Sample Final Year Project Report 50% Submission

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
School of Advance manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering
Bachelor of Engineering
Final Year Project
Design and Development of a Blade Breakage Detector

Student:
I.D. No:
Supervisor:
2013
Abstract
Comment [B1]: Abstract MUST

summarise up-to-date Aims and
Achievements of the project, hence must be
updated in each submission.
GLOBALFOUNDRIES is the worlds second largest semiconductor foundry, headquartered

in Silicon Valley with manufacturing operations in Singapore, Germany, and a new leadingedge fabrication in Saratoga County, New York. These sites are supported by a global
network of R&D, design enablement, and customer support in Singapore, China, Taiwan,
Japan, the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. The company was launched in
March 2009 through a partnership between Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) [NYSE: AMD]
and the Advanced Technology Investment Company (ATIC). GLOBALFOUNDRIES
provides a unique combination of advanced technology, manufacturing excellence and global
operations. With the integration of Chartered Semiconductor in January 2010,
GLOBALFOUNDRIES significantly expanded its capacity and ability to provide best-inclass foundry services from mainstream to the leading edge.
Comment [B2]: Leave a line of 12-point

blank space between consecutive
paragraphs. Ok
Wafer dicing is a mandatory procedure in most front-of-line semiconductor packaging

operations. It is used extensively for separation of die on silicon integrated circuit wafers.
Wafer dicing saw is the most efficient and economical semiconductor manufacturing process of
die separation, or dicing, by sawing of cutting a microelectronic substrate into its individual
circuit die with a rotating circular abrasive saw blade. It provides versatility in selection of
depth and width (kerfs) of cut, as well as selection of surface finish, and can be used to saw
either partially or completely through a wafer or substrate. Increasing use of microelectronic
technology in microwave and hybrid circuits, memories, computers, defence and medical
Comment [B3]: Leave only a line of 12point blank space between consecutive
paragraphs. Ok
electronics has created an array of new and difficult problems and demands for the field of
Wafer dicing. During wafer dicing saw, broken silicon wafer may have a possibility to go out
of the process without any interruption. Because of this, it drives the researcher to come up
with the engineering long term solution to improve the wafer dicing saw process by introducing
a blade breakage detector for semi-automatic dicing saw machine to prevent possibilities of a
broken silicon wafer to come out during wafer dicing saw process.
Designing, development and construction of blade breakage detector prevents the potential
wafer dicing saw quality issues such as broken silicon wafers and chuck damage. It also helps
to minimise approximately US$96,000 per annual to the company from corrective maintenance
and resource management budget.
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Comment [B4]: Use British/Australian

English, not American English unless using
direct quoting from American references.
Ok
Disclaimer
I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and contains no material which has been
accepted for the award of any degree or diploma from any tertiary institution. To the best of
my knowledge and belief, this thesis contains no material previously written or published by
another person, except where due reference is made in the text.
Signed:
Akash Anil
22 July 2013
iii
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to my principal supervisor Professor Kazem Abhary for
his overall guidance throughout my project. His encouragement and willingness to share his
wisdom have been essential during each stage of the research and writing of this thesis. I
would also like to thank my industry supervisor Mark Anthony Siazon for his unselfishness
to provide his insightful comments and suggestions during the whole project process. There is
no doubt this work could not have completed without the observations, comments and
discussions contributed by my two supervisors.
I also sincerely acknowledge the assistance provided by the following individuals:
Mr Mizan Jefree, our multimedia personnel, for his help in providing some of the
valuable photos on the company and the connector itself. His expertise has helped me
in providing a clearer picture to the reader in this whole project thesis.
My Brother, Ashish Anil, for his comments on the presentation of the project thesis.
This had helped me in providing a clearer and more consistent project presentation.
I would like to thank the whole design team members for contributing their valuable
suggestions and comments on the blade breakage detector design
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Comment [B5]: Acknowledgement in

final submission only; it must include every
kind of help received from anybody in a
nice manner.
Comment [B6]: Set Table of Contents

in single-line spacing where chapter titles
are to be in bold.(Provide 12 points space
before the chapter titles) . Ok
Table of Contents
Title page
Abstract
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Disclaimer
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Acknowledgments
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Table of Contents
List of Figures
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List of Tables
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Appendices
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Chapter 1 - Project Background and Significance

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Company Background
1.3 Project Background
1.4 Project Aim
1.5 Scope of the Project
1.6 Expected Outcomes
1.7 Thesis Structure
1.8 Concluding Remarks
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Chapter 2 - Literature Review and Project Methodology

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Source of Literature
2.3 Related Literature
2.3.1 Automation
2.3.2 Design Drawings
2.3.2.1 Tolerances
2.3.2.2 Dimensions
2.3.2.3 Preferred Sizes
2.3.2.4 Surface Roughness
2.3.3 Creativity and Problem Solving
2.3.4 Invention
2.3.5 Sensor or Transducer
2.3.6 Parameters to be considered in choosing a sensor
2.3.7 Fiber Optic Proximity Sensors
2.3.8 Light Emitting Diode
2.3.9 Amplifier
2.3.9.1 Operational Amplifiers
2.3.9.2 Operational Amplifier Applications
2.3.10 Analog-To-Digital Conversion
2.3.11 Wafer Dicing
2.3.11.1 Dicing Blades
2.4 Project Methodology
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2.3.1 with R of the Related in 2.3, and do
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2.4.1 Research Design

2.4.2 Procedures
2.4.3 Statistical Treatment of Data
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Chapter 3 - Analysis of the Current System and Operation

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Type of Materials
3.2.1 Semiconductor Wafer
3.2.2 Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
3.2.3 Ball Grid Array (BGA)
3.2.4 Quad Flat No Lead (QFN)
3.2.5 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
3.2.6 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)
3.3 Mounting Process
3.3.1 Ring
3.3.2 Film Frame
3.3.3 Mounting
3.3.4 Wax or Glue Mounting to Media
3.4 Dicing Saw Machine
3.5 Dicing Process Flow
3.6 Dicing Yield Loss Factors
3.6.1 Cut Placement Accuracy
3.6.2 Cleanliness
3.6.3 Chipping
3.7 Optimization
3.8 Monitoring
Chapter 4 - Evaluation and Consideration of Alternative Solution
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Variables in Selecting Dicing Blade
4.2.1 Bond Hardness
4.2.2 Diamond Grit Size (Mesh Size)
4.2.3 Diamond Concentration
4.2.3.1 High Diamond Concentration
4.2.3.2 Low Diamond Concentration
4.3 Dicing Blade
4.3.1 Hubbed Diamond Dicing Blade
4.3.2 Hub Less Diamond Dicing Blade
4.4 Dicing Blade Types
4.4.1 Sintered (Metal Bond) Dicing Blade
4.4.2 Resin Bond Dicing Blade
4.4.3 Electroplated (Nickel Bond) Dicing Blade
4.5 Blade Dressing
4.6 Dressing Process
4.7 Cutting Speed
4.8 Coolant
4.9 Process Stability
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Chapter 5 - Development Solution

Chapter 6 - Cost and Benefit Analysis
Chapter 7 - Conclusions and Recommended Future Works
References
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Comment [B9]: Set List of Figures and

List of Tables in single-line spacing.
Ok
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Portion of a Diced Wafer after Cleaning
Figure 1.2 Typical Wafer Dicing Saw Blade Holder Assembly
Figure 1.3 Damage Chuck Table
Figure 1.4 Excessive Cut
Figure 1.5 Damaged Wafer
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Figure 2.1 Influence of Dimensional Tolerance in Cost of Manufacture
Figure 2.2 Surface Roughness with Vertical Direction Magnified
Figure 2.3 Roughness in micro-inches
Figure 2.4 Wafer Mounted on a Cutting Ring
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Figure 3.1 Semiconductor Wafer
Figure 3.2 Hard Disk Drive
Figure 3.3 Ball Grid Array
Figure 3.4 Quad Flat No Lead
Figure 3.5 Light Emitting Diode
Figure 3.6 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Figure 3.7 Film Frame with Tape
Figure 3.8 Wafer Mounter Machine
Figure 3.9 Wafer Mounted on Film Frame
Figure 3.10 Dicing Saw Machine Main Parts
Figure 3.11 Dicing Saw Process Flow Chart
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Figure 4.1 Variables in Selecting Dicing Blade
Figure 4.2 NBC-ZH 2050 27HEDC Blade
Figure 4.3 High Concentration of Diamond Powder
Figure 4.4 Low Concentration of Diamond Powder
Figure 4.5 Sintered (Metal Bond) Dicing Blade
Figure 4.6 Resin Bond Dicing Blade
Figure 4.7 Nickel Bond Dicing Blade
Figure 4.8 View of blade cutting edge after dressing
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Comment [B10]: Set List of Figures

and List of Tables in single-line spacing.
Ok
List of Table
Table 2.1 ANSI Recommended Allowances and Tolerances
Table 2.2 Table of Preferred Sizes
Table 2.3 Gantt chart
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Table 3.1 Factors affecting cut quality and blade torque
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Table 4.1 Diamond Sizes for Different Application
Table 4.2 Dressing Parametric
Table 4.3 Speed Range for Typical Application
Table 4.4 Matching Basic Material Properties to Blade Properties
Table 4.5 Effect of Operating Condition to Blade
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Appendices
Appendix 1
List of Abbreviations
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Comment [B11]: Design an attractive

cover page (preferably colour design) for
each chapter and References. Cover pages
are numbered but do not bear the page
number and header. Using a meaningful art
clip or picture on the cover page is
recommended. You may design a cover
page for each Appendix too.
Comment [B12]: Add headers to
pages: same as chapter title, font 10, italic,
right justified. Ok
Comment [B13]: Margins preferably:
left 35mm, others 25mm. Ok
1.1 Introduction
This chapter will give a high level detail of the project "The Design and Development of
a Blade Breakage Detector for Semi-Automatic Dicing Saw Machine". It discusses why
the system capability is needed and its importance to the proponent. It shows the
background of the study, outlining the scenarios, aims and scope.
1.2 Company Background
GLOBALFOUNDRIES (Singapore) is the worlds first full-service semiconductor
foundry with a truly global manufacturing and technology footprint. Launched in March
2009 through a partnership between Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) [NYSE: AMD]
and the Advanced Technology Investment Company (ATIC), GLOBALFOUNDRIES
provides a unique combination of advanced technology, manufacturing excellence and
global operations. With the integration of Chartered Semiconductor in January 2010,
GLOBALFOUNDRIES significantly expanded its capacity and ability to provide bestin-class foundry services from mainstream to the leading edge.
GLOBALFONDRIES manufacturing operations are based in Singapore, Germany and
it is headquartered in Silicon Valley. A leading-edge fabrication is currently under
construction in Saratoga County, New York. These sites are supported by a global
network of R&D, design enablement, and customer support in Singapore, China,
Taiwan, Japan, the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom.
The proponent of this thesis is currently employed in GLOBALFOUNDRIES Singapore
as a Senior Associate Engineer. Reporting under the Equipment Engineering Team, the
proponents major job function is providing sustained equipment health throughout the
shift. The proponent also provides engineering support, such as machine qualifications
and solutions to issues affecting the production floor within the confines of the process.
Wafer fabrication is a meticulous procedure composed of many sequential processes
which involves engineers metallurgists, chemists and physicists to produce a complete
electrical or photonic circuit. The term wafer fabrication generally refers to the process
of fabricating integrated electrical circuits/components on silicon wafers. Prior to the
fabrication of wafer, pure silicon ingots are used to produce raw silicon wafers, which
then sliced and shaped into thin wafers through a process wafering.
The crucial step in wafer fabrication is the designing of the electrical circuits by
defining its function, specifying the input-output signals and voltages. These circuit
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paragraphs. Ok
speculations are entered into electrical circuit design software, such as simulation
program with integrated circuit emphasis (SPICE), and then imported into circuit layout
programs. SPICE is a powerful program used in integrated circuit and board level
design to check the integrity of the circuit design and to predict the behavior of the
circuit. For wafer mask production it is an essential layer to be defined. The circuits
resolution increases rapidly with the step in design, as the scale of the circuits at the
start of the design process is already being measured in fractions of micrometers. Each
step thus increases circuit density for a given area.
The silicon wafers start out blank and pure. The circuits are built in layers in clean
rooms. First, photo sensitive resistance patterns are photo masked in micrometer detail
onto the wafers surface. The wafers then exposed to short wave ultraviolet light and the
unexposed areas thus etched away and cleaned. Hot chemical vapors are deposited on to
the desired zones and baked in high heat, which permeate the vapors into the desired
zones. In some cases, ions, such as O2+ or O+, are implanted in precise patterns and at a
specific depth by using radio frequency driven ion sources. These steps are often
repeated many hundreds of times, depending on the complexity of the desired circuit
and its connections.
As the worlds largest chip manufacturer, GLOBALFOUNDRIES strives to make every
facet or semiconductor manufacturing state of the art from semiconductor process
development and manufacturing, through yield improvement to final test and
optimization, and lastly packaging. Employees in the technology and manufacturing
group are part of a worldwide network of manufacturing, assembly and test facilities
that is committed to its goal of producing world class microchips that is unsurpassed in
quality and performance and the companys capability to deliver the market needs for
high quality microchips.
With the volume demand increasing in microchips particularly in Asia, this brings a
challenge to the company to have a continuous capacity to produce high quality and
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reliable product based from the specifications communicated internally within

