
,
3n
3n

1 + 3k

C is non-empty since 0 C
C is Hausdorff because [0, 1] is
C is compact
Proof : C is (decreasing) intersection of closed subsets of [0,1]. Therefore C is closed in [0,1]. Therefore it is compact.
C doesnt have isolated points.
Proof : For any x C, there exists a point in C at distance d < 1n for
3
any n 1. Therefore, any neighbourhood of x will contain infinitely
many of these. Then C is uncountable

An accumulation for A X is an element x X such that x A \ {x}

Examples:
{0} R ha no accumulation point
(0, 1) R does have points of accumulation. Its accumulation points
are [0, 1]
0 and 1 are accumulatiojn points because 1 0 and 1 1 1.
n
n
Any x (0, 1) is a point of accumulation because
(0, 1) \ {x} = (0, x) (x, 1) = [0, 1] 3 x
A = { 1 |n N } R has exactly one accumulaion point 0 since
n
A \ {0} = A = {0} A 3 0
A \ { 1 } = {0} A{ 1 }
/ 1
n
n
n

Proof
(1) (2) is always true.
(2) (3) is true as soon as X has a countable basis (of neighbourhoods)
Let f : N X be sequence. Let A = f (N). Then there are two cases:
Either A is finite, then there exists a A sucht that a =
f (n) for infinitely many n. This provides us with a constant
subsequence (which is thus converging).
Or A is infinite: Then there exists x X such that x A \ {x}.
Namely, for any open neighbourhood U of x, there exists y
(A \ {x}) U .
X has a countable basis U0 U1 of neighbourhoods
of x
n0 N such that f (n0 ) U0 A \ {x}
N0 N such that f (n0 )
/ UN
0
n1 > n0 such that f (n1 ) UN A{x}
0
N1 > n0 such that UN
/ f (n1 ), f (n2 )
1
n2 > n1 such that f (n2 ) UN A \ {x}
1
( 2) (3): Theorem 28.2 in Munkres.

Proof
Assume that X is compact and A X does not have any accumulation points.
Then A must be a closed subset (because of the general fact that A = A)
Moreover, for any a A, a is not an accumulation point (by assumption.).
Therefore there exists UA open subset of X such that Ua A = {a} since
a
/ A \ {a} Ua open nbhd s.t. Ua (A \ {a}) =
Ua open s.t. Ua A = {a}
We cover X with (X \ A) {Ua |a A}. This is an open cover because A is
closed.
Since X is compact we can extract a finite subcover Ua , Ua , . . . , Uan , X \ A
1
2
S
Therefore Ua , Ua , . . . , Uan is a cover of A and we have that A n
i=1 Ua
1
2
Sn
and thus A = {a1 , . . . , an } = i=1 (Ua A ) and we proved that A is a finite
i
|
{z
}
{a}
set.

In a metric space (X, d) a sequence (xn )nN is said to be a Cauchy

sequence if for any > 0 theres exists N 0 such that
A metric space is complete if all Cauchy sequence converge Remark:
Any convergent sequence is Cauchy (Proof by triangle inequality)
A X is closed and X is complete then A is complete

is a uniform homeomorphism
Id : (X, d) (X, d)

n, m N d(xn , xm ) <

Proof
Let f : X Y uniformly continuous map and take (xn )nN Cauchy sequence
in X. For any > 0 there exists sucht d(x, y) d(f (x), f (y)) < by
uniform continuity.
(xn )nN Cauchy N 0 sucht that d(xn , xm ) < and thus for n, m N
we have that d(f (xn ), f (xm )) < .

Lemma

Propostion

A metric space X is complete if and

only if Cauchy sequences admit a
convergent subsequence

Rn equipped with either the product

metric or the euclidian metric is
complete

Topology
Proposition

Topology
Theorem

RN equipped with the metric



d(x(i), y(i))
|i N
D(x, y) := sup
i+1

is
If Y is complete then (Y J , rho)
complete.

is complete
Topology
Propostion

Topology
Definition

If Y is complete then so are

a) C(X, Y ) = {f : X Y | f continuous}
YX
b) B(X, Y ) = {f : X Y | f bounded}
YX

Totally bounded

Topology
Theorem

Topology
Definition

Completeness and Compactnes

Equicontinuity

Topology

Topology

Lemma

Lemma

If F C(X, Y ) is totally bounded in the

uniform metric then F is
equicontinuous.

