Plato - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

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Plato|InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy
Plato(427347B.C.E.)
Platoisoneoftheworld'sbestknownandmostwidelyreadand
studied philosophers. He was the student of Socrates and the
teacher of Aristotle, and he wrote in the middle of the fourth
century B.C.E. in ancient Greece. Though influenced primarily
by Socrates, to the extent that Socrates is usually the main
characterinmanyofPlato'swritings,hewasalsoinfluencedby
Heraclitus,Parmenides,andthePythagoreans.
There are varying degrees of controversy over which of Plato's
worksareauthentic,andinwhatordertheywerewritten,dueto
their antiquity and the manner of their preservation through
time. Nonetheless, his earliest works are generally regarded as
themostreliableoftheancientsourcesonSocrates,andthecharacterSocratesthatweknow
throughthesewritingsisconsideredtobeoneofthegreatestoftheancientphilosophers.
Plato's middle to later works, including his most famous work, the Republic, are generally
regarded as providing Plato's own philosophy, where the main character in effect speaks for
Platohimself.Theseworksblendethics,politicalphilosophy,moralpsychology,epistemology,
andmetaphysicsintoaninterconnectedandsystematicphilosophy.ItismostofallfromPlato
thatwegetthetheoryofForms,accordingtowhichtheworldweknowthroughthesensesis
onlyanimitationofthepure,eternal,andunchangingworldoftheForms.Plato'sworksalso
containtheoriginsofthefamiliarcomplaintthattheartsworkbyinflamingthepassions,and
are mere illusions. We also are introduced to the ideal of "Platonic love:" Plato saw love as
motivated by a longing for the highest Form of beautyThe Beautiful Itself, and love as the
motivational power through which the highest of achievements are possible. Because they
tendedtodistractusintoacceptinglessthanourhighestpotentials,however,Platomistrusted
andgenerallyadvisedagainstphysicalexpressionsoflove.
TableofContents
http://www.iep.utm.edu/plato/
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1. Biography
a. Birth
b. Family
c. EarlyTravelsandtheFoundingoftheAcademy
d. LaterTripstoSicilyandDeath
2. InfluencesonPlato
a. Heraclitus
b. ParmenidesandZeno
c. ThePythagoreans
d. Socrates
3. Plato'sWritings
a. Plato'sDialoguesandtheHistoricalSocrates
b. DatingPlato'sDialogues
c. TransmissionofPlato'sWorks
4. OtherWorksAttributedtoPlato
a. Spuria
b. Epigrams
c. Dubia
5. TheEarlyDialogues
a. HistoricalAccuracy
b. Plato'sCharacterizationofSocrates
c. EthicalPositionsintheEarlyDialogues
d. PsychologicalPositionsintheEarlyDialogues
e. ReligiousPositionsintheEarlyDialogues
f. MethodologicalandEpistemologicalPositionsintheEarlyDialogues
6. TheMiddleDialogues
a. DifferencesbetweentheEarlyandMiddleDialogues
b. TheTheoryofForms
c. ImmortalityandReincarnation
d. MoralPsychology
e. CritiqueoftheArts
f. PlatonicLove
7. LateTransitionalandLateDialogues
a. PhilosophicalMethodology
b. CritiqueoftheEarlierTheoryofForms
c. TheMythofAtlantis
d. TheCreationoftheUniverse
e. TheLaws
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8. ReferencesandFurtherReading
a. GreekTexts
b. TranslationsIntoEnglish
c. Plato'sSocratesandtheHistoricalSocrates
d. SocratesandPlato'sEarlyPeriodDialogues
e. GeneralBooksonPlato
1.Biography
a.Birth
ItiswidelyacceptedthatPlato,theAthenianphilosopher,wasbornin4287B.C.Eanddiedat
theageofeightyoreightyoneat3487B.C.E.Thesedates,however,arenotentirelycertain,
for according to DiogenesLaertius (D.L.), following Apollodorus' chronology, Plato was born
theyearPericlesdied,wassixyearsyoungerthanIsocrates,anddiedattheageofeightyfour
(D.L.3.23.3).IfPlato'sdateofdeathiscorrectinApollodorus'version,Platowouldhavebeen
bornin430or431.Diogenes'claimthatPlatowasborntheyearPericlesdiedwouldputhis
birthin429.Later(at3.6),DiogenessaysthatPlatowastwentyeightwhenSocrateswasputto
death(in399),whichwould,again,puthisyearofbirthat427.Inspiteoftheconfusion,the
dates of Plato's life we gave above, which are based upon Eratosthenes' calculations, have
traditionallybeenacceptedasaccurate.
b.Family
Little can be known about Plato's early life. According to Diogenes, whose testimony is
notoriouslyunreliable,Plato'sparentswereAristonandPerictione(orPotoneseeD.L.3.1).
BothsidesofthefamilyclaimedtotracetheirancestrybacktoPoseidon(D.L.3.1).Diogenes'
report that Plato's birth was the result of Ariston's rape of Perictione (D.L. 3.1) is a good
exampleoftheunconfirmedgossipinwhichDiogenessooftenindulges.Wecanbeconfident
thatPlatoalsohadtwoolderbrothers,GlauconandAdeimantus,andasister,Potone,bythe
sameparents(seeD.L.3.4).(W.K.C.Guthrie,AHistoryofGreekPhilosophy,vol.4,10n.4
argues plausibly that Glaucon and Adeimantus were Plato's older siblings.) After Ariston's
death, Plato's mother married her uncle, Pyrilampes (in Plato's Charmides, we are told that
Pyrilampes was Charmides' uncle, and Charmides was Plato's mother's brother), with whom
shehadanotherson,Antiphon,Plato'shalfbrother(seePlato,Parmenides126ab).
Plato came from one of the wealthiest and most politically active families in Athens. Their
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politicalactivities,however,arenotseenaslaudableonesbyhistorians.OneofPlato'suncles
(Charmides) was a member of the notorious "Thirty Tyrants," who overthrew the Athenian
democracy in 404 B.C.E. Charmides' own uncle, Critias, was the leader of the Thirty. Plato's
relatives were not exclusively associated with the oligarchic faction in Athens, however. His
stepfather Pyrilampes was said to have been a close associate of Pericles, when he was the
leaderofthedemocraticfaction.
Plato's actual given name was apparently Aristocles, after his grandfather. "Plato" seems to
havestartedasanickname(forplatos,or"broad"),perhapsfirstgiventohimbyhiswrestling
teacherforhisphysique,orforthebreadthofhisstyle,oreventhebreadthofhisforehead(all
giveninD.L.3.4).AlthoughthenameAristocleswasstillgivenasPlato'snameononeofthe
twoepitaphsonhistomb(seeD.L.3.43),historyknowshimasPlato.
c.EarlyTravelsandtheFoundingoftheAcademy
When Socrates died, Plato left Athens, staying first in Megara, but then going on to several
otherplaces,includingperhapsCyrene,Italy,Sicily,andevenEgypt.Strabo(17.29)claimsthat
he was shown where Plato lived when he visited Heliopolis in Egypt. Plato occasionally
mentions Egypt in his works, but not in ways that reveal much of any consequence (see, for
examples,Phaedrus274c275bPhilebus19b).
BetterevidencemaybefoundforhisvisitstoItalyandSicily,especiallyintheSeventhLetter.
According to the account given there, Plato first went to Italy and Sicily when he was "about
forty"(324a).WhilehestayedinSyracuse,hebecametheinstructortoDion,brotherinlawof
the tyrant Dionysius I. According to doubtful stories from later antiquity, Dionysius became
annoyedwithPlatoatsomepointduringthisvisit,andarrangedtohavethephilosophersold
intoslavery(Diod.15.7Plut.Dion5D.L.3.1921).