GLOBALFOUNDRIES and to its customers. Quality standard and improvement system
must be implemented in able to do this and ultimately improve its business processes to
facilitate labour intensive task that grows proportionally with the volume being
produced by its factory. These improvements can be done either through breakthrough
systems or by utilizing the capabilities of Computer Technology simply through
automation.
1.3 Project Background
Wafer dicing saw is a semiconductor manufacturing process of die separation, or dicing,
by sawing of cutting a microelectronic substrate into its individual circuit die with a
rotating circular abrasive saw blade. This is the most economical and efficient process as
of today. It provides versatility in selection of depth and width (kerfs) of cut, as well as
selection of surface finish, and can be used to saw either partially or completely through a
wafer or substrate. Wafer dicing technology has progressed rapidly, and dicing is now a
mandatory procedure in most front-of-line semiconductor packaging operations. It is used
extensively for separation of die on silicon integrated circuit wafers. Increasing use of
microelectronic technology in microwave and hybrid circuits, memories, computers,
defence and medical electronics has created an array of new and difficult problems for the
industry.
Figure 1.1 Portion of a Diced Wafer after Cleaning
Dicing semiconductor wafers by sawing is a rough machining process which is similar to

grinding and cut-off operations, which has been use in the past decades. Even though its
an old technique the size of the dicing blades using for the die separation accomplish the
process as unique. Normally the range of blade thickness is from 0.6 to 50 mils and
diamond particles (the hardest known material) are used as the abrasive material
ingredient. Due to the diamond dicing blade's supreme fineness, conformity with a strict
set of parameters is imperative, and even the slightest deviation from the norm could
result in complete failure.
Most state of the art dicing equipments are designed for dicing silicon specifically.
Being said this, The problems arises when there is a need to cut a harder or more brittle
materials. The mechanical functions, such as the blade speed and torque, depth of cut,
feed rate, and other performance parameters have been optimized for silicon. In order to
cut hard and brittle materials it is necessary to have different blades and equipments,
which operates in different parameters. It is a crucial step/key as this leads in successful
high yield dicing process. Tool sharpness is the primary importance in a cutting process
and it is unavoidable to maintain the sharpness of the tool throughout the cutting
operation. When cutting hard material such as sapphire, the cutting edges become dull
quite rapidly. Because the dulled cutting edges cannot be re-sharpened in the usual
manner, it is desirable that they be pulled loose from the blade, or else be fractured to
expose new sharp cutting edges (David E. Bajune, 2000).
Figure 1.2 Typical Wafer Dicing Saw Blade Holder Assembly

During wafer dicing saw, broken silicon wafer may have a possibility to go out of the
process without any hindrance. The dicing blade wears as the wafer is cut and split into
various electronic chips. The blade exposure is gradually being lessened, when the blade
is brought around the corner towards the wafer during the cutting. Visual inspection is not
allowed in case of any small dimensions, coolant flow and close tolerances in the process.
The wafer and the blade will be damaged if there is an excess blade wear, as the reduced
exposure or flanged clearance between the blade cutting edge and flange edge will cause
restriction to the coolant flow or by contact of the flange with the wafer.
Because of this, it drives the proponent to come up with the engineering long term
solution to improve the wafer dicing saw process by introducing a development design of
a blade breakage detector for semi-automatic dicing saw machine to prevent possibilities
of a broken silicon wafer to come out during wafer dicing saw process.
Figure 1.3 Damage Chuck Table
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paragraphs. Ok
Figure 1.4 Excessive Cut
Figure 1.5 Damage Wafer

1.4 Project Aim
The development of a blade breakage detector for semi-automatic dicing saw machine
aims to have automatic detection when the diamond blade is broken to avoid broken
silicon wafer to come out during dicing saw process. Thus, it will include analysis,
design, development and evaluation of the mentioned capability in an effort to improve
wafer dicing saw operation process for the benefit of GLOBALFOUNDRIES Singapore
factory and its customers. The study will focus on gathering best methods from the
engineers and staffs of the said facility in resolving quality issue on current wafer dicing
saw process of GLOBALFOUNDRIES Singapore factory. The final output of the
proposed blade breakage detector for semi-automatic machine is to develop a system
7
design that will ensure that the possibility of having a broken silicon wafer is prevented
during wafer dicing saw process due to broken blade. The study will utilize system design
and analysis in developing the proposed design.
Comment [B17]: Scope should be
written as headings 1.5. Ok
1.5 Scope of the Project
To study the existing system characteristics by monitoring the process capability
To study the application and robustness of various sensor types for detecting the
broken blade
To build a functional prototype of the system
1.6 Expected Outcomes

Construction and installation of the designed device in detecting broken blade is to
prevent the potential wafer dicing saw quality issues such as a broken silicon wafer and
damage chuck table. It is also to prevent additional cost of approximately US$96,000
per annum to the company.
In addition, the completion of this study as well as the implementation of The Design
and Development of a Blade Breakage Detector for Semi-Automatic Dicing Saw
Machine will greatly improve the wafer dicing saw process by providing a robust
solution to a potential wafer dicing saw quality issue such as a broken silicon wafer. With
the new system design, the wafer dicing saw technician will be able to use the equipment
without having to undergo risks of the possibility of having a quality issue brought about
by a broken silicon wafer. This will result in improved wafer dicing saw process without
affecting quality of the process and performance of the equipment. This study and this
proposed system design would be of great help to the following and after completion: to
the company, equipment engineers, technicians, manufacturing supervisors, and lastly, to
the proponent:
Technicians - Being the frontline manufacturing personnel, their effectiveness and

productivity relies on the robustness of the process. The prevention of a broken silicon
wafer will surely benefit and give them opportunity for more productive activities.
Manufacturing Supervisors and Equipment Engineers - Being the frontline

manufacturing managers and sustaining personnel, they will now have well
conditioned equipment than before. The prevention of a broken silicon wafer will
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ensure that production will not be disrupted to run resulting in higher output, better
yield, and reliable product ship-out and as well as improved performance.
The Proponent - This study will help the proponent to gain more knowledge,
additional skills and information that would help him in his future career. It would be
an honour on the part of the proponent when the system design is fully implemented
eventually.
For Other Researchers - This study will help the other researchers to gain more
knowledge, additional skills and information that would help them to improve their
manufacturing processes.
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and numbered points.
Remove the spaces between them. Ok
1.7 Thesis Structure

The structure of project thesis as follows, current chapter 1 will give a brief description
of company's background and also introduce the purpose of the project. An explanation
of why this project is being initiated is also being briefed. Chapter 2 commences with a
review on literature and studies related to the concept of the project being proposed as
well as the project methodology to be used. Chapter 3 describe in detail the analysis of
the current system and operation. Chapter 4 will be focused on the evaluation and
consideration of alternative solution. Chapter 5 will be the development solutions and
followed by the data collected will be discuss. Chapter 6 will analyse the results from
the data analysis, together with the collection of the project and recommendations are
presented. Chapter 7 will conduct cost and benefit analysis to determine the solutions
that have been developed of whether does it meets the project objectives, including the
summary of the project outcomes, benefits of the project and recommendations for
future work.
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explanations or the table below, to avoid
repetitions. Ok
Comment [B21]: Concluding Remarks.

Ok
This chapter mentioned that the main purpose of this project, "The Design and
Development of a Blade Breakage Detector for Semi-Automatic Dicing Saw Machine".
Thus, it will include analysis, design, development and evaluation of the mentioned
capability in an effort to improve wafer dicing saw process to the benefit of
GLOBALFOUNDRIES and its customers.
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2.1 Introduction
This portion of the research will present literatures and studies related to the concept of
the project being proposed. The purpose of such is to be able to give the reader a wider
view and better understanding of the topic being discussed and provide a background on
how it affected "The Design and Development of a Blade Breakage Detector for SemiAutomatic Dicing Saw Machine.
2.2 Source of Literature
Different data gathering tools and instruments are used by the proponent to gather
information about the existing system. These tools are needed in creation of the
proposed system of the study.
Internet Research - The researcher consulted several websites during project

development and understanding the system capability.
Library Research - Reference material and books available in the library were
consulted to provide more backbone into the programming structure and add
robustness into the new system.
Equipment Manual - Serves as reference for technical diagrams, schematics and

procedures of the defined machine.
Questionnaires - Several questionnaire sheets were made to help in assessing the

usability and functionality of the existing and new system design based on the
answers given by the respondents. The Nielsens attribute of usability evaluation
approach was also employed to look at the overall health of the existing and new
procedure. This was chosen because of its proven effectiveness in assessing design
usability.
2.3 Related Literature

This portion of the research will present related literatures to the concept of the project
being proposed.
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2.3.1 Automation
Automation article was derived from encyclopedia.com where it discussed the
Comment [B22]: Line-up
importance of automation. The author cited out key principles of the use of
automation, suitable for a wide range of scenarios.
Automation (www.encyclopedia.com, 2006) is the use of automatic machinery and
systems, particularly those manufacturing or data-processing systems which require
little or no human intervention in their normal operation. Automation began during
the early 19th century when machines such as looms and lathes became selfregulating. Transfer machines were evolved during the same time in which a series of
machine tools, each of them completed one operation automatically became
continuous production line by pneumatic or hydraulic devices. Further to this,
efficiency and productivity if the workers and machines were enhanced by the
scientific management which was developed by the early time and motion studies of
Frederick Winslow Tailor in Philadelphia, USA in the 1880s. In the early 20th
century, basic industries such as oil-refining, chemicals and food processing were
increasingly automated with the development of electrical devices and time switches.
Sophisticated automation in iron and steel industries began with the use of computers
after World War II. Among them were the highly automated system used on the
assembly plant for automobiles or other complex products. Over the last few decades
automation has evolved from the comparatively straightforward mechanization of
tasks traditionally carried out by hand, through the introduction of complex automatic
control systems, to the widespread automation of information collection and
processing.
Today, automation is a vital component of global economy and human life. Credit of
deriving basic automation systems to todays huge range of applications and human
activities associates with engineers. They contrive to integrate devices of associated
applications to form an improved system of reduced cost but higher productivity.
Objective of automation applications has also been shifted from basic needs
mentioned earlier to broader issues such as increasing quality and flexibility in the
manufacturing process. However, it is also necessary to provide a skilled workforce
who can make repairs and manage machinery. Moreover, the initial costs of
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automation were high and often could not be recovered by the time an entirely new
technology process replaces the old ones. It was also stressed and pointed out by John
A. Schey (2000), the word automatic is derived from the Greek and means self
moving or self-thinking. The word automation was coined to indicate aspects of
manufacturing in which production, movement, and inspection are performed or
controlled by self-operating machines without human intervention.
In general, there are several levels of automation. This will imply closed-loop control
and in its advanced form, adaptive control. Automation utilizes programmable
devices, the flexibility of which can be quite different:
1. Hard Automation refers to methods of control that require considerable effort to
reprogram for different parts or operations.
2. Soft or Flexible Automation implies ease of reprogramming, usually simply by
changing the software.
2.3.2
Design Drawings
One of the vital components for communicating the design is engineering drawings.
Although engineering graduates might be proficient with engineering drawings,
education of an engineer provides scant exposure to the subject. It can be argued
that time devoted for engineering drawings in present education system is not
commensurate with the practical importance of the subject. Hence, engineers who
work with drawings should be well grounded on the elements of orthographic
projection and also able to read the drawings fluently. Furthermore, they should be
proficient to produce acceptable sketch that can be converted by a draftsman into an
engineering drawing. Although formal instruction helps, it should be possible to
obtain this ability from self-study (T. French, C. Svensen, J. Helsel and B.
Urbanick, 1974).
Engineering drawing can be treated as an encoded version to transmit abundant
information. Apart from the primary shape of an object, a detailed drawing provides
information such as materials to be used together with the tolerances and
dimensions. Engineering drawings also often contain instruction on the surface
roughness or surface treatment of the part, the required heat treatment and the
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inspection or testing of the part. Sometimes, drawings have references to

specifications or standards to supply needed information.
Different kinds of engineering drawings are used for various purposes. A detail
drawing gives a complete description of the shape of a part using up to three
orthographic views and possibly one or more section views. It provides all of the
information for production the part. The detail drawing specifies the material,
finished dimensions, surface finish and any special processing (such as heat
treatment). Usually a separate drawing is made for each component. An assembly
drawing shows how the components are assembled into a system. Such a drawing
normally will include a parts list that identifies component part numbers, parts
names and the required number of pieces. Schematic drawings show the manner
in which components are connected together, as in a piping system or electronic
control system. The components are shown in symbolic form in this type of
drawing. Three aspects of engineering drawing that are often slighted in an
introduction to the subject but are vital in design practice are dimensions,
tolerances and specification of surface finish. Careful attention to those aspects of
engineering drawing can greatly improve the cost and quality of a design.
2.3.2.1 Tolerances
Tolerances must be placed on the dimensions of a part to limit the permissible
variations in size because it is impossible to manufacture a part exactly to given
dimensions. A small tolerance results in greater ease of inter-changeability of
parts, but it also greatly adds to the cost of manufacture (Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1 Influence of Dimensional Tolerance on Cost of Manufacture (Schematic)