Let the hypothesis be as in the above

lemma and additionially assume that
both X and Y are compact. Then F
equicontinuous F is totally bounded
in the uniform and sup metrics.

Topology

Topology

Proof
(Rn , dp ) and (Rn , de ) are uniformly homeomorphic which makes it sufficient
to only prove it for the product metric.
Let (xk )kN be a Cauchy sequence in Rn .
N 0, k, l N such that d(xl , xk ) 1
Claim {xk |k N} is bounded
Proof of Claim:
Define M := max{d(0, x0 ), d(0, x1 ), . . . , d(0, xN 1 ), d(0, xN ) + 1}
Then For any k N we have d(0, xl ) M
Conculusion (xk )kN is a sequence in [M, M ]n , which is compact and therefor admits a convergent subsequence.

Proof
:
If X is complete then any Cauchy sequence converges which means a convergent
subsequence can easily be extracted :
Assume that (xn )nN is a Cauchy sequence which admits a convergence subsequence (xn )kN (n0 < n1 < )
k
(xn )nN is Cauchy: N1 such that for n, m > N1 d(xn , xm ) <
2
(xn )kN converges to x X: K such that k k d(x, xn ) <
2
k
k
Let now N := max(N1 , nk ) then for n N such that
d(x, xn ) d(x, xn ) + d(xn , xn ) <
k
k

Proof
If (fn )nN is a Cauchy sequence in Y J . Then for any J, (fn ())nN is
a Cauchy sequence in Y .
Then (fn ())nN converges to some g() Y
Claim: Then sequence (fn )nN converges to
g : J Y

7 g().
Proof
Let (xn )nN be a Cauchy sequence in RN . Then (xn (i))nN is a Cauchy sequence in R for all i N.
R complete (xn (i))nN converges to y(i) R.
Hence (xn )nN converges to y = (y(i))iN

Proof of Claim: Let > 0

(fn )nN is Cauchy: N such that for all n, m N

(f
n , fm ) <

n (), fm ()) < Since fn () g() and d

In particular, for any J d(f

2
n (), g()) .
is continuous then d(f
2
n (), g())| J} <
Therefore (f
n , g) = sup{d(f
2

A metric space (X, d) is said totally bounded if for any > 0, there exists
a finite cover of X by -balls.

Proof
Y X is complete. Hence it is sufficient to prove that C(X, Y ) and B(X, Y ) are
closed in Y X
a) C(X, Y ): If (fn )nN is a sequence of continuous functions converging to
f Y X . Then f is continuous.
b) B(X, Y ): Let (fn )nN be a sequence of bounded functions converging uniformly to f Y X
Claim: f is bounded
Proof of Claim: N such that (f
N , f) < 1 .
2
1
1

Hence for all x X, d(f

N (x), f (x)) < 2 d(fN (x), f (x)) < 2 .

Let M > 0 be such that for all x, y X, d(f

N (x), fN (y)) M

(x), f (y)) d(f

(x), f (x)) + d(f

Then d(f
N
N (x), fN (y)) + fN (y), f (y) <
1 +M + 1 = M +1
2
2

Let (Y, d) be ametric space, X space. F Y X and x0 X. F is

equicontinuous at x0 for any > 0, there exists a neighbourhood U of x0
such that
x U, f F

A metric space X is compact if and only if X is complete and totally

bounded
proof in script

d(f (x), f (y)) <

F is equicontinuous if it is equicontinuous at all x X

Properties:
If F = {f }, then F equicontinuous f is continuous
If F is equicontinuous and G F then G is equicontinuous.

Proof
We prove that if F is equicontinuous then F is totally bounded for .
Let > 0 and define := .
3
For any a X, there exists Ua neighbourhood of a such that
x Ua , f F
X compact X =

n
[
i=1

Y compact Y =

m
[
j=1

Ua

d(f (x), f (a)) <

for a1 , . . . , an X

Vj where Vj are balls of radius

For any : {1, . . . , n} {1, . . . , m} we choose (if it exists) an element

f F such that f (ai ) V(i) .
Let J be the set of maps : {1, . . . , n} {1, . . . , m} such that such an f
exists.