Inanyevent,PlatoreturnedtoAthensandfoundedaschool,knownastheAcademy.(Thisis
where we get our word, "academic." The Academy got its name from its location, a grove of
trees sacred to the hero Academusor Hecademus [see D.L. 3.7]a mile or so outside the
Athenian walls the site can still be visited in modern Athens, but visitors will find it
depressingly void of interesting monuments or features.) Except for two more trips to Sicily,
theAcademyseemstohavebeenPlato'shomebasefortheremainderofhislife.
d.LaterTripstoSicilyandDeath
ThefirstofPlato'sremainingtwoSicilianadventurescameafterDionysiusIdiedandhisyoung
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son,DionysiusII,ascendedtothethrone.Hisuncle/brotherinlawDionpersuadedtheyoung
tyranttoinvitePlatotocometohelphimbecomeaphilosopherrulerofthesortdescribedin
theRepublic.Althoughthephilosopher(nowinhissixties)wasnotentirelypersuadedofthis
possibility(SeventhLetter 328bc), he agreed to go. This trip, like the last one, however, did
notgowellatall.Withinmonths,theyoungerDionysiushadDionsentintoexileforsedition
(SeventhLetter329c,ThirdLetter316cd),andPlatobecameeffectivelyunderhousearrestas
the"personalguest"ofthedictator(SeventhLetter329c330b).
Platoeventuallymanagedtogainthetyrant'spermissiontoreturntoAthens(SeventhLetter
338a),andheandDionwerereunitedattheAcademy(Plut.Dion17). Dionysius agreed that
"afterthewar"(SeventhLetter338aperhapstheLucanianWarin365B.C.E.),hewouldinvite
Plato and Dion back to Syracuse (Third Letter 316e317a, Seventh Letter 338ab). Dion and
PlatostayedinAthensforthenextfouryears(c.365361B.C.E.).Dionysiusthensummoned
Plato,butwishedforDiontowaitawhilelonger.Dionacceptedtheconditionandencouraged
Platotogoimmediatelyanyway(ThirdLetter317ab,SeventhLetter338bc),butPlatorefused
theinvitation,muchtotheconsternationofbothSyracusans(ThirdLetter317a,SeventhLetter
338c). Hardly a year had passed, however, before Dionysius sent a ship, with one of Plato's
Pythagorean friends (Archedemus, an associate of Archytassee Seventh Letter 339ab and
nextsection)onboardbeggingPlatotoreturntoSyracuse.PartlybecauseofhisfriendDion's
enthusiasm for the plan, Plato departed one more time to Syracuse. Once again, however,
thingsinSyracusewerenotatalltoPlato'sliking.Dionysiusonceagaineffectivelyimprisoned
Plato in Syracuse, and the latter was only able to escape again with help from his Tarentine
friends(SeventhLetter350ab).
Dion subsequently gathered an army of mercenaries and invaded his own homeland. But his
success was shortlived: he was assassinated and Sicily was reduced to chaos. Plato, perhaps
now completely disgusted with politics, returned to his beloved Academy, where he lived out
the last thirteen years of his life. According to Diogenes, Plato was buried at the school he
founded (D.L. 3.41). His grave, however, has not yet been discovered by archeological
investigations.
2.InfluencesonPlato
a.Heraclitus
AristotleandDiogenesagreethatPlatohadsomeearlyassociationwitheitherthephilosophy
of Heraclitus of Ephesus, or with one or more of that philosopher's followers (see Aristotle
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Metaph.987a32,D.L.3.43.5).Theeffectsofthisinfluencecanperhapsbeseeninthemature
Plato'sconceptionofthesensibleworldasceaselesslychanging.
b.ParmenidesandZeno
TherecanbenodoubtthatPlatowasalsostronglyinfluencedbyParmenidesandZeno(bothof
Elea), in Plato's theory of the Forms, which are plainly intended to satisfy the Parmenidean
requirementofmetaphysicalunityandstabilityinknowablereality.ParmenidesandZenoalso
appear as characters in his dialogue, the Parmenides. Diogenes Laertius also notes other
importantinfluences:
He mixed together in his works the arguments of Heracleitus, the Pythagoreans, and
Socrates.Regardingthe sensibles,he borrows from Heraclitusregardingtheintelligibles,
fromPythagorasandregardingpolitics,fromSocrates.(D.L.3.8)
Alittlelater,DiogenesmakesaseriesofcomparisonsintendedtoshowhowmuchPlatoowed
tothecomicpoet,Epicharmus(3.93.17).
c.ThePythagoreans
DiogenesLaertius(3.6)claimsthatPlatovisitedseveralPythagoreansinSouthernItaly(oneof
whom, Theodorus, is also mentioned as a friend to Socrates in Plato's Theaetetus). In the
Seventh Letter, we learn that Plato was a friend of Archytas of Tarentum, a wellknown
Pythagorean statesman and thinker (see 339de), and in the Phaedo, Plato has Echecrates,
another Pythagorean, in the group around Socrates on his final day in prison. Plato's
Pythagorean influences seem especially evident in his fascination with mathematics, and in
some of his political ideals (see Plato's political philosophy), expressed in various ways in
severaldialogues.
d.Socrates
Nonetheless, it is plain that no influence on Plato was greater than that of Socrates. This is
evident not only in many of the doctrines and arguments we find in Plato's dialogues, but
perhapsmostobviouslyinPlato'schoiceofSocratesasthemaincharacterinmostofhisworks.
According to the Seventh Letter, Plato counted Socrates "the justest man alive" (324e).
AccordingtoDiogenesLaertius,therespectwasmutual(3.5).
3.Plato'sWritings
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a.Plato'sDialoguesandtheHistoricalSocrates
Supposedly possessed of outstanding intellectual and artistic ability even from his youth,
accordingtoDiogenes,Platobeganhiscareerasawriteroftragedies,buthearingSocratestalk,
hewhollyabandonedthatpath,andevenburnedatragedyhehadhopedtoenterinadramatic
competition(D.L.3.5).Whetherornotanyofthesestoriesistrue,therecanbenoquestionof
Plato's mastery of dialogue, characterization, and dramatic context. He may, indeed, have
writtensomeepigramsofthesurvivingepigramsattributedtohiminantiquity,somemaybe
genuine.
Plato was not the only writer of dialogues in which Socrates appears as a principal character
andspeaker.Others,includingAlexamenosofTeos(AristotlePoetics 1447b11 De Poetisfr. 3
Ross[=Rose272]),Aeschines(D.L.2.6063,3.36,PlatoApology33e),Antisthenes(D.L.3.35,
6Plato,Phaedo59bXenophon,Memorabilia2.4.5,3.2.17),Aristippus (D.L. 2.65104, 3.36,
Plato Phaedo 59c), Eucleides (D.L. 2.106112), Phaedo (D.L. 2.105 Plato, Phaedo passim),
Simon(D.L.122124),andespeciallyXenophon(seeD.L.2.4859,3.34),werealsowellknown
"Socratics" who composed such works. A recent study of these, by Charles H. Kahn (1996, 1
35),concludesthattheveryexistenceofthegenreandalloftheconflictingimagesofSocrates
wefindgivenbythevariousauthorsshowsthatwecannottrustashistoricallyreliableanyof
theaccountsofSocratesgiveninantiquity,includingthosegivenbyPlato.