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Tolerances can be expressed in either of two ways. A bilateral tolerance is defined

as a plus or minus deviation from a basic dimension, e.g.
. This
system is being replaced by the unilateral tolerance, in which the deviation in one
direction from the basic dimension is given. For example,
or
In the case of bilateral tolerance, the dimension of the part would be permitted to
vary between 1.996 and 2.004 in for a total tolerance of 0.008 inch. If unilateral
tolerance is specified, the dimension could vary between 2.000 and 2.008, and again
the total
tolerance is 0.008 inch. Unilateral tolerances have the advantages that
they are easier to check on drawings and that a tolerance can be changed with the
minimal disturbance to other dimensions. The American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) has established eight classes of fit that specify the amount of
allowance and the tolerance on the hole and a mating shaft, see Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 ANSI Recommended Allowances and Tolerances
The ANSI system considers that the hole size d is the basic dimension, because most
holes are produced by using standard-size drills and reamers. Therefore, the shaft
can be more easily produced to a non-standard dimension. Consider a basic hole size
of 2.000 inch and a class 3 (medium) fit (Englewood Cliff, 1978).
Allowance: 0.0009 22 = 0.0014 inch
Tolerance: 0.0008 2 = 0.0010 inch
15
Hole:
Maximum dimension 2.001 inch
Minimum dimension 2.000 inch
Shaft:
Maximum dimension 2.000 - .00014 = 1.9986 inch
Minimum dimension 1.9986 - 0.001 = 1.9976 inch
Therefore, the maximum clearance between shaft and hole is
2.0010 - 1.9976 = 0.0034 inch
And the minimum clearance between shaft hole is
2.00 - 1.9986 = 0.0014 inch
2.3.2.2 Dimensions
The engineering drawing provides the manufacturing department with the
information necessary for producing the part. Therefore, it is important that the
dimensions of the part be clear and complete. The dimensions given should be
sufficient in number to
make it unnecessary for shop personnel to perform
involved calculations for setting up the production equipment. On the other

hand, too many dimensions can cause
problems by resulting in ambiguity
and leaving the manufacturing department with a
choice.
Another
difficult
situation arises when successive points on a drawing must be
dimensioned.
Note that it is possible for production parts manufactured within
tolerance to
not fit because of interference due to accumulation of tolerances.
However, if
all dimensions start at a datum line, all parts made to within tolerance will
assemble properly and the difficulty with interference is eliminated.
2.3.2.2 Preferred Sizes
Standard components such as bolts, bearings and electric motors need to be
made according to a rational scheme by which the size (or weight, speed,
power etc.) covers
the usual range of needs. A geometric rather that
arithmetic progression of size is most logical. Each size is larger than the
16
preceding size by a fixed percentage. At the small
size end of the range there
will be more items than at the large size end. From an economic standpoint, the
number of standardized sizes should be kept to the smallest number
that
will
provide for the desired range of applications.

Table 2.2 Table of Preferred Sizes
2.3.2.3 Surface Roughness

The surface roughness of the manufactured part must be specified and controlled
because of fatigue failure, wear or the need to produce a certain fit. However,
like the situation with tolerances, over refinement of surface finish cost money.
Therefore, we need a way to measure and specify surface roughness. No surface
is absolutely smooth and flat; on a highly magnified scale, it looks like Figure
2.2. Several parameters are used to describe the state of surface roughness.
17
Comment [B24]: No blank spaces at

the bottom of pages, except the last page of
chapters.
Figure 2.2 Surface Roughness with Vertical Direction Magnified

Comment [B25]: Centre Figures,
Tables and their captions, as well as
formulas. Formula numbers must be right
justified.Ok
Rrms is the root mean square value of height.

Comment [KA-26]: Centre formulas.
Ok
Surface roughness measurements typically are expressed in micro inches (1in =

0.025 m = 0.000001 inch). Until recently, surface roughness was characterized
by
the rms value, but currently the center line average (CLA) value is
preferred. The rms
value is about 11 percent greater than the value based on
the arithmetic average.

There are other important characteristics of a surface besides the height of the
roughness. Surfaces may exhibit a directionality characteristics called lay.
Surfaces may have a strong directional lay (e.g., from machining grooves), a
random lay or a
circular pattern of marks. Another characteristics of the
surface is its waviness, which
occurs over a longer distance that the peaks
and valleys of roughness.
18
Figure 2.3 Roughness in micro-inches.

Symbols for lay:
- Perpendicular to line representing
- Parallel to line
X - Crossed
M - Random
C - Circular
R - Approximate radial
Symbols used to specify surface finish characteristics. All these surface
characteristics are specified on the drawing by the scheme shown in Figure 2.3.
It is important to realize that specifying a surface by average roughness height is
not an ideal approach. Two surfaces can have the same value of Ra (or Rrms) and
vary considerably in the details of surface profile. There is much yet to be
learned about the control and specification of surfaces.
There is a close relation between surface roughness and the tolerances that can
be achieved. Generally speaking, tolerances must exceed Rt unless the surface
roughness is to be smoothed out in a force fit. Since Rt 10 Ra , a surface
roughness of Ra = 125 in would exceed a tolerance of 0.001 inch (M.
Dearborn, 1987).
19
2.3.3 Creativity and Problem Solving

Creative thinkers can be identified by their ability to process new combinations of
ideas and concepts into meaningful and useful methods or results. Engineering
creativity is much more related to inventiveness than research. We would all like to
be called creative, yet most of us, in our ignorance of the subject, feel that
creativity is reserved for only the chosen few. There is the popular myth that
creative ideas arrive with flash like spontaneity the flash of lightning and clap of
thunder routine. However, students of the creative process (E. Raudsepp, 1976)
assure us that most creative ideas occur by a slow, deliberate process that can be
cultivated and enhanced with study and practice. We are all born with an inherent
measure of creativity, but the process of maturation takes its toll of our native
capacity. A technical education, with its emphasis on precision of thought and
correct solutions to mathematical problems, is especially deadly to creativity.
A characteristic of the creative process is that initially the idea is only imperfectly
understood. Usually the creative individual senses the total structure of the idea but
initially perceives only a limited number of the details. There ensues a slow process
of clarification and groping as the entire idea takes shape. The creative process can
be viewed as moving from an amorphous idea to a well-structured idea, from the
chaotic to the organized, from the implicit to the explicit. Engineers, by the nature
and training, generally value order and explicit detail and abhor chaos and vague
generality. Thus, we need to train ourselves to be sensitive and sympathetic to those
aspects of the creative process. We need, also, to understand that creative ideas
cannot be turned on upon command. Therefore, we need to recognize the conditions
and situations that are most conductive to creative thought. We must also recognize
that creative ideas are elusive, and we need to be alert to capture and record our
creative thoughts.
Listed below are some positive steps you can take to enhance your creative thinking.
A considerable literature has been written on creativity (J. R. Alger and C. V.
Hays, 1964), but the steps given here encompass most of what has been suggested:
1. Develop a creative attitude. To be creative it is essential to develop confidence
that you can provide a creative solution to a problem. Although you may not
20
visualize the complete path through to the final solution at the time you first
tackle a problem, you must have self-confidence; you must believe that a
solution will develop before you are finished. Of course, confidence comes with
success, so start small and build your confidence up with small successes.
2. Unlock your imagination. You must rekindle the vivid imagination you had as a
child. One way to do so is to begin to question again. Ask why and what if,
even at the risk of displaying a bit of navet. Scholars of the creative process
have developed thought games that are designed to provide practice in unlocking
your imagination and sharpening your power of observation (E. Raudsepp,
1982).
3. Be persistent. We already have dispelled the myth that creativity occurs with a
lightning strike. On the contrary, it often requires hard work. Most problems will
not succumb to the first attack. They must be pursued with persistence. After all,
Edison tested over 6000 materials before he discovered the species of bamboo
that acted as a successful filament for the incandescent light bulb. It was also
Edison who made the famous comment, Invention is 95 percent perspiration
and 5 percent inspiration.
4. Develop an open mind. Having an open mind means being receptive to ideas
from any and all sources. The solutions to problems are not the property of a
particular discipline, nor is there any rule that solutions can come only from
persons with college degrees. Ideally, problem solutions should not be
concerned with company politics. Because of the NIH factor (not invented here)
many creative ideas are not picked up and followed through.
5. Suspend your judgment. We have seen that creative ideas slowly, but nothing
inhibits the creative process more than critical judgment of an emerging idea.
Engineers by nature, tend toward critical attitudes, so special forbearance is
required to avoid judgment at an early age.
6. Set problem boundaries. We place great emphasis on proper problem definition
as a step toward problem solution. Establishing the boundaries of the problem is
an essential part of problem definition. Experience shows that this does not limit
creativity, but rather focuses it.
A creative experience often occurs when the individual is not expecting it and after
period when they have been thinking about something else. The secret to creativity
21
is to fill the mind and imagination with the context of the problem and then relax
and think of something else. As you read or play a game there is a release of mental
energy which your preconscious can use to work on the problem. Frequently there
will be a creative Ah-ha experience in which the preconscious will hand up into
your conscious mind a picture of what the solution might be. Since the preconscious
has no vocabulary the communication between the conscious and preconscious will
be by pictures or symbols. This is why it is important for engineers to be able to
communicate effectively through three-dimensional sketches.
2.3.4 Invention
An invention is something novel and useful. As such, we generally can consider it to
be the result to creative thought. A study of a large number of inventions (G.
Kivenson,
1977) showed that inventions can be classified into seven categories:
1. The simple or multiple combinations. The most elementary form of invention is
a simple combination of two existing inventions to produce a new or improved
result.
2. Labour-saving concept. This is a higher level of invention sophistication in
which an existing process or mechanism is changed in order to save effort,
produce more with the same effort, or dispense with a human operator.
3. Direct solution to a problem. This category of invention is more typical of what
we can consider to be engineering problem solving. The inventor is confronted
with a need and sets out deliberately to design a system that will satisfy the
need.
4. Adaptation of an old principle to an old problem to achieve a new result. This is
a variation of category 3. The problem (need) has been in existence for some
time, and the principle of science or engineering that is key to its solution also
has been known. The creative step consists in bringing the proper scientific
principle to bear on the particular problem so as to achieve the useful result.
5. Application of a new principle to an old problem. A problem is rarely solved for
all time; instead, its solution is based on the then current limitations of
knowledge. As knowledge (new principles) becomes available, its application to
old problems may achieve startling results. As an example, the miniaturization
22
of electronic and computer components is creating a revolution in many areas of