Claim B (f , ) J covers F
Proof : Let f F . For any i {1, . . . , n} we choose (i) {1, . . . , m} such

Proof
Let > 0. One can assume that < 1. Let := and cover F by
3
B
(f1 , ), . . . , B
(fn , ) in C(X, Y )
By continuity of fi , there exists a neighbourhood Ui of x0 such that

d(f
i (x), fi (x0 )) <

if x Ui

T
Define U := n
i=1 Ui , a neighborhood of x0 . For any f F , and any x U ,
we have that

(x), f (x )) d(f
(x), f (x)) + d(f

d(f
0
i
i (x), fi (x0 )) + d(fi (x0 ), f (x0 ))
< + + deg =

Definition

Theorem

Pointwise bounded

Ascolis theorem

Topology
Theorem

Topology
Definition

Arzelas Theorem
Y = R . Let (fn )nN be a sequence in
C(X, Rk ). If {fn |n N} is equicontinuous
and bounded for all x X then (fn )nN
admits a converging subsequence.
k

(Path)homotopy

Topology
Lemma

Topology
Definition

The relation on x0 Xx1 defined by

def
0 1 There exists a homotopy
from 0 to 1 is an equivalence relation.

Composition of paths

Topology

Topology
Lemma

Definition

The homotopyy class of 0 depends

only on the homotopy classes of , 0 .

Homtopy Group

Topology
Theorem

Topology
Lemma

If X is simply connected then all points

from x0 to x1 (x0 , x1 X) are homotopic.

Simply Connected

Topology

Topology

Y = Rn . For any F C(X, Rn ) the following are equivalent:

(1) F is totally bounded
(2) F is equicontinuous and bounded
(3) F is equicontinuous and pointwise bouded

A path homotopy from path 0 x0 Xx1 to a path 1 x0 Xx1 is a

continuous map h : [0, 1]2 X such that
(i) h(t, 0) = 0 (t) and h(t, 1) = 1 (t) t [0, 1] (homotopy)
(ii) h(0, x) = x0 and h(1, s) = x1 s [0, 1] (fixed ends)
such that for fixed s: s (t) = h(t, s) x0 Xx1

For x, y, z X, x Xy , 0 y Xz

0
(t) :=

(2t)0 t 1
2
0 (2t t) 1 t1
2

F pointwise bounded
x X, Fx := {f (x)|f F } Y is bounded

Proof
By Ascoli F = {fn |n N} is compact
It follows that (fn )nN being a sequence in a compact F C(X, Rk ), it admits
a converging subsequence in F C(X, Rk ). Convergence in the uniform metric
is then equivalent to uniform convergence

Proof
since we can define h(s, t) := (t)
0 1 1 0 if we for given h01 (t, s) we choose h10 (t, s) =
h01 (s, t).
h
h0
0 , 0 00 00
Define:
(

And hence 0 x Xz

For any x X, x Xx is a group, denoted by 1 (X, x) and is called the

fundamental group of X at x.
Example
(1) X = Rn , x = 0 then by abopce example 1 (X, x) = {e}
2
2
2
(2) x 3 X = R \ {(0, 0)} 1 (X, x)
= Z. which shows that R and R \ (0, 0)
are not homeomorphic
(3) 1 (S 2 , ) = 0

H(t, s) :=

h(t, 2s)0 s 1 cont on[0, 1] [0, 1 ]

2
2
h(t, 2s 1) 1 0 s 1cont on[0, 1] [ 1 , 1]
2
2

Proof
0 0 in X .
Let 0 1 in x Xy and 0
y z
1
0 0 .
We need to prove 0 0
1
1
0
Let h, h be homotopies from 0 to 1 and 0 to 1 , respectively.
Define

H(t, s) :=

(
h(2t, s)0 t 1
2
h0 (2t 1, s) 1 t 1
2

0 and 0
H is a homotopy from 0 0
1
1

Proof
If , 0 : [0, 1] X are paths from x0 to x1 , then

0
= ex0 1 (X, x0 )