ButitisonethingtoclaimthatPlatowasnottheonlyonetowriteSocraticdialogues,andquite
another to hold that Plato was only following the rules of some genre of writings in his own
work. Such a claim, at any rate, is hardly established simply by the existence of these other
writersandtheirwritings.WemaystillwishtoaskwhetherPlato'sownuseofSocratesashis
maincharacterhasanythingatalltodowiththehistoricalSocrates.Thequestionhasledtoa
number of seemingly irresolvable scholarly disputes. At least one important ancient source,
Aristotle, suggests that at least some of the doctrines Plato puts into the mouth of the
"Socrates" of the "early" or "Socrates" dialogues are the very ones espoused by the historical
Socrates. Because Aristotle has no reason not to be truthful about this issue, many scholars
believethathistestimonyprovidesasolidbasisfordistinguishingthe"Socrates"ofthe"early"
dialoguesfromthecharacterbythatnameinPlato'ssupposedlylaterworks,whoseviewsand
argumentsAristotlesuggestsarePlato'sown.
b.DatingPlato'sDialogues
Onewaytoapproachthisissuehasbeentofindsomewaytoarrangethedialoguesintoatleast
relativedates.Ithasfrequentlybeenassumedthatifwecanestablisharelativechronologyfor
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whenPlatowroteeachofthedialogues,wecanprovidesomeobjectivetestfortheclaimthat
PlatorepresentedSocratesmoreaccuratelyintheearlierdialogues,andlessaccuratelyinthe
laterdialogues.
Inantiquity,theorderingofPlato'sdialogueswasgivenentirelyalongthematiclines.Thebest
reportsoftheseorderings(seeDiogenesLaertius'discussionat3.5662)includedmanyworks
whose authenticity is now either disputed or unanimously rejected. The uncontroversial
internal and external historical evidence for a chronological ordering is relatively slight.
Aristotle (Politics 2.6.1264b2427), Diogenes Laertius (3.37), and Olympiodorus (Prol. 6.24)
statethatPlatowrotetheLawsaftertheRepublic.InternalreferencesintheSophist(217a)and
theStatesman(alsoknownasthePoliticus257a,258b)showtheStatesmantocomeafterthe
Sophist. The Timaeus (17b19b) may refer to Republic as coming before it, and more clearly
mentionstheCritias as following it (27a). Similarly, internal references in the Sophist (216a,
217c)andtheTheaetetus(183e)maybethoughttoshowtheintendedorderofthreedialogues:
Parmenides, Theaetetus, and Sophist. Even so, it does not follow that these dialogues were
actuallywritteninthatorder.AtTheaetetus143c,Platoannouncesthroughhischaractersthat
he will abandon the somewhat cumbersome dialogue form that is employed in his other
writings.Sincetheformdoesnotappearinanumberofotherwritings,itisreasonabletoinfer
thatthoseinwhichitdoesnotappearwerewrittenaftertheTheaetetus.
Scholarshavesoughttoaugmentthisfairlyscantevidencebyemployingdifferentmethodsof
ordering the remaining dialogues. One such method is that of stylometry, by which various
aspectsofPlato'sdictionineachdialoguearemeasuredagainsttheirusesandfrequenciesin
otherdialogues.Originallydonebylaboriousstudybyindividuals,stylometrycannowbedone
more efficiently with assistance by computers. Another, even more popular, way to sort and
group the dialogues is what is called "content analysis," which works by finding and
enumerating apparent commonalities or differences in the philosophical style and content of
thevariousdialogues.Neitherofthesegeneralapproacheshascommandedunanimousassent
amongscholars,anditisunlikelythatdebatesaboutthistopiccaneverbeputentirelytorest.
Nonetheless,mostrecentscholarshipseemstoassumethatPlato'sdialoguescanbesortedinto
differentgroups,anditisnotunusualforbooksandarticlesonthephilosophyofSocratesto
state that by "Socrates" they mean to refer to the character in Plato's "early" or Socratic
dialogues,asifthisSocrateswasasclosetothehistoricalSocratesaswearelikelytoget.(We
havemoretosayonthissubjectinthenextsection.)Perhapsthemostthoroughexamination
of this sort can be found in Gregory Vlastos's, Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher
(Cambridge and Cornell, 1991, chapters 24), where ten significant differences between the
"Socrates"ofPlato's"early"dialoguesandthecharacterbythatnameinthelaterdialoguesare
noted. Our own view of the probable dates and groups of dialogues, which to some extent
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combine the results of stylometry and content analysis, is as follows (all lists but the last in
alphabeticalorder):
Early
(AllafterthedeathofSocrates,butbeforePlato'sfirsttriptoSicilyin387B.C.E.):
Apology,Charmides,Crito,Euthydemus,Euthyphro,Gorgias,HippiasMajor,HippiasMinor,
Ion,Laches,Lysis,Protagoras,RepublicBk.I.
EarlyTransitional
(Either at the end of the early group or at the beginning of the middle group, c. 387380
B.C.E.):
Cratylus,Menexenus,Meno
Middle
(c.380360B.C.E.)
Phaedo,RepublicBks.IIX,Symposium
LateTransitional
(Eitherattheendofthemiddlegroup,orthebeginningofthelategroup,c.360355B.C.E.)
Parmenides,Theaetetus,Phaedrus
Late
(c.355347B.C.E.possiblyinchronologicalorder)
Sophist,Statesman,Philebus,Timaeus,Critias,Laws
c.TransmissionofPlato'sWorks
Except for the Timaeus, all of Plato's works were lost to the Western world until medieval
times,preservedonlybyMoslemscholarsintheMiddleEast.In1578HenriEstienne(whose
LatinizednamewasStephanus)publishedaneditionofthedialoguesinwhicheachpageofthe
textisseparatedintofivesections(labeleda,b,c,d,ande).Thestandardstyleofcitationfor
Platonictextsincludesthenameofthetext,followedbyStephanuspageandsectionnumbers
(e.g.Republic511d).ScholarssometimesalsoaddnumbersaftertheStephanussectionletters,
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whichrefertolinenumberswithintheStephanussectionsinthestandardGreekeditionofthe
dialogues,theOxfordClassicaltexts.
4.OtherWorksAttributedtoPlato
a.Spuria
Severalotherworks,includingthirteenlettersandeighteenepigrams,havebeenattributedto
Plato. These other works are generally called the spuria and the dubia. The spuria were
collected among the works of Plato but suspected as frauds even in antiquity. The dubia are
thosepresumedauthenticinlaterantiquity,butwhichhavemorerecentlybeendoubted.
Ten of the spuria are mentioned by Diogenes Laertius at 3.62. Five of these are no longer
extant: the Midon or Horsebreeder, Phaeacians, Chelidon, Seventh Day, and Epimenides.
Five others do exist: the Halcyon, Axiochus, Demodocus, Eryxias, and Sisyphus. To the ten
Diogenes Laertius lists, we may uncontroversially add On Justice, On Virtue, and the
Definitions, which was included in the medieval manuscripts of Plato's work, but not
mentionedinantiquity.
Works whose authenticity was also doubted in antiquity include the Second Alcibiades (or
Alcibiades II), Epinomis, Hipparchus, and Rival Lovers (also known as either Rivals or
Lovers), and these are sometimes defended as authentic today. If any are of these are
authentic,theEpinomiswouldbeinthelategroup,andtheotherswouldgowiththeearlyor
earlytransitionalgroups.
b.Epigrams
Seventeen or eighteen epigrams (poems appropriate to funerary monuments or other
dedications)arealsoattributedtoPlatobyvariousancientauthors.Mostofthesearealmost
certainly not by Plato, but some few may be authentic. Of the ones that could be authentic
(Cooper1997,1742names1,2,7,andespecially3aspossiblyauthentic),one(1)isalovepoem
dedicated to a student of astronomy, perhaps at the Academy, another (2) appears to be a
funerary inscription for that same student, another (3) is a funerary inscription for Plato's
Syracusan friend, Dion (in which the author confesses that Dion "maddened my heart with
ers"), and the last (7) is a love poem to a young woman or girl. None appear to provide
anythingofgreatphilosophicalinterest.