technology.
6. Application of a new principle to a new use. People who are broadly
knowledgeable about new scientific and engineering discoveries often are able
to apply new principles in completely different disciplinary areas or areas of
technology.
7. Serendipity. The mythology of invention is full of stories about accidental
discoveries that led to great inventions. Lucky breaks do occur, but they are rare.
Also, they hardly ever happen to someone who is not already actively pursuing
the solution of a problem. Strokes of good fortune seem to be of two types. The
first occurs when the inventor is actively engaged in solving a problem but is
stymied until a freak occurrence or chance observation provides the needed
answer. The second occurs when an inventor suddenly gains a valuable insight
or discovers a new principle that is not related to the problem he is pursuing. He
then applies the discovery to a new problem and the result is highly successful.
2.3.5 Sensor or Transducer
Sensor or Transducer (David S. Nyce, 2004) article was derived from Linear Position
Sensors: Theory and Application where the author discussed the difference between
sensor and transducer. The author cited out key principles of the use of sensor,
suitable for a wide range of scenarios.
Transducer is generally defined as a device that converts a signal from one physical
form to a corresponding signal having a different physical form. Energy can be
converted from one form into another for the purpose of transmitting power or
information. Mechanical energy can be converted into electrical energy, or one form
of mechanical energy can be converted into another form of mechanical energy.
Examples of transducers include a loudspeaker, which converts an electrical input into
an audio wave output; a microphone, which converts an audio wave input into an
electrical output; and a stepper motor, which converts an electrical input into a rotary
position change.
Sensor is generally defined as an input device that provides a usable output in
response to a specific physical quantity input. The physical quantity input that is to be
23
measured, called the measurand, and affects the sensor in a way that causes a response
represented in the output. The output of many modern sensors is an electrical signal,
but alternatively, could be a motion, pressure, flow, or other usable type of output.
Some examples of sensors include a thermocouple pair, which converts a temperature
difference into an electrical output; a pressure sensing diaphragm, which converts a
fluid pressure into a force or position change and a linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT), which converts a position into an electrical output.
Obviously, according to these definitions, a transducer can sometimes be a sensor, and
vice versa. For example, a microphone fits the description of both a transducer and a
sensor. This can be confusing and many specialized terms are used in particular areas
of measurement. Although the general term transducer refers to both input and output
devices.
Input transducer produces an electrical output, which is representative of the input
measurand. Its output is conditioned and ready for use by the receiving electronics.
The receiving electronics can be an indicator, controller, computer, programmable
logic controller or others. The terms input transducer and transducer can be used
interchangeably.
Sensor is an input device that provides a usable output in response to the input
measurand. The sensing part of a transducer can also be called the sensing element,
primary transducer or primary detector. A sensor is often one of the components of a
transducer. Sometimes, common usage will have to override the theoretical definition
in order to result in clear communication among engineers in a specific industry. The
author has found, for instance, that automotive engineers refer to any measuring
device providing information to the onboard controller, as a sensor. In the case of a
position measurement, this includes the combination of sensing element, conditioning
electronics, power supply, and so on. That is, the term sensor is used to name exactly
what the definition strives to call a transducer. In automotive terminology, the word
sender is also commonly used to name a sensor or transducer (David S. Nyce, 2004).
2.3.6 Parameters to be considered in choosing a sensor
1. Span or range: The smallest and largest values of stimuli the sensor will
reasonably encounter.
24
2. Full scale output: The maximum excursion of the output electrical signal.
3. Accuracy: How much does the measured value - the output from the sensor deviate from the true value of the measurand?
4. Resolution: What is the smallest increment if input stimulus can be sensed?
5. Linearity: What is the form of the transfer function relationship between
measurand input and sensor output?
6. Threshold: What are the minimum and maximum input detection levels beyond
which the sensor produces no usable output?
7. Hysteresis: Does the sensor response depend on previous input?
8. Noise: Includes everything outside the realm of specificity.
9. Precision: How repeatable are the measurements from the sensor?
10. Sensitivity: What is the conversion efficiency of the sensor?
11. Specificity: Does the sensor offer a highly selective conversion of the desired
measurand, which is the relatively immune to others.
12. Stability: Is the long term behaviour of the sensor adequate for the application?
13. Survivability: This is a statement of ruggedness environmental suitability, etc.
(Kim R. Fowler and John L. Schmalzel, 2004)
2.3.7 Fiber Optic Proximity Sensors
Fiber optic proximity sensors are used to detect the proximity of target objects. Light
is supplied and returned via glass fiber optic cables. Fiber optic cables can fit in small
spaces, are not susceptible to electrical noise, and exhibit no danger of sparking or
shorting. Light is supplied and returned via glass fiber optic cables. Glass fiber
exhibits very good optical qualities and typically carries high temperature ratings.
Plastic fiber can be cut to length in the field and can be flexible enough to
accommodate various routing configurations.
Important parameters to consider when specifying fiber optic proximity sensors
include detecting range, position measurement window, minimum detectable object,
and response time. The detecting range is the range of sensor detection. For presence
sensors, this goes up to the maximum distance for which the signal is stable. For
position measurement sensors, this is the distance range over which the position
versus output response is linear and stable. The position measurement window is the
width of linear region for the sensor. For example, if the sensor could measure
25
between 14 and 24 centimeters, this window would be 10 centimeters. The minimum

detectable object is the smallest sized object detectable by the sensor. The response
time is the time from target object entering detection zone to the production of the
detection signal.
Choices for optical types for fiber optic proximity sensors include through beam,
retro-reflective, polarized retro-reflective, diffuse, divergent, convergent, fixed field
background suppression, and adjustable field background suppression. Through beam
(or opposed mode) sensors incorporate a transmitter and a receiver on opposite sides
of the target and evaluate absence or presence based on transmittance or blockage of
the beam respectively. Retro-reflective sensors incorporate the emitter and detector in
one body with parallel beams; a reflector opposite the target path is used to reflect the
emitted beam back to detector; presence is detected when reflected beam is
interrupted by an opaque object. Polarized retro-reflective sensors are variants of the
retro-reflective in which the emitter and receiver have polarizing filters 90 degrees
apart, thereby making the reflector the only recognizable source. With a diffuse sensor
presence is detected when any portion of the diffuse reflected signal bounces back
from the detected object. Divergent beam sensors are short-range diffuse-type sensors
without any collimating lenses. Convergent, fixed focus, or fixed distance optics (such
as lenses) are used to focus the emitter beam at a fixed distance from the sensor.
Fixed-field sensors are designed to have a distance limit beyond which they will not
detect objects, no matter how reflective. Adjustable field sensors utilize a cut-off
distance beyond which a target will not be detected, even if it is more reflective than
the target. Some photoelectric sensors can be set for multiple different optical sensing
modes. Reflective properties of the target and environment are important
considerations in the choice and use of photoelectric sensors.
Common configuration features for photoelectric sensors include beam visibility,
light-on or dark-on modes, light and dark programmability, adjustable sensitivity, self
teaching, and laser source. The body style of the sensor can be threaded barrel,
cylindrical, limit switch, rectangular, slot, ring, and window or frame. The sensor may
be self-contained and may have a remote head (www.globalspec.com, 2005).
26
2.3.8 Light Emitting Diode

As stated by Luis G. Sison (2008), in the book: Introduction to Semiconductor
Devices and Circuits that a diode made of indirect semiconductors, such as silicon and
germanium, the excess minority carrier concentrations present in forward-bias
undergo thermal recombination. When the diode is made of direct semiconductors,
such as gallium arsenide and indium phosphate, the same excess carriers can undergo
recombination that results in photoemission. The result is a light emitting diode. The
wavelength of the emitted light depends on the band gap of the semiconductor. The
wavelength varies from the visible wavelengths (0.4 to 0.7 microns) to the infrared
wavelengths (> 0.7 microns). Mixing different semiconductor elements and
introducing impurities leads to different band gaps.
A light emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent, narrow
spectrum light when it is electrically biased in the forward direction. This effect is a
form of electroluminescence. Light emitting diodes are small extended sources with
extra optics added to the chip, which emit a complex intensity spatial distribution. The
emitted light may be in the infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet region of the spectrum,
depending on the composition and condition of the semiconducting material used.
Light emitting diodes have a broad range of uses (www.newworldencyclopedia.org,
2006). Many are used for a variety of signs and signals, such as traffic lights,
motorcycle lights, light bars on emergency vehicles, elevator push-button lights, status
lights on electronic equipment, exit signs, and other message displays. Different types
of light emitting diodes are used for architectural lighting and Christmas lights.
Infrared light emitting diodes are used in remote controls for televisions and video
camera recorders. Some light emitting diodes are used for phototherapy for acne.
2.3.9 Amplifier
Generally, an amplifier or simply amp is any device that changes, usually increases,
the amplitude of a signal. The relationship of the input to the output of an amplifier usually expressed as a function of the input frequency - is called the transfer function
of the amplifier, and the magnitude of the transfer function is termed the gain. In
popular use, the term usually describes an electronic amplifier, in which the input
"signal" is usually voltage or current. In audio applications, amplifiers operate
27
loudspeakers used in public address (PA) systems to make the human voice louder or
play recorded music. Amplifiers may be classified according to the input (source) they
are designed to amplify (such as a guitar amplifier, to perform with an electric guitar),
the device they are intended to drive (such as a headphone amplifier), the frequency
range of the signals (audio, intermediate frequency, radio frequency, and very high
frequency amplifiers, for example), whether they invert the signal (inverting
amplifiers and non-inverting amplifiers), or the type of device used in the
amplification like valve or tube amplifiers, field effect transistors amplifiers, etc.
(www.wikipedia.org, 2004).
2.3.9.1 Operational Amplifiers
Operational amplifiers (op amps) are linear integrated circuits that can be used to
amplify signal frequencies that extend from 0 hertz (direct current) to well above 1
mega hertz. Operational amplifiers have two input terminals and one output
terminal. One of the most important qualities of an operational amplifier is that it
amplifies only the difference between its two input signals, while rejecting or
severely attenuating
signals common to both inputs. This allows operational
amplifiers to be used in systems where a large amount of electrical noise is

present. In this case, the desired signal is amplified, while the noise common to
both inputs is attenuated.
According to Mitchel E. Schultz (2008), operational amplifiers (op amps) are the
most
commonly used type of linear integrated circuit (IC). By definition, an
operational
amplifier is a high-gain, direct coupled, differential amplifier. An
operational amplifier referred to as the 741 has become an industry standard.

This operational amplifier, which is contained in an eight pin integrated circuit, is
made by several manufacturers. They are, however, all equivalent since the
specifications are nearly identical from one manufacturer to another.
2.3.9.2 Operational Amplifier Applications
Although the following is certainly not an exhaustive list, it does serve to illustrate
the range of operational amplifier applications:
28
1. Amplifiers: Operational amplifiers are used to amplify signals that range from
direct current (DC) through the higher radio frequencies (RF). The amplifier
can be made to be frequency selective (i.e., act as a filter). It may be used to
maintain a constant output in spite of changing input levels. The output can
produce a compressed version of the input to reduce the range needed to
represent a certain signal. The amplifier may respond to microvolt signals
originating in a transducer, which is used to measure temperature, pressure,
density, acceleration, and so on. The gain of the amplifier can be controlled by
a digital computer, thus extending the power of the computer into the analog
world.
2. Oscillators: The basic operational amplifier can be connected to operate as an
oscillator. The output of the oscillator may be sinusoidal, square, triangular,
rectangular, saw tooth, exponential, or other shape. The frequency of
oscillation may be stabilized by a crystal or controlled by a voltage or current
from another circuit.
3. Regulators: Operational amplifiers can be used to improve the regulation in
power supplies. The actual output voltage is compared to a reference voltage
and the difference is amplified by an operational amplifier and used to correct
the power supply output voltage. Operational amplifiers can also be connected
to regulate and/or limit the current in a power supply.
4. Rectification: Suppose you want to build a half-wave rectifier with a peak
input signal of 150 mill volts. This is not enough to forward bias standard
silicon diode. On the other hand, an operational amplifier can be configured to
provide the characteristics of an ideal diode with 0 forward voltage drops.
Thus it can rectify very small signals.
5. Computer Interfaces: The operational amplifier is an integral part of many
circuits used to convert analog signals representing real-world quantities (such
as temperature, revolutions per minute, pressure, and so forth) into
corresponding digital signals that can be manipulated by a computer.
Similarly, the operational amplifier is frequently used to convert the digital
output of a computer into an equivalent analog form for use by industrial
devices (such as motors, lights, and solenoids).
6. Fields of Application: Operational amplifiers find use in such diverse fields as
medical electronics, industrial electronics, agriculture, test equipment,
29
consumer products, and automotive products. It has become a basic building

block for analog systems and for the analog portion of digital systems. A
related device that emphasizes conversion of signals of one type to another
(for example, a light signal in photons to a direct current signal in amperes) is
a transducer, a transformer, or a sensor. However, none of these amplify
power (David L. Terrell, 2004).
2.3.10 Analog-To-Digital Conversion
As stated by Mikell
P. Groover (2001), in the book: Automation, Production
Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing that continuous analog signals

from the process must be converted into digital values to be used by the computer, and
digital data generated by the computer must be converted to analog signals to be used
by analog actuators. The procedure for converting an analog signal from the process
into digital form typically consists of the following steps and hardware devices:
1. Sensor and Transducer. This is the measuring device that generates the analog
signal.
2. Signal Conditioning. The continuous analog signal from the transducer may
require conditioning to render it into more suitable form. Common signal
conditioning steps include: (1) filtering to remove random noise and (2)
conversion from one signal form to another.
3. Multiplexer. The multiplexer is a switching device connected in series with each
input channel from the process; it is used to time-share the analog-to-digital

converter among the input channels. The alternative is to have a separate analogto-digital converter for each input channel, which would be costly for a large
application with many input channels. Since the process variables need only
sampled periodically, using a multiplexer provides a cost-effective alternative to
dedicated analog-to-digital converters for each channel.
4. Amplifier. Amplifiers are used to scale the incoming signal up or down to be
compatible with the range of the analog-to-digital converter.