A space X is simply connected if it is path connected and such that

(X, x0 ) = {ex } for some x0 X (and hence for all x0 )
0

Definition

Lemma

f defines a group homomorphism

1 (X, x0 ) 1 (Y, y0 )

Push-Forward

Topology
Definition

Topology
Definition

Covering map

Lift

Topology

Topology

Lemma

Theorem

Same Hypothesis as above. Any

continuous map F : [0, 1]2 B such that
F (0, 0) = b0 can be lifted (uniquely) to a
continuous Fe : [0, 1]2 E such that
Fe(0, 0) = e0 .
Moreover, if F is a homotopy, so is Fe.

Let p : E B, p(e0 ) = b0 , 0 , 1 : [0, 1] B

paths starting at b0 . Let
e0 ,
e1 : [0, 1] E
lifts of i , starting at e0 .
If 0 and 1 both end at b1 B and are
homotopic then
e0 and
e1 both end at
the same point and are homotopic.

Topology

Topology

Theorem

Definition

Fundamental group of the circle

Deck transformations

Topology
Lemma

Topology
Definition

is injective. i.e. E is path connected

Topology

Retract

Topology

Proof
We have to prove that f defines a set theoretic map. If there is a
homotopy h from 1 to 2 then f h = f h is a homotopy from f 1
to f 2 .
We prove now that f is a group homomorphism:

If f : X Y is continuous and sucht that f (x0 (= y0 , then for any loop

: [0, 1] X based at x0 we define

f (ex ) = ey
0
0
0
0
f ( ) = f ( )
0

= (f ) (f )

f := f
which is based at y0 .

0
= (f ) (f )

Let p : E B be a continuous map and f : X B another continuouis map.

A lift of f with respect to p from X to E is a continuous map fe : X E
such that the following diagram commutes:
p
B
E

A surjective continuous map p : E B is called a covering map if for any

b B theres exists
1) an open neighbourhood U of b
2) a discrete space S
3) a homeomorphism : p1 (U ) U S
such that the following diagram commutes
p1 (U )

U S

f
fe = p f
p
first proj.
X
If we have that p(e0 ) = b0 (for some e0 E), we say that fe is a lift of f at
e0 . If we further impose that fe(0) = e0

Proof
First Part: Same as the previous lemma (replace closed intervalls by closed
rectangles). exercise
F is a path homotopy F ({0} [0, 1]) = {b0 } and F ({1} [0, 1]) = {b1 }
Hence, if F is a path homotopy then
Proof
e the lift of F such that
Let F be a homotopy between 0 and y1 and F
e (0, 0) = e .
F
0
e (, i), i = 0, 1 is a lift of starting at e and by uniqueness follows
Then F
0
i
e (, i) =
F
ei

e ({0} [0, 1]) p1 ({b })

F
0
where the first argument is connected and the second argument is discrete and
thus
e ({0} [0, 1]) = {e }
F
0
e ({1} [0, 1]) = {F
e (1, 1)} and thus F
e is a path homoSimiliarly we get that F
topy.

Let p : E B be a covering map. Deck transforamtions/covering

transformations are the homomorphisms h : E E such that p h = p:
h

1
1 (S , [0])
= R/Z
p

Let A X. A retraction of X onto A is a continuous map r : X A such

that r|A = idA .
A is called a retract of X.

Proof
Let e E and a path from e0 to e. Let h, h0 Deck(p).
Then h () is a path from h(e0 ) to h(e) and h0 () is a path from h0 (e0 ) to
h0 (e).
If h(e0 ) = h0 (e0 ) then h and h0 are both lifts of p starting at h(e0 ) =
h0 (e0 ). Hence h = h0 by uniqueness of the lift and hence h(e) = h0 (e).

Lemma

Corollary

If A is a retract of X then
j : 1 (A, a0 ) 1 (X, a0 ) is injective.
(with a0 A, and the inclusion map
j : A X)

There is no retraction of
D2 = {z C||z| 1} onto
S 1 = {z C||z| = 1}

Topology
Definition

Topology
Theorem

a0 A, i : 1 (A, a0 ) 1 (X, a0 ) is an
isomorphism of groups. (where
i : A X denotes the inclusion map)

deformation retract

Topology

Topology
Definition

Lemma

Let h, k : X Y be continuous maps.