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c.Dubia
Thedubiapresentspecialriskstoscholars:Ontheonehand,anydecisionnottoincludethem
among the authentic dialogues creates the risk of losing valuable evidence for Plato's (or
perhapsSocrates')philosophyontheotherhand,anydecisiontoincludethemcreatestherisk
ofobfuscatingthecorrectviewofPlato's(orSocrates')philosophy,byincludingnonPlatonic
(ornonSocratic)elementswithinthatphilosophy.ThedubiaincludetheFirstAlcibiades(or
AlcibiadesI),Minos,andTheages,allofwhich,ifauthentic,wouldprobablygowiththeearly
orearlytransitionalgroups,theCleitophon,whichmightbeearly,earlytransitional,ormiddle,
andtheletters,ofwhichtheSeventhseemsthebestcandidateforauthenticity.Somescholars
havealsosuggestedthepossibilitythattheThirdmayalsobegenuine.Ifanyareauthentic,the
letters would appear to be works of the late period, with the possible exception of the
ThirteenthLetter,whichcouldbefromthemiddleperiod.
Nearly all of the dialogues now accepted as genuine have been challenged as inauthentic by
some scholar or another. In the 19th Century in particular, scholars often considered
argumentsforandagainsttheauthenticityofdialogueswhoseauthenticityisnowonlyrarely
doubted. Of those we listed as authentic, above (in the early group), only the Hippias Major
continues occasionally to be listed as inauthentic. The strongest evidence against the
authenticity of the HippiasMajoris the fact that it is never mentioned in any of the ancient
sources.However,relativetohowmuchwasactuallywritteninantiquity,solittlenowremains
thatourlackofancientreferencestothisdialoguedoesnotseemtobeanadequatereasonto
doubtitsauthenticity.Instyleandcontent,itseemstomostcontemporaryscholarstofitwell
withtheotherPlatonicdialogues.
5.TheEarlyDialogues
a.HistoricalAccuracy
Although no one thinks that Plato simply recorded the actual words or speeches of Socrates
verbatim,theargumenthasbeenmadethatthereisnothinginthespeechesSocratesmakesin
the Apology that he could have not uttered at the historical trial. At any rate, it is fairly
commonforscholarstotreatPlato'sApologyasthemostreliableoftheancientsourcesonthe
historical Socrates. The other early dialogues are certainly Plato's own creations. But as we
havesaid,mostscholarstreattheseasrepresentingmoreorlessaccuratelythephilosophyand
behavior of the historical Socrateseven if they do not provide literal historical records of
actual Socratic conversations. Some of the early dialogues include anachronisms that prove
theirhistoricalinaccuracy.
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Itispossible,ofcourse,thatthedialoguesareallwhollyPlato'sinventionsandhavenothingat
all to do with the historical Socrates. Contemporary scholars generally endorse one of the
followingfourviewsaboutthedialoguesandtheirrepresentationofSocrates:
1. TheUnitarianView:
Thisview,morepopularearlyinthe20thCenturythanitisnow,holdsthatthereisbut
asinglephilosophytobefoundinallofPlato'sworks(ofanyperiod,ifsuchperiodscan
evenbeidentifiedreliably).Thereisnoreason,accordingtotheUnitarianscholar,ever
to talk about "Socratic philosophy" (at least from anything to be found in Plato
everythinginPlato'sdialoguesisPlatonicphilosophy,accordingtotheUnitarian).One
recentversionofthisviewhasbeenarguedbyCharlesH.Kahn(1996).Mostlater,but
still ancient, interpretations of Plato were essentially Unitarian in their approach.
Aristotle,however,wasanotableexception.
2. TheLiteraryAtomistView:
Wecallthisapproachthe"literaryatomistview,"becausethosewhoproposethisview
treat each dialogue as a complete literary whole, whose proper interpretation must be
achievedwithoutreferencetoanyofPlato'sotherworks.Thosewhoendorsethisview
reject completely any relevance or validity of sorting or grouping the dialogues into
groups,onthegroundthatanysuchsortingisofnovaluetotheproperinterpretationof
anygivendialogue.Inthisview,too,thereisnoreasontomakeanydistinctionbetween
"Socratic philosophy" and "Platonic philosophy." According to the literary atomist, all
philosophytobefoundintheworksofPlatoshouldbeattributedonlytoPlato.
3. TheDevelopmentalistView:
Accordingtothisview,themostwidelyheldofalloftheinterpretativeapproaches,the
differencesbetweentheearlyandlaterdialoguesrepresentdevelopmentsinPlato'sown
philosophicalandliterarycareer.Thesemayormaynotberelatedtohisattemptingin
anyofthedialoguestopreservethememoryofthehistoricalSocrates(seeapproach4)
such differences may only represent changes in Plato's own philosophical views.
Developmentalists may generally identify the earlier positions or works as "Socratic"
and the later ones "Platonic," but may be agnostic about the relationship of the
"Socratic"viewsandworkstotheactualhistoricalSocrates.
4. TheHistoricistView:
Perhaps the most common of the Developmentalist positions is the view that the
"development" noticeable between the early and later dialogues may be attributed to
Plato'sattempt,intheearlydialogues,torepresentthehistoricalSocratesmoreorless
accurately. Later on, however (perhaps because of the development of the genre of
"Socratic writings," within which other authors were making no attempt at historical
fidelity),Platobeganmorefreelytoputhisownviewsintothemouthofthecharacter,
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"Socrates," in his works. Plato's own student, Aristotle, seems to have understood the
dialoguesinthisway.
Now, some scholars who are skeptical about the entire program of dating the dialogues into
chronological groups, and who are thus strictly speaking not historicists (see, for example,
Cooper1997,xiixvii)nonethelessaccepttheviewthatthe"early"worksare"Socratic"intone
andcontent.Withfewexceptions,however,scholarsagreedthatifweareunabletodistinguish
any group of dialogues as early or "Socratic," or even if we can distinguish a separate set of
"Socratic"worksbutcannotidentifyacoherentphilosophywithinthoseworks,itmakeslittle
sensetotalkabout"thephilosophyofhistoricalSocrates"atall.Thereisjusttoolittle(andtoo
littlethatisatallinteresting)tobefoundthatcouldreliablybeattributedtoSocratesfromany
other ancient authors. Any serious philosophical interest in Socrates, then, must be pursued
throughstudyofPlato'searlyor"Socratic"dialogues.
b.Plato'sCharacterizationofSocrates
In the dialogues generally accepted as early (or "Socratic"), the main character is always
Socrates.Socratesisrepresentedasextremelyagileinquestionandanswer,whichhascometo
beknownas"theSocraticmethodofteaching,"or"theelenchus"(orelenchos,fromtheGreek
termforrefutation),withSocratesnearlyalwaysplayingtheroleasquestioner,forheclaimed
tohavenowisdomofhisowntosharewithothers.Plato'sSocrates,inthisperiod,wasadeptat
reducing even the most difficult and recalcitrant interlocutors to confusion and self
contradiction.IntheApology,Socratesexplainsthattheembarrassmenthehasthuscausedto
so many of his contemporaries is the result of a Delphic oracle given to Socrates' friend
Chaerephon(Apology21a23b),accordingtowhichnoonewaswiserthanSocrates.Asaresult
ofhisattempttodiscernthetruemeaningofthisoracle,Socratesgainedadivinelyordained
mission in Athens to expose the false conceit of wisdom. The embarrassment his
"investigations"havecausedtosomanyofhiscontemporarieswhichSocratesclaimswasthe
rootcauseofhisbeingbroughtuponcharges(Apology23c24b)isthusnoone'sfaultbuthis
"victims,"forhavingchosentolive"theunexaminedlife"(see38a).