5. Analog-to-Digital Converter. As its name indicates, the function of the analog-to-
digital converter is to convert the incoming analog signal into its digital
counterpart.
30
2.3.11 Wafer Dicing

Wafer dicing is the process by which the individual chips or integrated circuits on a
silicon wafer are separated. A scribe line is an area between the die left empty of a
circuitry, where the dicing saw can pass through, thereby separating the dies (chips)
from a wafer. Scribe line is otherwise referred as street, kerfs, and saw-kerfs. The
space should be enough to allow separations of the die by cutting or breaking without
causing any damage to the die. The wafer saw will be able to cut in a straight line. The
dicing process can be accomplished by scribing and breaking, by mechanical sawing
(normally with a machine called a Dicing Saw) or by laser cutting. After the dicing
process the individual silicon chips are encapsulated in the packages.
According to Peter McCabe (2005), the first step in the dicing process is an
evaluation of wafer thickness, street width, and the material, which might be silicon,
silicon on sapphire, silicon germanium, or more exotic materials. The evaluation helps
in choosing the best blade. A standard silicon wafer (20 mils thick and 4 mils streets),
for example, can be sawn with a 1 mil thick blade having a 2 to 4 microns grit and a
30 mils exposure. After the evaluation and blade choice, the wafer is mounted with
the adhesive film onto a metal wafer cutting ring. First, a disk of particle free paper is
centred on the mounting chuck to protect the wafers face. Next, the wafer is
positioned face down on the paper. Then, the wafer tape is stretched, sticky side
down, over the back of the wafer and the cutting ring, and pressed with a roller to
smoothly and evenly distribute the tape. Excess tape is cut away from the edge of the
ring.
The ring mounted wafer is loaded on the saw-dicing chuck for programming. The X
and Y step centres are measured and stored. Following the theta angular alignment, a
sample cut is made near the edge of the wafer for verification. Pattern recognition
features are selected and stored if multiple wafers are to be cut. During dicing, the
wafer is periodically checked for alignment and cut quality. Following dicing, the
wafer is moved to the cleaner to wash away residual dust so that it cannot adhere to
bond pads. For saws with fewer cooling water jets, a surfactant may be used to bind
with and help remove any remaining silicon dust.
31
Figure 2.4 Wafer Mounted on a Cutting Ring

2.3.11.1 Dicing Blades
Diamond dicing blades are open-centred disks made from a resin, nickel, or
sintered metal that provides a matrix for the diamond chips. Blades for cutting
ordinary silicon wafers comprise more than 90% of wafer production. Nickel
bond blades are suitable choice for silicon wafers. Resin matrix or electroformed
blades might be used for harder or softer materials. Nickel blades are selected for
a specific cutting task based on blade width, grit size, and exposure. Blade width
is determined by the width of the street to be cut. Grit size describes the size of
the diamond chips on the blade. Typical grit size for silicon wafers ranges from 2
to 6 microns. On a wafer with a narrow street, a thin blade with a smaller grit size
allows a smoother cut. Exposure measures the height of the exposed blade
surface available to cut the material. For example, a 20 mils thick wafer requires a
blade with at least 25 mils exposure, because the blade must cut completely
through the wafer and some distance into the supporting tape (Peter McCabe,
2005).
The diamond blade is a cutting tool in which each exposed diamond particle
comprises a
small cutting edge. Three basic types of dicing blades are available
commercially:
1. Sintered Diamond Blade, in which diamond particles are fused into a soft
metal such as brass or copper, or incorporated by means of a powdered
metallurgical process.
32
2. Plated Diamond Blade, in which diamond particles are held in a nickel bond
produced by an electroplating process.
3. Resinoid Diamond Blade, in which diamond particles are held in a resin bond
to create a homogeneous matrix.
Silicon wafer dicing is dominated by the plated diamond blade, which has proved
most successful for this application.
2.4 Project Methodology
This unit will guide the reader on how the study was designed and will explain the
procedures used in executing the research. It will also cover the setting which tools used
on how the research was conceived and completed.
Comment [B27]: Line-up throughout
the report.
2.4.1 Research Design

The method that is used in this study is the Borg and Galls Research and
Development. This method is both qualitative and quantitative. The study is "The
Design and Development of a Blade Breakage Detector for Semi-Automatic Dicing
Saw Machine" that can be used by manufacturing personnel. In this method, data is
collected in order to test and evaluate initial hypothesis concerning the study. The data
will also be used to answer preliminary questions and concerns regarding the study.
The Research and Development method will also be used to achieve the objectives of
the study. Interviews and questionnaires are given to respondents to understand their
issues and concerns on the existing method of wafer dicing saw process. The
capability being proposed supports the wafer dicing saw process without affecting
quality. The proponent will be getting information from Staff Engineers, Line
Sustaining Engineers and Production Technicians in able to find the most effective
way of assessing and solving the problem.
2.4.2 Procedures
The proponent used detailed steps in system development which are outlined below:
1. Data Gathering and Conceptualization:
Understanding the problem through data gathering and investigation.
Ask users of the machine of possible risks involved on the current process.
33
Conceptualize an idea that can resolve the problem which poses possible risks of
safety injury brought about by a scattered laser and prevent it.
Evaluate concerns of machine users during its operation.
2. System Design:
Studying related topics about barriers and automation to come up with a design
that will prevent a laser from going out.
Reading more and understanding laser hazards involved.
Reviewing the equipment manual and operational specification regarding the

classification of the laser used and its hazard.
Creating a design for the automated barrier device.
Evaluate how an automated barrier device will be integrated to the equipment.
3. Machine Pilot:
Gather information about the materials to be used for the automated device.
Do researches, consult manuals and or catalogue for the materials and parts to be
used, and take note of each component that is deemed applicable for the device.
Create the pilot of the automated device.
4. System Installation:
Install the parts on the marking tool.
Do all the connections to the equipment according to the designed system.
5. Functionality Testing:
Make sure that all connections and parts are in place.
Simulate normal process by using dummy units on a process tray.
Observe each part for expected outcome and abnormalities.
Confirm validity and effectiveness by doing survey with the tool users.
2.4.3 Statistical Treatment of Data

One of the main objectives of this research is the prevention of the potential risk of
broken silicon wafer on the existing design. Data collected with the use of
questionnaires have to be analyzed properly to have an accurate interpretation of the
input from the respondents. Assessment of the proposed design will also be done to
check other factors that may affect process quality. The questionnaire seeks a brief
profile of the respondents, then their assessment regarding the usability and
34
performance of the existing and new design. The questions are answerable by
numbers ranging from 1 to 5 (1 being the lowest and 5 being the highest). And after
which, collected data will be averaged to get the mean to gain a measurable data.
Likert Scale will be used to get the percentage of respondents overall score to
determine the usability of the design system.
To compute the measurable data, each respondents score will be added together and
will be divided to the total number of respondents to get the mean or the average.
Formula in getting the mean:
Mean = Total score of all respondents
Comment [B28]: Centre Figures,

Tables and their captions, as well as
formulas. Formula numbers must be right
justified.
Total number of respondents

Table 2.3 Gantt chart
Item Activity
1 BackgroundResearch
2 ProjectProposalandObjective
3 DataGathering
4 Analysis
5 ConceptualDesignDevelopment
6 ReviewandSelection
7 DetailedElectricalSystemModelling
8 DetailedElectronicsSystemModelling
9 DetailedMechanicalSystemModelling
10 DesignCompilationandSoftwareIntegration
11 DesignReviewEvaluation
12 DesignEnhancement
13 PrototypeDesign
14 TestingandImprovement
15 ProjectRelease
2013
M ay
Jun
Jul
A ug
Sep
O ct
N ov
D ec
Jan
Feb
M ar
A pr
M ay
Jun
Jul
A ug
Sep
O ct
N ov
D ec
2012
Comment [B29]: Wrong spacing

This chapter mentioned that automation plays a very important role in the global
economy and in daily experience. Engineers strive to combine automated devices with
mathematical and organizational tools to create complex systems for a rapidly
expanding range of applications and human activities. Being equipped with thorough
researches on the tools required and project methodology determined.
35
36
3.1 Introduction
This chapter aims to present the analysis of the current system and operation of the SemiAutomatic Dicing Saw Machine.
3.2 Type of Materials
3.2.1 Semiconductor Wafer
Silicon and GaAs are the two most common materials used for semiconductor
wafers. Wafers are typically available in sizes up to 12" in diameter, with 6" and 8"
most popular. Typical thicknesses are between 100 to 650 microns.
Figure 3.1 Semiconductor Wafer

3.2.2 Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
The MR head substrate is made of ferromagnetic ceramic material, which has an
extremely hardware resistance and excellent magnetic properties. A typical MR
substrate is AlTiC (Aluminium Titanium Carbon) . Substrate thickness typically
ranges from 200 to 300 microns. Substrates for hard disk drive read heads require
machining after being sintered into bars or sheets. Than they have to be diced into
very small unit with very high precision tolerances.
Figure 3.2 Hard Disk Drive

1
3.2.3 Ball Grid Array (BGA)

FR4 glass epoxy is a popular and versatile high pressure thermo set plastic laminate
grade with good strength to weight ratios that is commonly used for ball grid array
(BGA). With near zero water absorption, FR4 is most commonly used as an
electrical insulator possessing considerable mechanical strength. The material is
known to retain its high mechanical values and electrical insulating qualities in both
dry and humid conditions.
Figure 3.3 Ball Grid Array

3.2.4 Quad Flat No Lead (QFN)
C194 is a dispersion strengthened alloy commonly used for quad flat no lead (QFN).
Iron and phosphorous are added to copper during alloy processing which form fine
second phase particles. Once the dispersion of precipitates is formed, the alloy's
strength is controlled by cold rolling. Heat treating C194 will not increase strength
as in beryllium copper. However, the precipitates enable C194 to work harden more
rapidly than pure copper.
Figure 3.4 Quad Flat No Lead

2
3.2.5 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

High Temperature Co-fired Ceramics (HTTC) and Low Temperature Co-fired
Ceramics (LTTC) are the most common materials used for light emitting diode
(LED). This technology combines many thin layers of ceramic and conductors
resulting in a versatile mix of micro strip, strip line and three dimensional
interconnects, making possible a whole mess of designs that are not practical on
regular alumina or most soft substrates.
Figure 3.5 Light Emitting Diode

3.2.6 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)
Borosilicate glass mainly consists of silica and boron oxide that common used for
complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS). Borosilicate glass is known for
being less dense than ordinary glass and for having very low coefficients of thermal
expansion, making it resistant to thermal shock, more so than any other common
glass.
Figure 3.6 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

3
3.3 Mounting Process

Mounting material is the first step in dicing process. It's very important to use the right
mounting media for your specific application and requirements. There is large variety of
mounting methods available to best suit each dicing application. High volume dicing
applications require use of ultra violet tapes. Where on small applications, Reliability
and Development applications and application for dicing small die and ceramic bond
one wafer to a selected dicing substrate by waxing. Selecting the right mounting
methods will play a major role in optimizing your dicing application to ultimate level of
efficiency.
When material is to be diced or scribed partially (not all the way through). The
mounting method to use is of little importance. However, when cutting all the way
through the material there will be many variable in play that need to be controlled in
order to achieve best results. Your goal should be to have good and uniform contact
between material and type. Without presence of any air bubbles, dust or dirt particles
between material and mounting media.
3.3.1 Ring
There are two main mediums which are widely used to hold the tape and hence the
wafer in place. One of them is a ring. This is a plastic hoop composed of two parts.
This ring is much like an embroidery ring made of plastic and it holds the tape in the
same way the embroidery ring holds the cloth or fabric that is going to be worked
on. Basically it utilizes a small and large diameter ring that assemble together
holding the tape in between while slightly stretching it once it in place. There are a
variety of ring sizes in order to accommodate the different sizes of wafers.
3.3.2 Film Frame
The second medium that is used to hold the tape is what called a film frame. This is
a metal frame that is widely used in some applications. Mainly to accommodate
some machines and systems that only accept this type of medium to hold the wafer
on the table or work area. It is basically a round metal frame that is roughly .050
thick with notches at the bottom. As opposed to the ring, the film frame is only
composed of one piece of metal and the tape just adheres to the inferior side of the
frame.
Figure 3.7 Film Frame with Tape

3.3.3 Mounting
Tape is most common and frequently used mounting methods for majority of dicing
applications. Tapes are preferred my majority of dicing applications, because of
their ease of use, ease of handling, and fact that it can also be used later in die
mounting process. Large variety of tapes are available today. Low strength, medium
strength, and high strength tapes Mounting is done manually or utilizing wafer
mounting systems. Tapes are available with different adhesives with what is called
tackiness characteristics. Adhesion characteristics of the most common tapes are
215 to 315 per 25 mm. Tape thickness varies depending on application and material
being diced. For example for cutting silicon wafers tape thickness of .010"
(0.25mm) is typically used, where for thick alumna substrates tape thickness of .080
(2.03mm) is implemented.
Figure 3.8 Wafer Mounter Machine