Take x0 X and set y0 = h(x0 ), y1 = k(x0 ).
If h and k are homotopic then there
exists a path : [0, 1] Y from y0 to y1
such that k =
b h

Homotopy Inverse

Topology

Topology
Theorem

Theorem

If f : X Y is a homotopy equivalence
and f (x0 ) = y0 , then
f 1 (X, X0 ) 1 (Y, y0 ) is an
isomorphism.
Topology

If x0 X, y0 Y , then
1 (X Y, (x0 , y0 ))
= 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (Y, y0 )

Topology

Proof

Proof
1 (D 2 , 1) = {e0 } and 1 (S 1 , 1)
= Z

r j = id
(r j) = r j = id : 1 (A, a1 ) 1 (A, a0 )
Hence j is injective. (r is surjective)

Proof
Recall that i is injective because A is retract. By proving that (ir) = r i
is an isomorphismwe can conclude that i is surjective:
Let : [0, 1] X be a loop based at a0 , F = H (id ) : [0, 1]2 X,
(s, t) 7 H(s, (t))
Note that F (0, t) = (t) and F (1, t) = (i r)((t)), F (s, 0) = F (s, 1) = a0 .
Hence F provides a homotopy between and (i r) , i.e.

Let A X. A is a deformation retract if there is a continuous map:

H : [0, 1] X X such that:
H(0, x) = x(x X)
H(1, x) A(x X)

[] = [i r ] = i [r

H(t, a) = at [0, 1], a A

y 1 (X, a0 ) x 1 (A, a0 ) : i (a) = b

Proof
Define : [0, 1] Y as follows:
(t) := H(t, x0 ), (0) = H(0, x0 ) = y0 (1) = H(1, x0 ) = y1
Let : [0, 1] X be a loop based at x0 in X. We want to prove that
1
k
((h ) ) ( k [] = (h
b []))

Let f : X Y be a continuous map. A continuous map g : Y X is called a

homotopy inverse to f if there exists H : [0, 1] X X and
H 0 : [0, 1] Y Y continuous maps such that
(i) H(0, x) = g f (x) and H(1, x) = x
0
(ii) H (0, y) = f g(y) and H 0 (1, y) = y
i.e. g f is homotopic to idX and g f is homotopic to idY .
If f admits a homotopy inverse, then f is a homotopy equivalence

This is equivalent to (k ) (h ) .
Define F : [0, 1]2 Y by F (s, t) = H(s, (t))
A,B,C,D are paths in [0, 1]2 and A B C D ([0, 1]2 is simply connected).
Hence F (A B) = (k ) F (C D) = (h ) .

Proof
p : X Y X, q : X Y Y first and second projection, respectively.
p q : 1 (X Y, (x0 , y0 )) 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (Y, y0 ) is a group homomorphism.
Claim p q is surjective:
Let 1 x X, 2 y Y . Then 1 2 : [0, 1] X Y , t 7 (1 (t), 2 (t))
0
0
is a loop based at (x0 , y0 ), and (p q )(1 2 ) = p 1 q 2 .
Claim p q is injective:
The kernel vanishes, because: if (x ,y ) X Y is such that 1 := p
0 0
ex0 and 2 := q ey0 (i.e. ker(p q )), then let hi be the corresponding homotopies for i = 1, 2. Then H := h1 h2 : [0, 1]2 X Y, (s, t) 7
(h1 (s, t), h2 (s, t)) is a homotopy between and e(x ,y ) , i.e. [] e(x ,y ) .
0 0
0 0

Proof
Let G : Y X be a homotopy inverse for f , and let x1 = g(y0 ), f (x1 ) = y1 .
g f is homotopic to idX . Hence, by the above lemma, there exists x0 Xx1
such that (g f ) =
b (idX ) = .
b
Hence, (g f ) is an isomorphism. In particular, g f = (g f ) is injective
and this f is injective. By an equivalent argument for f g it follows that f
is surjective.