The way that Plato's represents Socrates going about his "mission" in Athens provides a
plausibleexplanationbothofwhytheAthenianswouldhavebroughthimtotrialandconvicted
himinthetroubledyearsaftertheendofthePeloponnesianWar,andalsoofwhySocrateswas
not really guilty of the charges he faced. Even more importantly, however, Plato's early
dialogues provide intriguing arguments and refutations of proposed philosophical positions
that interest and challenge philosophical readers. Platonic dialogues continue to be included
among the required readings in introductory and advanced philosophy classes, not only for
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their ready accessibility, but also because they raise many of the most basic problems of
philosophy.Unlikemostotherphilosophicalworks,moreover,Platoframesthediscussionshe
represents in dramatic settings that make the content of these discussions especially
compelling.So,forexample,intheCrito,wefindSocratesdiscussingthecitizen'sdutytoobey
the laws of the state as he awaits his own legally mandated execution in jail, condemned by
what he and Crito both agree was a terribly wrong verdict, the result of the most egregious
misapplicationoftheverylawstheyarediscussing.ThedramaticfeaturesofPlato'sworkshave
earned attention even from literary scholars relatively uninterested in philosophy as such.
Whatever their value for specifically historical research, therefore, Plato's dialogues will
continuetobereadanddebatedbystudentsandscholars,andtheSocrateswefindintheearly
or"Socratic"dialogueswillcontinuetobecountedamongthegreatestWesternphilosophers.
c.EthicalPositionsintheEarlyDialogues
The philosophical positions most scholars agree can be found directly endorsed or at least
suggestedintheearlyor"Socratic"dialoguesincludethefollowingmoralorethicalviews:
A rejection of retaliation, or the return of harm for harm or evil for evil (Crito 48bc,
49cdRepublicI.335ae)
Theclaimthatdoinginjusticeharmsone'ssoul,thethingthatismostprecioustoone,
and, hence, that it is better to suffer injustice than to do it (Crito 47d48a Gorgias
478ce,511c512bRepublicI.353d354a)
Someformofwhatiscalled"eudaimonism,"thatis,thatgoodnessistobeunderstood
in terms of conduciveness to human happiness, wellbeing, or flourishing, which may
alsobeunderstoodas"livingwell,"or"doingwell"(Crito48bEuthydemus278e,282a
RepublicI.354a)
Theviewthatonlyvirtueisgoodjustbyitselfanythingelsethatisgoodisgoodonly
insofarasitservesorisusedfororbyvirtue(Apology30bEuthydemus281de)
Theviewthatthereissomekindofunityamongthevirtues:Insomesense,allofthe
virtuesarethesame(Protagoras329b333b,361ab)
Theviewthatthecitizenwhohasagreedtoliveinastatemustalwaysobeythelawsof
thatstate,orelsepersuadethestatetochangeitslaws,orleavethestate(Crito51bc,
52ad).
d.PsychologicalPositionsintheEarlyDialogues
Socratesalsoappearstoarguefor,ordirectlymakesanumberofrelatedpsychologicalviews:
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Allwrongdoingisdoneinignorance,foreveryonedesiresonlywhatisgood(Protagoras
352acGorgias468bMeno77e78b)
In some sense, everyone actually believes certain moral principles, even though some
maythinktheydonothavesuchbeliefs,andmaydisavowtheminargument(Gorgias
472b,475e476a).
e.ReligiousPositionsintheEarlyDialogues
Inthesedialogues,wealsofindSocratesrepresentedasholdingcertainreligiousbeliefs,such
as:
The gods are completely wise and good (Apology28aEuthyphro 6a, 15a Meno 99b
100b)
Ever sincehis childhood (see Apology31d) Socrates has experienced a certain "divine
something" (Apology 31cd 40a Euthyphro 3b see also Phaedrus 242b), which
consists in a "voice" (Apology 31d see also Phaedrus 242c), or "sign" (Apology 40c,
41d Euthydemus 272e see also Republic VI.496c Phaedrus 242b) that opposes him
whenheisabouttodosomethingwrong(Apology40a,40c)
Variousformsofdivinationcanallowhumanbeingstocometorecognizethewillofthe
gods(Apology21a23b,33c)
Poets and rhapsodes are able to write and do the wonderful things they write and do,
not from knowledge or expertise, but from some kind of divine inspiration. The same
canbesaidofdivinersandseers,althoughtheydoseemtohavesomekindofexpertise
perhapsonlysometechniquebywhichtoputtheminastateofappropriatereceptivity
tothedivine(Apology22bcLaches198e199aIon533d536a,538deMeno99c)
Noonereallyknowswhathappensafterdeath,butitisreasonabletothinkthatdeathis
notaneviltheremaybeanafterlife,inwhichthesoulsofthegoodarerewarded,and
the souls of the wicked are punished (Apology 40c41c Crito 54bc Gorgias 523a
527a).
f. Methodological and Epistemological Positions in the

EarlyDialogues
Inaddition,Plato'sSocratesintheearlydialoguesmayplausiblyberegardedashavingcertain
methodologicalorepistemologicalconvictions,including:
Definitional knowledge of ethical terms is at least a necessary condition of reliable
judging of specific instances of the values they name (Euthyphro 4e5d, 6e Laches
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189e190bLysis223bGreaterHippias304deMeno71ab,100bRepublicI.354bc)
A mere list of examples of some ethical valueeven if all are authentic cases of that
valuewould never provide an adequate analysis of what the value is, nor would it
provide an adequate definition of the value term that refers to the value. Proper
definitions must state what is common to all examples of the value (Euthyphro 6de
Meno72cd)
Thosewithexpertknowledgeorwisdomonagivensubjectdonoterrintheirjudgments
onthatsubject(Euthyphro4e5aEuthydemus279d280b),goabouttheirbusinessin
theirareaofexpertiseinarationalandregularway(Gorgias503e504b),andcanteach
andexplaintheirsubject(Gorgias465a,500e501b,514abLaches185b,185e,1889e
190b)Protagoras319bc).
6.TheMiddleDialogues
a.DifferencesbetweentheEarlyandMiddleDialogues
Scholarly attempts to provide relative chronological orderings of the early transitional and
middle dialogues are problematical because all agree that the main dialogue of the middle
period,theRepublic, has several features that make dating it precisely especially difficult. As
we have already said, many scholars count the first book of the Republic as among the early
groupofdialogues.ButthosewhoreadtheentireRepublicwillalsoseethatthefirstbookalso
provides a natural and effective introduction to the remaining books of the work. A recent
study by Debra Nails ("The Dramatic Date of Plato's Republic," The Classical Journal 93.4,
1998, 383396) notes several anachronisms that suggest that the process of writing (and
perhapsreediting)theworkmayhavecontinuedoveraverylongperiod.Ifthiscentralwork
of the period is difficult to place into a specific context, there can be no great assurance in
positioninganyotherworksrelativetothisone.
Nonetheless, it does not take especially careful study of the transitional and middle period
dialoguestonoticecleardifferencesinstyleandphilosophicalcontentfromtheearlydialogues.