5
Low strength adhesive tapes are not recommended for cutting small dies, as well as
large production applications. For these applications most users use medium and
high strength adhesive tapes. Determining which tape to use for your application,
sometimes may involve some trial and error. For example the length of time the
material or wafer will stay in contact with the mounting tape before and after dicing
will determine whether to use medium or high strength tapes.
Wafer or material thickness is another consideration when selecting the right
mounting adhesive. Very thin dies work well with waxes and medium strength
tapes. Whereas, thicker wafers work better with medium to high strength tapes.
Cutting too deep into the mounting media will cause the blade to load. Minimize the
depth in which the blade touches the mounting media. It is recommended to cut no
more than twenty five microns into the media. Cutting too deep into the media will
cause premature blade failure. The blade can also agglomerate with the cutting
media, resulting in chipping.
3.3.4 Wax or Glue Mounting to Media
Waxing or gluing material to solid media is usually most reliable and preferred form
of mounting. Wax mounting is typically used for mounting very thin and brittle
materials. There is a large variety of waxes that can be used for this purpose. These
are typically available in lumps, moulded bricks, flakes, chips and powders. Wax
provides best adhesion of material to supporting substrate. Allowing deep cutting
into substrate. This frequently eliminates the lip effect and cracks at the bottom of
material. Also, wax expands as it fills in the gaps of a non-flat substrate. Providing
best adhesion of material or dies, equates in superior cut quality and consistency.
Some disadvantages of wax mounting is that is a relatively messy process. Specially
taking off the material and cleaning dies afterwards. Waxes have various
characteristics that make the best suited for specific applications than others. This
depends on their melting point, flash point, specific gravity, structure, hardness,
brittleness, flexible and elastic characteristics.
Wax or glue mounting offers the following advantages:
Improved holding characteristics, especially when dicing smaller die sizes
No lip effect capability to cut much deeper into the base material. This
typically results in better cut quality, specially on back side of material.
Eliminates any die movement, especially when dicing second index
Substrates not perfectly flat can be mounted. The wax or glue compensates by
filling in the gaps
Different hardness base media can be used to control blade wear and
simultaneously dress the blade. Common base media used is glass or ceramic.
Whether it is a ring or a film frame that is used to process a wafer, the mounting is
absolutely crucial. It is paramount that there are no air bubbles in between the tape
and the wafer because this will cause many problems during the dicing process.
These problems could amount to blade or material breakage and some pieces of the
material falling off the tape. Since a vacuum is used during dicing one can see how
the material can break once it is activated if there is a lump between the tape and the
wafer. If the blade passes through the part with the air bubble and the piece comes
off, it could break the blade or it could scratch the rest of the wafer. In order to
avoid air bubbles and to ensure a proper mounting, the technique requires that the
tape is placed close to the wafer without being in contact with it at first. Using the
digital pulp of the finger the tape is then carefully pressed onto the wafer making
contact and adhering to it. Starting at one extreme of the wafer and slowly working
across it until the mounting is complete. Now that the wafer is mounted as shown in
Figure 3.9, be it on a ring or a film frame while using the right tape, it is ready to be
diced.
Figure 3.9 Wafer Mounted on Film Frame
3.4 Dicing Saw Machine

The dicing saw machine shown in Figure 3.10, has evolved over the years to be very
complex and accurate, in most cases with tolerances of 2 to 5 microns. It is composed
among many other things of a spindle, which can come in 2, 3, or 4 in sizes and the 2 is
the most common. The spindle is attached to a lead screw which allows it to move in
the Y-axis direction. It also moves up and down in the Z-axis direction. The chuck,
which also utilizes a vacuum, is a metal or ceramic table that moves in the X-axis
direction and it determines the feed rate. In other words the table is what drives the
wafer into the blade while it spins and does the cutting. The chuck also rotates which is
essential for alignment. In order for the wafer to be diced, it needs to be mounted using
a ring or film frame and dicing tape. Then the wafer can go on the chuck and the
vacuum is activated to prevent it from moving during the violent process. The blade is
set to cut just slightly into the tape without going all the way through. This is done so
that the wafer is diced completely while the tape remains intact. Among other hardware,
the dicing machine is composed of optics that let you see the pattern on the wafer, as
well as software that allows for programming according to the specific dicing need.
During the silicon wafer dicing process, the silicon wafer is divided into single units or
dice. A rotating abrasive disc (blade) performs the dicing, while a spindle at high speed
of 30,000 to 60,000 rpm (linear speeds of 83 to 175 m/sec), rotates the blade. The blade
is made of abrasive grit and diamonds that are embedded in an electroplated nickel
matrix, the binder.
During the separation of dice, the blade crushes the substrate material or wafer and
removes the created debris simultaneously. Material removal occurs along dedicated
dicing lines or streets between the active areas of the dice. When the dicing blade moves
along these streets, a groove is formed in the substrate material. The groove width or
kerfs is proportional to the thickness of the blade.
Figure 3.10 Dicing Saw Machine Main Parts

The throughput of the dicing process is measured by the number of wafers diced per
hour. The speed at which the blade advances along the substrate. The feed rate actually
determines the throughput the higher the feed rate, the higher the throughput. To
achieve maximum dicing yield and productivity, it is important to operate the dicing
system at the highest throughput possible within the process quality limits. The optimal
selection of the process parameters discussed previously enables this objective. In other
words, the optimal process is the one that employs the highest possible feed rate without
decreasing cut accuracy, creating intolerable chipping, breaking the blade or shortening
the blade`s life.
3.5 Dicing Process Flow
During normal operation with the current system, the mounted silicon wafer in mounting
tape is placed in the chuck table by the operator. Then will turn-on the vacuum to hold the
mounted silicon wafer. And then will perform alignment of x and y kerfs before starting
the machine on an operational mode. During wafer dicing saw process, spindle will
calculate first the surface of the chuck table before cutting the silicon wafer. During the
9
operation, broken silicon wafer may have the possibility to go out of the process without
any interruption.
Figure 3.11 Dicing Saw Process Flow Chart

3.6 Dicing Yield Loss Factors
Dicing does not add value to the finished device; therefore, the quality of the dicing
process is measured by the yield loss it may cause. Potential dicing yield loss factors
include cut misplacement, cleanliness and chipping.
3.6.1 Cut Placement Accuracy
Cut placement accuracy is a prerequisite for high dicing yield, especially for narrowstreet
wafers. While most common dicing systems are adequate for streets 70 to
100 m and wider, the narrower street widths commonly encountered during wafer
dicing requires the capability to place each cut within several m of the street center.
This necessitates high indexing axis accuracy, high optical magnification and
advanced alignment algorithms.
10
A common recommendation when dicing wafers with narrow streets is to select the
thinnest blade possible. Very thin blades (20 m or less) are significantly weaker
and more susceptible to premature breakage and wear. As a result, their life
expectancy and process stability are inferior to thicker blades. The recommended
blade thickness for 50 to 76 m streets is 20 to 30 m. Cutting depth is typically
determined by material thickness. Cut quality is affected not only by material
thickness, but the mounting media as well.
3.6.2 Cleanliness
After dicing, silicon dust residue can be found on the terminal pads. This dust may
reduce the strength and reliability of wire bonds to these pads. Silicon dust that
settles on the pad during dicing may be hard to remove in the subsequent highpressure cleaning operation. Proper blade cooling and coolant nozzle adjustment can
prevent this problem.
3.6.3 Chipping
Chipping can occur on the front (top) or back (bottom) surface of the wafer. Front
side chipping becomes a yield concern when chips approach the active area of the
die. Front side chipping is predominantly dependent on blade grit, coolant flow and
feed rate.
Back side chipping occurs on the bottom surface of the wafer, as micro-cracks
propagate away from the bottom of the cut and join together into chip out. The
interaction of the blade with the substrate creates a network of micro-cracks in the
substrate. When these micro-cracks join, they cause particles of the substrate to
loosen and be removed.
Back side becomes a yield issue when micro-cracks exceed a certain length, which
may increase the sensitivity of the devices to thermal cycling and lower their
reliability. Dice intended for flip chip packages are even more sensitive. When
packaging these dice, the back side of the die is exposed to the molding material. If
the back side edges of the die are cracked and chipped, the molding may be
imperfect, including air bubbles near the chipping. During the packaging process,
these bubbles may cause mold cracking, which can reduce yield.
11
Back-side chipping is more pronounced in polyimide-coated wafers where there are

heavy metal layers in the streets, or where heavy back-grinding has produced high
tensile residual stress at the bottom of the wafer. The wafer is a given in most
assembly lines; therefore, the tools available to the process engineer for controlling
back side chipping are limited to blade selection and process parameter
optimization.
3.7 Optimization
Optimizing a dicing process entails achieving the highest possible throughput with
minimal chipping on the die edges. To reach maximum throughput, it is necessary to
use the highest possible feed rate. The feed rate is always dependent on the spindle
speed and the blade type. Combining these parameters and ensuring optimum
throughput is the challenge.
Table 3.1 Factors affecting cut quality and blade torque
Blade
Coolant
Machine
Work Piece
Rotation speed
Vibrations
Wear
Flow
Adjustment
Feed rate
Spindle, rpm
Wafer thickness
Surface condition
It has been shown that all process parameters correlate with blade torque as shown in
Table 3.1. The appearance of chipping, especially back side chipping, also correlates
with blade torque. For each set of process parameters, there is a torque value limit.
Dicing quality deteriorates and back side chipping appears above the limit. By
measuring the torque online, the other process parameters can be set in such a way that
the torque limit will not be exceeded and maximum feed rate will be obtained without
chip formation.
Many experimental variables have to be considered during process optimization.
Testing each variable separately is tedious and consumes many wafers. The Design of
Experiment method is used to reduce the number of tests needed and to provide the
combined effect of several parameters. The Design of Experiment is a statistical method
12
for evaluation of multi-variable processes. All experimental variables are arranged in a

matrix and tested in at least two settings.
The outcome of the tests is measured and recorded. Analysis of variance is done on the
measured test results. The Design of Experiment tests and analysis reveal the major
factors that affect the response (e.g., back side chipping), as well as the effect of each
factor when it increases or decreases.
3.8 Monitoring
The common way to continuously monitor the dicing process is online, visually
inspecting cut position and chipping on the wafer`s top side. However, to monitor the
formation of back side chips, the diced wafer must be inspected off the machine. There
also is a way to monitor back side online using torque measurements.
The torque applied by the blade when cutting the substrate reflects changes in the
different factors that affect the process. Because these changes indicate variation in the
process, the torque also reflects conditions that could lead to formation of back side
chipping. When the torque limits are determined, the torque measurements become an
efficient tool for online monitoring of back side chipping.
On-line monitoring of blade torque informs the operator of any deviation. It does not
require extra inspection time and alerts in real time when there is danger of yield loss.
Subsequent offline inspection should be a complementary tool, used to calibrate the
online monitor or to verify the causes of deviations it detects.
This chapter mentioned that the current system which is dicing saw process does not
add value to the finished device, therefore, the quality of the dicing process is measured
by the yield loss it may cause. Potential dicing yield loss factors include cut
misplacement, cleanliness and chipping.
13
14
4.1 Introduction
This chapter will discuss the evaluation and consideration of alternative solution for the
Semi-Automatic Dicing Saw Machine.
4.2 Variables in Selecting Dicing Blade
The following variables shown in Figure 4.1, should be considered in selecting the right
dicing blade for the application:
Figure 4.1 Variables in Selecting Dicing Blade

These parameters will play a major role in determining and limiting the blade bond or
binder to use, blade thickness and diamond particle or abrasive size. Additional factors
to be considered is blade dressing, blade exposure, feed rate, spindle speed, and supply
of adequate amount of coolant in dicing zone. For most dicing blade, blade life and cut
quality is typically the most important criteria in selecting the right dicing blade.
However, other factors such as consistency, unit cost, lead time and availability,
technical support may have just as much priority, if not more importance in the decision
making process.
15
When observing dicing blade consistency, considering the dicing blades yield. Average
blade that can be measured. Such as number of packages or wafers cut, linear feet or
meters cut. If a particular vendors dicing blade can cut up to twenty five thousand cuts,
however at eighteen thousand cuts inconsistency surfaces, the yields deviate. Yield
deviation negatively affects production and quality control. At the same time as dicing
blades become more inconsistent, dicing saw operators must monitor the process more
closely and make necessary parameter changes. These parameter changes may extend
dicing blade life back to twenty five thousand cuts. However, the extra time spend
adjusting could have been better utilized monitoring other machines or operations.
Choosing the right blade for any particular application is crucial. These essential
precision tools come in a variety of sizes, types, as well as in different abrasive or grit
sizes. They also come in hubbed and hubless forms. The different types of blades are:
resin bond for dicing glass, quartz, sapphire and such materials. Nickel bond for dicing
silicon, gallium arsenide, germanium and indium phosphate. Metal sintered blades are
good for dicing plastics, QFN packages, PCB and FR4 type materials. They all utilize
diamond as an abrasive and the diamond (in most cases synthetic diamond) is what does
the actual cutting. The key is in choosing the right size diamonds for the particular
application at hand. When dealing with hubbed blades the exposure is to be considered
to ensure that there is enough blade to cover the material and sufficient room for wear.
When dealing with hubless blades the flange needs to be taken into account. The flange
is a metal hub that holds the blade in place and sets it in the spindle. In choosing the
right hubless blade one needs to keep in mind the inside diameter and outside diameter
of the flange to determine the right size blade that is needed. The essential specifications
for a blade are size (Inside Diameter and Outside Diameter), type (nickel, resin,
sintered, hubbed or hubless), thickness, grit size, and exposure. Some manufacturers use
different diamond concentrations and that is to be acknowledged as well.
16
Figure 4.2 NBC-ZH 2050 27HEDC Blade