ThemostobviouschangeisthewayinwhichPlatoseemstocharacterizeSocrates:Intheearly
dialogues,wefindSocratessimplyaskingquestions,exposinghisinterlocutors'confusions,all
thewhileprofessinghisowninabilitytoshedanypositivelightonthesubject,whereasinthe
middle period dialogues, Socrates suddenly emerges as a kind of positive expert, willing to
affirm and defend his own theories about many important subjects. In the early dialogues,
moreover,Socratesdiscussesmainlyethicalsubjectswithhisinterlocutorswithsomerelated
religious, methodological, and epistemological views scattered within the primarily ethical
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discussions.Inthemiddleperiod,Plato'sSocrates'interestsexpandoutwardintonearlyevery
area of inquiry known to humankind. The philosophical positions Socrates advances in these
dialogues are vastly more systematical, including broad theoretical inquiries into the
connectionsbetweenlanguageandreality(intheCratylus),knowledgeandexplanation(inthe
Phaedo and Republic, Books VVII). Unlike the Socrates of the early period, who was the
"wisestofmen"onlybecauseherecognizedthefullextentofhisownignorance,theSocratesof
themiddleperiodacknowledgesthepossibilityofinfalliblehumanknowledge(especiallyinthe
famoussimilesoflight,thesimileofthesunandgoodandthesimileofthedividedlineinBook
VIandtheparableofthecaveinBookVIIoftheRepublic),andthisbecomespossibleinvirtue
of a special sort of cognitive contact with the Forms or Ideas (eid ), which exist in a supra
sensible realm available only to thought. This theory of Forms, introduced and explained in
variouscontextsineachofthemiddleperioddialogues,isperhapsthesinglebestknownand
mostdefinitiveaspectofwhathascometobeknownasPlatonism.
b.TheTheoryofForms
Inmanyofhisdialogues,Platomentionssuprasensibleentitieshecalls"Forms"(or"Ideas").
So,forexample,inthePhaedo,wearetoldthatparticularsensibleequalthingsforexample,
equal sticks or stones (see Phaedo 74a75d)are equal because of their "participation" or
"sharing"inthecharacteroftheFormofEquality,whichisabsolutely,changelessly,perfectly,
andessentiallyequal.PlatosometimescharacterizesthisparticipationintheFormasakindof
imaging, or approximation of the Form. The same may be said of the many things that are
greaterorsmallerandtheFormsofGreatandSmall(Phaedo 75cd), or the many tall things
and the Form of Tall (Phaedo 100e), or the many beautiful things and the Form of Beauty
(Phaedo 75cd, Symposium 211e, Republic V.476c). When Plato writes about instances of
Forms "approximating" Forms, it is easy to infer that, for Plato, Forms are exemplars. If so,
PlatobelievesthatTheFormofBeautyisperfectbeauty,theFormofJusticeisperfectjustice,
and so forth. Conceiving of Forms in this way was important to Plato because it enabled the
philosopherwhograspstheentitiestobebestabletojudgetowhatextentsensibleinstancesof
theFormsaregoodexamplesoftheFormstheyapproximate.
Scholarsdisagreeaboutthescopeofwhatisoftencalled"thetheoryofForms,"andquestion
whetherPlatobeganholdingthatthereareonlyFormsforasmallrangeofproperties,suchas
tallness, equality, justice, beauty, and so on, and then widened the scope to include Forms
correspondingtoeverytermthatcanbeappliedtoamultiplicityofinstances.IntheRepublic,
hewritesasiftheremaybeagreatmultiplicityofFormsforexample,inBookXofthatwork,
we find him writing about the Form of Bed (see Republic X.596b). He may have come to
believethatforanysetofthingsthatsharessomeproperty,thereisaFormthatgivesunityto
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thesetofthings(andunivocitytothetermbywhichwerefertomembersofthatsetofthings).
Knowledge involves the recognition of the Forms (Republic V.475e480a), and any reliable
application of this knowledge will involve the ability compare the particular sensible
instantiationsofapropertytotheForm.
c.ImmortalityandReincarnation
In the early transitional dialogue, the Meno, Plato has Socrates introduce the Orphic and
Pythagorean idea that souls are immortal and existed before our births. All knowledge, he
explains,isactuallyrecollectedfromthispriorexistence.Inperhapsthemostfamouspassage
inthisdialogue,SocrateselicitsrecollectionaboutgeometryfromoneofMeno'sslaves(Meno
81a86b). Socrates' apparent interest in, and fairly sophisticated knowledge of, mathematics
appears wholly new in this dialogue. It is an interest, however, that shows up plainly in the
middleperioddialogues,especiallyinthemiddlebooksoftheRepublic.
Severalargumentsfortheimmortalityofthesoul,andtheideathatsoulsarereincarnatedinto
differentlifeforms,arealsofeaturedinPlato'sPhaedo(whichalsoincludesthefamousscene
in which Socrates drinks the hemlock and utters his last words). Stylometry has tended to
count the Phaedo among the early dialogues, whereas analysis of philosophical content has
tendedtoplaceitatthebeginningofthemiddleperiod.Similaraccountsofthetransmigration
ofsoulsmaybefound,withsomewhatdifferentdetails,inBookXoftheRepublicandinthe
Phaedrus, as well as in several dialogues of the late period, including the Timaeus and the
Laws.Notracesofthedoctrineofrecollection,orthetheoryofreincarnationortransmigration
ofsouls,aretobefoundinthedialogueswelistedaboveasthoseoftheearlyperiod.
d.MoralPsychology
Themoralpsychologyofthemiddleperioddialoguesalsoseemstobequitedifferentfromwhat
wefindintheearlyperiod.Intheearlydialogues,Plato'sSocratesisanintellectualistthatis,
heclaimsthatpeoplealwaysactinthewaytheybelieveisbestforthem(atthetimeofaction,
at any rate). Hence, all wrongdoing reflects some cognitive error. But in the middle period,
Platoconceivesofthesoulashaving(atleast)threeparts:
1. arationalpart(thepartthatlovestruth,whichshouldruleovertheotherpartsofthe
soulthroughtheuseofreason),
2. aspiritedpart(whichloveshonorandvictory),and
3. anappetitivepart(whichdesiresfood,drink,andsex),
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andjusticewillbethatconditionofthesoulinwhicheachofthesethreeparts"doesitsown
work," and does not interfere in the workings of the other parts (see esp. Republic IV.435b
445b).ItseemsclearfromthewayPlatodescribeswhatcangowronginasoul,however,that
in this new picture of moral psychology, the appetitive part of the soul can simply overrule
reason'sjudgments.Onemaysuffer,inthisaccountofpsychology,fromwhatiscalledakrasia
or"moralweakness"inwhichonefindsoneselfdoingsomethingthatoneactuallybelievesis
nottherightthingtodo(seeespeciallyRepublicIV.439e440b).Intheearlyperiod,Socrates
deniedthatakrasiawaspossible:Onemightchangeone'smindatthelastminuteaboutwhat
oneoughttodoandcouldperhapschangeone'smindagainlatertoregretdoingwhatonehas
donebutonecouldneverdowhatoneactuallybelievedwaswrong,atthetimeofacting.
e.CritiqueoftheArts
TheRepublicalsointroducesPlato'snotoriouscritiqueofthevisualandimitativearts.Inthe
earlyperiodworks,Socratescontendsthatthepoetslackwisdom,buthealsograntsthatthey
"saymanyfinethings."IntheRepublic,onthecontrary,itseemsthatthereislittlethatisfine
inpoetryoranyoftheotherfinearts.Mostofpoetryandtheotherfineartsaretobecensored
out of existence in the "noble state" (kallipolis) Plato sketches in the Republic, as merely
imitating appearances (rather than realities), and as arousing excessive and unnatural
emotionsandappetites(seeesp.RepublicX.595b608b).
f.PlatonicLove
IntheSymposium,whichisnormallydatedatthebeginningofthemiddleperiod,andinthe
Phaedrus, which is dated at the end of the middle period or later yet, Plato introduces his
theoryofers(usuallytranslatedas"love").Severalpassagesandimagesfromthesedialogues
continuedtoshowupinWesterncultureforexample,theimageoftwoloversasbeingeach
other's "other half," which Plato assigns to Aristophanes in the Symposium. Also in that
dialogue,wearetoldofthe"ladderoflove,"bywhichthelovercanascendtodirectcognitive
contact with (usually compared to a kind of vision of) Beauty Itself. In the Phaedrus, love is
revealed to be the great "divine madness" through which the wings of the lover's soul may
sprout, allowing the lover to take flight to all of the highest aspirations and achievements
possible for humankind. In both of these dialogues, Plato clearly regards actual physical or
sexualcontactbetweenloversasdegradedandwastefulformsoferoticexpression.Becausethe
truegoalofersisrealbeautyandrealbeautyistheFormofBeauty,whatPlatocallsBeauty
Itself,ersfindsitsfulfillmentonlyinPlatonicphilosophy.Unlessitchannelsitspoweroflove
into "higher pursuits," which culminate in the knowledge of the Form of Beauty, ers is
doomedtofrustration.Forthisreason,Platothinksthatmostpeoplesadlysquanderthereal
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poweroflovebylimitingthemselvestothemerepleasuresofphysicalbeauty.
7.LateTransitionalandLateDialogues
a.PhilosophicalMethodology
Oneofthenoveltiesofthedialoguesafterthoseofthemiddleperiodistheintroductionofa
new philosophical method. This method was introduced probably either late in the middle
periodorinthetransitiontothelateperiod,butwasincreasinglyimportantinthelateperiod.
In the early period dialogues, as we have said, the mode of philosophizing was refutative
questionandanswer(calledelenchos or the "Socratic method"). Although the middle period
dialogues continue to show Socrates asking questions, the questioning in these dialogues
becomes much more overtly leading and didactic. The highest method of philosophizing
discussed in the middle period dialogues, called "dialectic," is never very well explained (at
best,itisjustbarelysketchedinthedividedlineimageattheendofBookVIoftheRepublic).
The correct method for doing philosophy, we are now told in the later works, is what Plato
identifiesas"collectionanddivision,"whichisperhapsfirstreferredtoatPhaedrus265e.In
thismethod,thephilosophercollectsalloftheinstancesofsomegenericcategorythatseemto
have common characteristics, and then divides them into specific kinds until they cannot be
further subdivided. This method is explicitly and extensively on display in the Sophist,
Statesman,andPhilebus.
b.CritiqueoftheEarlierTheoryofForms
One of the most puzzling features of the late dialogues is the strong suggestion in them that
PlatohasreconsideredhistheoryofFormsinsomeway.Althoughthereseemsstillinthelate
dialoguestobeatheoryofForms(althoughthetheoryis,quitestrikingly,whollyunmentioned
in the Theaetetus, a later dialogue on the nature of knowledge), where it does appear in the
later dialogues, it seems in several ways to have been modified from its conception in the
middleperiodworks.Perhapsthemostdramaticsignalofsuchachangeinthetheoryappears
firstintheParmenides,whichappearstosubjectthemiddleperiodversionofthetheorytoa
kind of "Socratic" refutation, only this time, the main refuter is the older Eleatic philosopher
Parmenides,andthehaplessvictimoftherefutationisayouthfulSocrates.Themostfamous
(andapparentlyfatal)oftheargumentsprovidedbyParmenidesinthisdialoguehascometo
be known as the "Third Man Argument," which suggests that the conception of participation
(by which individual objects take on the characters of the Forms) falls prey to an infinite
regress:IfindividualmalethingsaremaleinvirtueofparticipationintheFormofMan,and
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the Form of Man is itself male, then what is common to both The Form of Man and the
particularmalethingsmustbethattheyallparticipateinsome(other)Form,say,Man2.But
then,ifMan2ismale,thenwhatithasincommonwiththeothermalethingsisparticipation
in some further Form, Man 3, and so on. That Plato's theory is open to this problem gains
support from the notion, mentioned above, that Forms are exemplars. If the Form of Man is
itself a (perfect) male, then the Form shares a property in common with the males that
participate in it. But since the Theory requires that for any group of entities with a common
property, there is a Form to explain the commonality, it appears that the theory does indeed
giverisetotheviciousregress.
TherehasbeenconsiderablecontroversyformanyyearsoverwhetherPlatobelievedthatthe
TheoryofFormswasvulnerabletothe"ThirdMan"argument,asAristotlebelieveditwas,and
sousestheParmenidestoannouncehisrejectionoftheTheoryofForms,orinsteadbelieved
thattheThirdManargumentcanbeavoidedbymakingadjustmentstotheTheoryofForms.
OfrelevancetothisdiscussionistherelativedatingoftheTimaeusandtheParmenides,since
theTheoryofFormsverymuchasitappearsinthemiddleperiodworksplaysaprominentrole
intheTimaeus.Thus,theassignmentofalaterdatetotheTimaeusshowsthatPlatodidnot
regardtheobjectiontotheTheoryofFormsraisedintheParmenidesasinanywaydecisive.In
anyevent,itisagreedonallsidesthatPlato'sinterestintheTheoryshiftedintheSophistand
Statemantotheexplorationofthelogicalrelationsthatholdbetweenabstractentities.Inthe
Laws, Plato's last (and unfinished) work, the Theory of Forms appears to have dropped out
altogether.WhatevervaluePlatobelievedthatknowledgeofabstractentitieshasfortheproper
conductofphilosophy,henolongerseemstohavebelievedthatsuchknowledgeisnecessary
fortheproperrunningofapoliticalcommunity.
c.The"Eclipse"ofSocrates
Inseveralofthelatedialogues,Socratesisevenfurthermarginalized.Heiseitherrepresented
asamostlymutebystander(intheSophistandStatesman),orelseabsentaltogetherfromthe
castofcharacters(intheLawsandCritias).IntheTheaetetusandPhilebus,however,wefind
Socratesinthefamiliarleadingrole.Thesocalled"eclipse"ofSocratesinseveralofthelater
dialogueshasbeenasubjectofmuchscholarlydiscussion.
d.TheMythofAtlantis
Plato's famous myth of Atlantis is first given in the Timaeus, which scholars now generally
agreeisquitelate,despitebeingdramaticallyplacedonthedayafterthediscussionrecounted
intheRepublic.ThemythofAtlantisiscontinuedintheunfinisheddialogueintendedtobethe
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sequeltotheTimaeus,theCritias.
e.TheCreationoftheUniverse
The Timaeus is also famous for its account of the creation of the universe by the Demiurge.
Unlike the creation by the God of medieval theologians, Plato's Demiurge does not create ex
nihilo, but rather orders the cosmos out of chaotic elemental matter, imitating the eternal
Forms. Plato takes the four elements, fire, air, water, and earth (which Plato proclaims to be
composedofvariousaggregatesoftriangles),makingvariouscompoundsoftheseintowhathe
callstheBodyoftheUniverse.OfallofPlato'sworks,theTimaeusprovidesthemostdetailed
conjecturesintheareaswenowregardasthenaturalsciences:physics,astronomy,chemistry,
andbiology.
f.TheLaws
In the Laws, Plato's last work, the philosopher returns once again to the question of how a
societyoughtbesttobeorganized.UnlikehisearliertreatmentintheRepublic,however,the
Laws appears to concern itself less with what a best possible state might be like, and much
more squarely with the project of designing a genuinely practicable, if admittedly not ideal,
formofgovernment.ThefoundersofthecommunitysketchedintheLawsconcernthemselves
withtheempiricaldetailsofstatecraft,fashioningrulestomeetthemultitudeofcontingencies
that are apt to arise in the "real world" of human affairs. A work enormous length and
complexity,runningsome345Stephanuspages,theLawswasunfinishedatthetimeofPlato's
death.AccordingtoDiogenesLaertius(3.37),itwasleftwrittenonwaxtablets.