In general, the optimization process should start with blade selection and process
parameter optimization should follow. The blade dimensions are limited by wafer
demands, required kerfs width determines blade thickness. The thickness of the wafer
determines the blade height. During blade selection, two factors should be considered:
blade life and cut quality. Blade life is an important factor in the cost of ownership of a
dicing system. Blade life depends on blade bonding material properties. Blades with
softer bond material typically provide better cut quality, especially regarding control of
back side chipping. These blades also wear much faster than hard bonded blades. A
trade-off is required between blade wear and cut quality. The chip size should be
acceptable and blade life sufficient. Use of Design of Experiment can determine this
required compromise without numerous trial and error tests.
4.2.1 Bond Hardness
Ability of the bond matrix to hold diamonds. As the hardness of the bond is
increased, its diamond retention capabilities increase as well. However, the trade off
is slower cutting speed. Life of the diamond blade is usually increased with hardness
of its bond matrix. Bonds are designated on their scale of hardness from soft,
medium and hard. There are dozens of variations and classification schemes based
on bond degree of hardness or softness. Using diamond dicing blades with optimum
bond hardness for your application is important to successful dicing operation. Bond
matrix that is too soft for the material being cut will release diamond particles faster
than needed, resulting in faster wear and shorter diamond blade life. On other hand
17
bond matrix that is too hard will result in much slower cutting speeds and require
constant dressing to expose the next diamond layer. As rule of thumb, harder
materials such as sapphire and alumina generally require a softer bond. Whereas
softer and more brittle materials require a harder bond.
4.2.2 Diamond Grit Size (Mesh Size)
Diamond grit size (mesh size) plays a major role in determining the surface finish
quality, smoothness, level of chipping and material microstructure damage wish to
obtain. Finer mesh size diamonds such as 20 microns are much smaller in size than
coarser diamond particles. And will give a very smooth surface finish with minimal
amount of chipping on edges. These mesh sizes are usually used for fine cutting of a
full range of materials such as: LiNbO3, YVO4, GaAs and optical materials.
Courser diamond particles are much larger in diameter and are frequently used fast
cutting or material removal on more harder materials such as silicon carbide,
zirconia, Al2O3 and other advanced ceramics and high metallic content materials
which do not require a very fine surface finish.
The diamond grit size (mesh size) in a dicing blade also directly relates to the
number of crystals per carat and the free cutting capability of the dicing blade. The
smaller the mesh size, the larger the diamond crystals, while larger mesh size means
smaller diamond. A 30/40 mesh blocky diamond has about 660 crystals per carat,
while a 40/50 mesh diamond will have 1,700 crystals per carat. Specifying the
proper mesh size is the job of the dicing blade manufacturer. Producing the right
number of cutting points can maximize dicing blade life and minimize the machine
power requirements.
4.2.3 Diamond Concentration
The proportion and distribution of diamond abrasive particles, also known as
concentration, has an effect on overall cutting performance and price of precision
diamond blades. Diamond concentration, commonly referred to as CON, is a
measure of the amount of diamond contained in a diamond section of drill based
upon volume. Diamond concentration is usually defined as: Concentration 100 = 4.4
ct/cm layer volume (mesh size + bond). Based on this definition a concentration of
100 means that the diamond proportion is 25% by volume of diamond layer,
18
assuming at diamond density is 3.52 g/cm3 and 1 ct = 0.2 g. Nominal diamond

concentration in precision diamond blades range from 0.5 ct/cm3 to 6 ct/cm3. This
means diamond concentrations are available from 8 to 135. Selecting the right
diamond concentration can be critical in optimizing dicing operation. Diamond
concentration will play a major role in determining the life and cutting speed of the
dicing blade.
4.2.3.1 High Diamond Concentration
Higher diamond concentration causes the blade to act harder and wear slower
as shown in Figure 4.3. Hence, higher diamond concentration is
recommended and usually used for cutting softer and more abrasive types of
materials. However, the trade off is significantly slower cutting speed. Since
there is higher density of diamond particles in bond matrix, there is not
enough space for the debris and fine powder created during dicing process to
escape. Blade overloading is often a result of selecting improper diamond
concentration.
Figure 4.3 High Concentration of Diamond Powder

4.2.3.2 Low Diamond Concentration
Low diamond concentration dicing blade is softer and faster wearing blade as
shown in Figure 4.4, creating better cut quality and surface finish. Low
diamond concentration is often recommended and widely used for cutting
ultra hard and brittle materials. Lower diamond concentration has larger
19
spacing between diamond particles and can accept more fine powder debris
generated from dicing. This typically creaser faster, more freer cutting blades
and better surface finish quality. Lower diamond concentration dicing blades
will however wear out faster than their high concentration counterparts.
Figure 4.4 Low Concentration of Diamond Powder

4.3 Dicing Blade
4.3.1 Hubbed Diamond Dicing Blade
Which dicing blade is already mounted on hub, comes ready to use. Once the blade
is used, it is disposed. Typically these type of blades are use within applications
requiring minimal blade vibration, such as cutting silicon and germanium wafers.
Hubbed diamond dicing blades have the following advantages:
Easier blade handling for the operator
Blade is plated on very accurate aluminium hub, it is stiffer. Hence, producing

better cut quality. This can be seen in the kerfs having straight cross section and
longitudinal cut through the street being straight and parallel to the street.
Fewer vibration on the blade during cutting, due to increase blade stiffness.
Many operators note the cut or kerfs is cleaner and there is less chipping.
Hubbed type dicing blades are pre-dressed, hence requiring very simple and
shore dressing procedure.
20
4.3.2 Hub Less Diamond Dicing Blade

Which dicing blade is placed on flange or assembly. Typically applications that use
hub less type of diamond dicing blades where effecting cooling of blade during
cutting process is very important to obtain maximum results. For some applications
such as cutting silicon wafers, hubbed dicing blades offer the greatest blade life,
require minimum set up time and provide better consistency. Hubless dicing blades
are more sensitive to foreign particles such as slurry accrued from cutting wafers.
Hubless dicing blades advantages:
Can be re-used with smaller flanges
All the operators will utilize and experiment with different flange types best
suited for their application
High cooling flange are available, allowing water directly onto the blade. This
provides better blade and substrate cooling, resulting in better cut quality and
longer blade life.
4.4 Dicing Blade Types

4.4.1 Sintered (Metal Bond) Dicing Blade
Sintered (metal bond) diamond blades diamonds sintered and multiple layers of
diamonds impregnated inside the metal matrix. Diamonds are furnaces sintered in a
matrix made of iron, cobalt, nickel, bronze, copper, tungsten, alloys of these
powders or other metals in various combinations. Metal bonded dicing blade shown
in Figure 4.3, is impregnated with diamonds. The compacted materials are then hot
pressed or sintered to full density. Heating rate, applied pressure, sintering
temperature and holding time, are all controlled according to the matrix
composition. This means that selected diamonds are mixed and sintered with
specific metal alloys to achieve the best cutting performance possible on any large
variety of material. The metal bond surrounding the diamonds must wear away to
continuously keep re-exposing the diamonds for the diamond tool to continue
cutting.
21
Figure 4.5 Sintered (Metal Bond) Dicing Blade

Sintered (metal bond) dicing blades are recommended for cutting wide variety of
materials from 45 to 75 on Rockwell scale (5 to 9.5 on scale of hardness). It is more
wear resistant and holds diamond well in place, usually producing the highest yield
or cutting ratio. They wear evenly and are known for their long life and consistency.
Metal bond matrix does not protrude diamonds very high and hence usually requires
lower cutting speeds than electroplated (nickel bond) and resin bond blades. In many
dicing applications, sintered (metal bond) dicing blades are used in applications
which are not super hard or super brittle and with minimum tendency to produce
chips or cracks.
4.4.2 Resin Bond Dicing Blade
Resin bond dicing blades are made with high temperature phenolic resin, diamond
particles, ceramic filler and often additional additives. Resin bond is the softest of all
the bonds, frequently used in applications that require a smooth surface. This type of
dicing blade is used on majority of ultra hard and brittle materials. Resin bond
dicing blades shown in Figure 4.4, allow the bond matrix to wear faster and allow
for diamond particles or crystals to break out of their matrix faster, so that new sharp
diamond particles become exposed. This self sharpening characteristic of resin bond
dicing blades, based on faster bond wear out is what make this blade choice in
almost half of all dicing application. Typical resin bond diamond blades last less
than sintered (metal bond) diamond blades, but more than electroplated (nickel
bond) diamond blades, finish and minimum amount of chipping.
22
Figure 4.6 Resin Bond Dicing Blade

Advantages:
Cuts almost any material
Clan cuts on hard and brittle material
Any blade thickness is available .003" and up
Minimum dressing required
Wide variety of bond matrixes and specifications available
Low cost
Disadvantages:
Fast or High Blade Wear
Edge geometry is lost faster than with other types of dicing blades
Requires use of lower spindle speed (RPM)
Minimum blade thickness .003"
Some disadvantages of resin bond dicing blades is resin bond must remain very
fragile in order to expose new diamonds. Resin bond is the softest of the all the
dicing bond matrixes. For this reason, strong and high quality diamonds cannot be
used in a resin bond. High quality diamonds are harder than a resin bond matrix and
would soon disintegrate the bond that keeps them in place. This brings about the
need for frequent blade dressing, causing the cut to lose its roundness or form.
Another disadvantage of resin bond is its high wear rate, lack of stiffness and
23
thickness limitation. Resin bond can cut hard and brittle materials fast, but will
provide much shorter life.
4.4.3 Electroplated (Nickel Bond) Dicing Blade
Electroplated (nickel bond) dicing blades shown in Figure 4.5, have a high
diamond concentration and give a freer, faster cutting action with minimum
heat generation. Diamonds have higher protrusion ratio, staying on the surface of
the cut allowing for fast material removal. Electroplated (nickel bond) dicing blades
last less than metal bond, resin bond, hybrid bond blades and are the least expensive
diamond blades available. Silicon wafer dicing is usually done with the plated
diamond blade (hubbed or hub less) which has proven most effective for this
application. The kerfs are typically in the 1 to 3 mils range using a nominal spindle
speed of 30,000 RPM with feed rates as high as 8 inch per seconds.
Advantages:
Very low blade wear
Maintains good edge geometry
Excellent on applications requiring high accuracy
Ultra thin blade thickness are available such .0006" (0.018mm)
Disadvantages:
Blade thickness is limited to .020" (0.5mm)
Longer blade dressing process
Higher blade cost
Cannot be used on ultra hard and brittle materials
Figure 4.7 Nickel Bond Dicing Blade

24
Table 4.1 Diamond Sizes for Different Application

Material
Type
Alumina
Ferrite
Glass
Barium Titanate
Kovar
Quartz
Silicon
Germanium
GaAs
Sapphire
Ruby
Titanium Carbide
Piezoelectric
Lead Telluride
Alumina Nitride
PC Boards
FR4
Bithmuth Telluride
Galum Phosphite
Green Ceramic
Nickel Bond
(microns)
--3-6
--------3-6
3-6
1-6
----17 - 30
3 - 10
3-6
--30 - 50
30 - 50
17 - 30
3-6
17 - 30
Metal Bond
(microns)
--2-6
--17
--------------10 - 17
------30 - 50
30 - 50
--9
---
Resin Bond
(microns)
53
9
45
45
53
30
------45 - 63
53
53
----88 - 105
----45
-----
4.5 Blade Dressing

Dressing is the process of sharpening diamond particles in diamond bond matrix in
order for the diamond particles to freely penetrate into the material, minimize loads and
provide good cut quality. Another reason for dressing blades is to clean a loaded blade
from debris that is filling the pores between the abrasive particles. Cutting into the
dressing plate creates mechanical and thermal stress and thus produces clean surface.
Dressing can be done by the following methods:
Chemical etch (nickel binders)
Chemical electrical etching (nickel binders)
Grinding (all blade types)
Surface lapping (all blade types)