8.ReferencesandFurtherReading
a.GreekTexts
PlatonisOpera(in5volumes)TheOxfordClassicalTexts(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress):
VolumeI(E.A.Dukeetal.,eds.,1995):Euthyphro,ApologiaSocratis,Crito,Phaedo,Cratylus,Theaetetus,
Sophista,Politicus.
VolumeII(JohnBurnet,ed.,1901):Parmenides,Philebus,Symposium,Phaedrus,AlcibiadesI,Alcibiades
II,Hipparchus,Amatores.
Volume III (John Burnet, ed., 1903): Theages, Charmides, Laches, Lysis, Euthydemus, Protagoras,
Gorgias,Meno,HippiasMaior,HippiasMinor,Io,Menexenus.
VolumeIV(JohnBurnet,ed.,1978):Clitopho,Respublica,Timaeus,Critias.
VolumeV(JohnBurnet,ed.1907):Minos,Leges,Epinomis,Epistulae,Definitiones,DeIusto,DeVirtute,
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Demodocus,Sisyphus,Eryxias,Axiochus.
TheOxfordClassicalTextsarethestandardGreektextsofPlato'sworks,includingallofthespuriaand dubia
exceptfortheepigrams,theGreektextsofwhichmaybefoundinHermannBeckby(ed.),Anthologia Graeca
(Munich:Heimeran,1957).
b.TranslationsintoEnglish
Cooper,J.M.(ed.),Plato:CompleteWorks(Indianapolis:Hackett,1997).
Contains very recent translations of all of the Platonic works, dubia, spuria, and epigrams. Now generally
regardedasthestandardforEnglishtranslations.
c.Plato'sSocratesandtheHistoricalSocrates
Kahn,CharlesH.,PlatoandtheSocraticDialogue(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996).
Kahn'sownversionofthe"unitarian"readingofPlato'sdialogues.Althoughscholarshavenotwidelyaccepted
Kahn's positions, Kahn offers several arguments for rejecting the more established held "developmentalist"
position.
Vlastos, Gregory, Socrates, Ironist and Moral Philosopher (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and
Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1991).
Chapters 2 and 3 of this book are invariably cited as providing the most influential recent arguments for the
"historicist"versionofthe"developmentalist"position.
d.SocratesandPlato'sEarlyPeriodDialogues
Benson,HughH.(ed.),EssaysonthePhilosophyofSocrates(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1992).
AcollectionofpreviouslypublishedarticlesbyvariousauthorsonSocratesandPlato'searlydialogues.
Brickhouse,ThomasC.andNicholasD.Smith,Plato'sSocrates(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1994).
Sixchapters,eachondifferenttopicsinthestudyofPlato'searlyorSocraticdialogues.
Brickhouse,ThomasC.andNicholasD.Smith,ThePhilosophyofSocrates(Boulder:Westview,2000).
Sevenchapters,eachondifferenttopicsinthestudyofPlato'searlyorSocraticdialogues.Somechangesin
viewsfromthoseofferedintheir1994book.
Prior,William(ed.),Socrates:CriticalAssessments(LondonandNewYork,1996)infourvolumes:I:The
Socratic Problem and Socratic Ignorance II: Issues Arising from the Trial of Socrates III: Socratic
MethodIV:HappinessandVirtue.
AcollectionofpreviouslypublishedarticlesbyvariousauthorsonSocratesandPlato'searlydialogues.
Santas, Gerasimos Xenophon, Socrates: Philosophy in Plato's Early Dialogues (Boston and London:
Routledge,1979).
Eightchapters,eachondifferenttopicsinthestudyofPlato'searlyorSocraticdialogues.
Taylor,C.C.W.Socrates:AVeryShortIntroduction(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1998).
Veryshort,indeed,butnicelywrittenandgenerallyveryreliable.
Vlastos, Gregory, Socrates, Ironist and Moral Philosopher (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and
Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1991).(AlsocitedinVIII.3,above.)
Eightchapters,eachondifferenttopicsinthestudyofPlato'searlyorSocraticdialogues.
Vlastos,Gregory,SocraticStudies(ed.MylesBurnyeatCambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1994).
Edited and published after Vlastos's death. A collection of Vlastos's papers on Socrates not published in
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Vlastos's1991book.
Vlastos,Gregory(ed.)ThePhilosophyofSocrates(SouthBend:UniversityofNotreDamePress,1980).
A collection of papers by various authors on Socrates and Plato's early dialogues. Although now somewhat
dated,severalarticlesinthiscollectioncontinuetobewidelycitedandstudied.
e.GeneralBooksonPlato
Cherniss,Harold,TheRiddleoftheEarlyAcademy(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1945).
AstudyofreportsintheEarlyAcademy,followingPlato'sdeath,ofthesocalled"unwrittendoctrines"ofPlato.
Fine,Gail(ed.),PlatoI:MetaphysicsandEpistemologyandPlatoII:Ethics,Politics,ReligionandtheSoul
(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1999).
Acollectionofpreviouslypublishedpapersbyvariousauthors,mostlyonPlato'smiddleandlaterperiods.
Grote,George,PlatoandtheOtherCompanionsofSokrates2nded.3vols.(London:J.Murray,1867).
3volumecollectionwithgeneraldiscussionof"theSocratics"otherthanPlato,aswellasspecificdiscussions
ofeachofPlato'sworks.
Guthrie,W.K.C.,AHistoryofGreekPhilosophy(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress)vols.3(1969),4
(1975)and5(1978).
Volume3isontheSophistsandSocratesvolume4isonPlato'searlydialoguesandcontinueswithchapters
onPhaedo,Symposium,andPhaedrus,andthenafinalchapterontheRepublic.
Irwin,Terence,Plato'sEthics(NewYorkandOxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1995).
SystematicdiscussionoftheethicalthoughtinPlato'sworks.
Kraut,Richard(ed.),TheCambridgeCompaniontoPlato(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1992).
AcollectionoforiginaldiscussionsofvariousgeneraltopicsaboutPlatoandthedialogues.
Smith, Nicholas D. (ed.), Plato: Critical Assessments (London and New York: Routledge, 1998) in four
volumes:I:GeneralIssuesofInterpretationII:Plato'sMiddlePeriod:MetaphysicsandEpistemology
III:Plato'sMiddlePeriod:PsychologyandValueTheoryIV:Plato'sLaterWorks.
AcollectionofpreviouslypublishedarticlesbyvariousauthorsoninterpretiveproblemsandonPlato'smiddle
andlaterperiods.Plato'searlyperioddialoguesarecoveredinthisseriesbyPrior1996(seeVIII.4).
Vlastos,Gregory,PlatonicStudies2nded.(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1981).
AcollectionofVlastos'spapersonPlato,includingsomeimportantearlierworkontheearlydialogues.
Vlastos,Gregory,PlatoI:MetaphysicsandEpistemologyandPlatoII:Ethics,Politics,andPhilosophyof
ArtandReligion(SouthBend:UniversityofNotreDamePress,1987).
AcollectionofpapersbyvariousauthorsonPlato'smiddleperiodandlaterdialogues.Althoughnowsomewhat
dated,severalarticlesinthiscollectioncontinuetobewidelycitedandstudied.
AuthorInformation
ThomasBrickhouse
Email:brickhouse@lynchburg.edu
LynchburgCollege
U.S.A.
and
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NicholasD.Smith
Email:ndsmith@lclark.edu
Lewis&ClarkCollege
U.S.A.
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