25
One line dressing on saw (all blade types)
It is important for the diamonds to be well protruded and exposed in order to easily
penetrate into the material being cut. Dicing blades that are poorly dressing will tend to
push the material, creating high loads, high cutting temperature or heat and poor cut
quality. This can also cause blade breakage.
Resin bond dicing blades have a soft binder and in most cases will require minimum
dressing, if any at all. Resin bond dicing blade are typically dressed in the material
being cut. This is why they are frequently called 'self dressing blades'.
Nickel bond and metal bond blades have much harder binder and much more aggressive
dressing is needed in order to achieve the above mentioned goals. Nickel bond dicing
blades require dressing. Hubbed nickel bond dicing blades are partly pre-dressed when
they are manufactured. And typically do not require any dressing. Dressing will remove
nickel built up or diamond protruding from the blade surface are sheared off.
Since nickel bond dicing blades are typically used on silicon. It is recommended to
conduct the dressing cycle also in silicon. Dressing programs usually involve various
steps of table speeds, starting slow and increasing until production speed is about to be
reached. Great care has to be taken that the dressing depth is deeper than the required
production cutting depth. This will insure that only dressed blade sections are used for
production cutting.
To ensure high quality process results, new blades have to be dressed before starting
production. This step is required to expose the cutting diamonds in the blade surface and
condition the blade for continuous work without dramatic changes in cut quality.
Dressing consists of cutting a certain length of material, starting at low feed rate and
increasing the rate until the target is reached.
The duration of the dressing process is usually based on post dicing inspection results.
Because the mechanism of this process is not fully understood, it tends to be a lengthy
procedure that affects productivity. Chipping may result if dressing time is too short. In
many cases, extra dressing time is used to maintain a margin of safety.
26
Figure 4.8 View of a blade cutting edge after dressing

There is a good method for controlling dressing time that can increase productivity.
Blade torque measurements provide an online method for determining the optimal
dressing procedure. If the measured torque values follow a predetermined reference
pattern during the dressing procedure, the dressing is being done properly and the point
of completion can be determined. Dicing systems offering this capability can
significantly increase production time.
4.6 Dressing Process
Dressing procedures are established by end user and based on experience and the
application concerned. There is not one common method that applies to all applications.
The application below is a good starting point.
Table 4.2 Dressing Parametric
Number of Cuts
Depth
Table Speed
5 - 10 cuts
50 microns
50 mm/s
5 - 10 cuts
PD + 100 microns
10 mm/s
5 - 10 cuts
PD + 100 microns
20 mm/s
5 - 10 cuts
PD + 100 microns
30 mm/s
Where:
PD = production cutting depth
27
When cutting silicon most nickel bond hubbed dicing blades do not require dressing.
However on gallium wafers, dressing will be beneficial and increase blade life and
improve cut quality. It is specially recommended to dress blades used on gallium
wafers.
Sometimes a blade that requires dressing is mistaken for a defective blade (blade that
cannot be used). This is not necessarily the case. The most frequent cause of this affect
is a diamond particle or few diamond particles excessively protrudes from the nickel
bond matrix, causing excessive chipping. By dressing the blade, this problem will be
eliminated.
4.7 Cutting Speed
The RPM of your dicing saw should be variable, ranging from 10,000 to 40,000 RPM.
When using standard dicing blades such as 2", 3" and 4" diameter for example, blade
the best spindle speed is usually determined by the hardness of your material and the
depth of the cut. Diamond may break (fracture) at very high speeds and fall out at very
slow speeds. An optimum surface speed or RPM's must be selected to balance out the
two disadvantages. Diamond blade life will usually increase at slower cutting speeds.
However, the increase in labour costs, utilities costs, depreciation of equipment and
other overhead expenses. Will usually offset the saving of diamond blade life and other
consumables. Cutting speed and surface finish quality is often the most important
consideration when selecting the right diamond blade for the application. Diamond has
a higher impact strength than the material being machined. During the dicing operation,
the diamond ruptures the material by impact. Each diamond is able to transfer the
electrical power from your cutting machine, into momentum that breaks the material on
nano or micro level.
By increasing power on the dicing saw machine, the diamond blade RPM's and surface
speed will increase as well. Hence, each diamond will chip off a smaller amount of
material, reducing its impact force on material being machined and reducing cutting
resistance. In theory, by increasing surface speed or RPM's, each diamond should
receive a smaller impact force. However, because impact is supported by a smaller
volume, the impact force with this low volume is actually increased. There is a higher
probability that the diamond particles will break or shatter. Hence, cutting materials at
28
very low surface speeds, creates a large impact force between diamond and material
being machined. Although the diamond may not break, the risk that the diamond will be
pulled out of diamond blade and causing premature failure of the blade increases.
The RPMs of the machine spindle should be noted when selecting the right dicing
blade specification:
Dicing saw spindle diameter
Blade outside diameter
Blade thickness
Blade bond type such as resin bond, nickel bond or metal bond
Material being cut

Table 4.3 Speed Range for Typical Application
Application
Blade Type
Silicon
Hard Alumna
Green Ceramic (Wet)
Nickel Bond
Resin Bond
Nickel Bond
Nickel Bond
Carbide Blades
Resin Bond
Resin Bond
Nickel Bond
Resin Bond
Resin Bond
Green Ceramic (Dry)

Sapphire
Quartz
Ferrites
Glass
Cutting Speed Range in

KRPM
18 - 20
14
16
10
16
12 - 14
12 - 14
14 - 18
10 - 14
12 - 14
4.8 Coolant
The amount of coolant and its supply is of little importance when cutting silicon with
nickel bonded dicing. Most dicing saw used deionised water for this application. If the
wafers are sensitive to electrostatic charges, the required conductivity is set using CO2.
For this application single nozzle may be sufficient. However, when cutting ultra hard
and brittle materials, the coolant flow direction and position will play a major role in
determining blade life and performance.
Dual nozzle configuration is best suited to supply adequate amount of coolant at point
of contact between blade and material. Coolant should be pointed at blade point of
29
contact and leading edge of blade. The dual nozzle system provides two separate
streams of coolant into cutting zone at angle of cutting edge of the blade. Each stream
will cool one side of the blade. The nozzles should be as close as possible to the point
where the blade enters the substrate. Coolant flow should blast with high velocity into
the kerf to improve removing debris. Wide kerfs premature blade water is a result of
improper coolant amount or flow applied at cutting zone. By correctly position the
coolant stream in front of the blade, the coolant will flow on top of the material. In
addition, coolant will be drawn into the kerf.
When cutting silicon, the direction of cutting is not an ultimate importance. Often most
wafers are cut by moving the table back and forth. However, when cutting hard and
brittle materials this quiet different. The blade should enter into the material cutting
down. As the blade penetrates the surface of the material, chips removed by diamond
particles become smaller the deeper the blade penetrates. This cutting direction is most
optimal to provide best cut quality. When cutting in the opposite direction the blade
enters the substrate almost tangential. The chips removed are being small and start but
their size increases to maximize where the blade exits the face of the substrate. Much
chipping at the surface is the result. Cutting in the up direction creates more edge
chipping than cutting down. The spindle torque is noticed to be the large cutting up than
when cutting down.
4.9 Process Stability
Steady blade torque values indicate a stable process. Once the torque values for a
specific process have been established, the other setup parameters should be adjusted to
keep these values consistent. Inconsistency of torque values is an indication of deviation
in the process because of blade vibration. Blade vibration ends in blade breakage or
chipping and cracking damage to the wafer.
System operation at steady torque requires stabilization of the feed rate, spindle speed
and coolant flow. The coolant applies drag force on the blade, which makes a
significant contribution to the torque. To keep the coolant torque effect steady, the
coolant flow is controlled, ensuring steady flow of coolant and no changes in drag force.
When the dicing machines have steady coolant flow and all other parameters are under
control, a steady torque is maintained. Any deviations from steady torque, if recorded,
30
are due to uncontrolled factors. These include changes in coolant flow because of
nozzle clogging, changes in nozzle adjustment, blade-to-blade variation, blade condition
and operator errors.
Table 4.4 Matching Basic Material Properties to Blade Properties
Basic Blade Properties

Material Properties
Diamond Size
Hardness
Density
Abrasiveness
Concentration Bond Hardness
Hard
Fine
Low
Soft
Soft
Coarse
High
Hard
High
Fine
Low
Soft
Low
Coarse
High
Hard
High
Coarse
High
Hard
Low
Fine
Low
Soft
Table 4.5 Effect of Operating Condition to Blade

Effect on Diamond Blade
Operating Condition
Machine
Operating Speed
Feed Rate
Horsepower
Coolant Volume
Cutting Depth
Blade Action
Life
Cutting Rate
Old
Softer
Shorter
Faster
New
Harder
Longer
Slower
High
Harder
Longer
Slower
Low
Softer
Shorter
Faster
Fast
Softer
Shorter
Faster
Slow
Harder
Longer
Slower
High
Softer
Shorter
Faster
Low
Harder
Longer
Slower
High
Harder
Longer
Slower
Low
Softer
Shorter
Faster
Shallow
Softer
Shorter
Faster
Deep
Harder
Longer
Slower
31

This chapter commenced by providing background information on the dicing saw
process where Blade Breakage for Semi-Automatic Dicing Machine is to be designed.
Although, selecting the best dicing blade for specific application including optimization
of variables factor does not guaranty the blade life and product outcome.
32
References:
Alger, J. and Hays, C. (1964) Creative Synthesis in Design, New York: Prentice Hall
Amplifier, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier
Automation, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O48-automation.html
Bajune, D. (2000) Substrate Diving Method, US6152803 A
Cliff, E. (1978) Design of Machine Elements, 5th edition, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall
Dearborn, M. (1987) Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, Volume 4, Society of
Manufacturing Engineers
Fiber Optic Proximity Sensors,
http://sensorstransducers.globalspec.com/learnmore/sensors_transducers_detectors/proxim
ity_ presence_sensing/fiberoptic_proximity_sensors
Fowler, K. and Schmalzel, J. (2004) IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Magazine
French, T., Svensen, C., Helsen, J. and Urbanik, B. (1974) Mechanical Drawing, 8th
edition, New York: McGraw Hill
Groover, M. (2001) Automation, production systems, and computer-integrated
manufacturing, 2nd edition, New York: Prentice Hall
Kivenson, G. (1977) The Art and Science of Inventing, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company
Light Emitting Diode, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/LED
Nyce, D. (2004) Linear Position Sensors: Theory and application, New York: Wiley
Raudsepp, E. (1976) Creative Growth Games, New York: Jove Publications
Raudsepp, E. (1982) Creative Growth Games, 2nd edition, New York: Jove Publications
Sawing Silicon, http://www.chipsupply.com/resources/pdf/sawingSilicon.pdf
Schey, J. (2000) Introduction to manufacturing processes, 3rd edition, New York:
McGraw Hill
Schultz, M. (2008) Grobs basic electronics, 10th edition, New York: McGraw Hill
Terrell, D. (2004) Op Amps: Design, application and troubleshooting, 2nd edition, Boston:
Elsevier
1
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

School of Advance manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering

Final Year Project

Design and Development of a Blade Breakage Detector

Comment [B1]: Abstract MUST

GLOBALFOUNDRIES is the worlds second largest semiconductor foundry, headquartered

Comment [B2]: Leave a line of 12-point

Wafer dicing is a mandatory procedure in most front-of-line semiconductor packaging

Comment [B4]: Use British/Australian

Comment [B5]: Acknowledgement in

Comment [B6]: Set Table of Contents

Chapter 1 - Project Background and Significance

Chapter 2 - Literature Review and Project Methodology

Comment [B7]: Numbers should be

Comment [B8]: Lineup the 2 of the

2.4.1 Research Design

Chapter 3 - Analysis of the Current System and Operation

Chapter 5 - Development Solution

Comment [B9]: Set List of Figures and

Chapter 2 - Literature Review and Project Methodology

Chapter 3 - Analysis of the Current System and Operation

Chapter 4 - Evaluation and Consideration of Alternative Solution

Comment [B10]: Set List of Figures

Chapter 3 - Analysis of the Current System and Operation

Chapter 4 - Evaluation and Consideration of Alternative Solution

Chapter 1 - Project Background and Significance

Comment [B11]: Design an attractive

Comment [B14]: Leave a line of 12point blank space between consecutive

Comment [B15]: Leave only a line of

reliable product based from the specifications communicated internally within

Figure 1.1 Portion of a Diced Wafer after Cleaning

Dicing semiconductor wafers by sawing is a rough machining process which is similar to

Figure 1.2 Typical Wafer Dicing Saw Blade Holder Assembly

Figure 1.3 Damage Chuck Table

Comment [B16]: Leave a line of 12point blank space between consecutive

Figure 1.4 Excessive Cut

Figure 1.5 Damage Wafer

1.5 Scope of the Project

To study the existing system characteristics by monitoring the process capability

To build a functional prototype of the system

1.6 Expected Outcomes

Technicians - Being the frontline manufacturing personnel, their effectiveness and

Manufacturing Supervisors and Equipment Engineers - Being the frontline

Comment [B18]: Left justify dot points

Comment [B19]: Left justify dot points

1.7 Thesis Structure

Comment [B20]: Keep either the

1.8 Concluding Remarks

Comment [B21]: Concluding Remarks.

Chapter 2 - Literature Review and Project Methodology

Internet Research - The researcher consulted several websites during project

Equipment Manual - Serves as reference for technical diagrams, schematics and

Questionnaires - Several questionnaire sheets were made to help in assessing the

2.3 Related Literature

Comment [B22]: Line-up

Comment [KA-23]: References not in

inspection or testing of the part. Sometimes, drawings have references to

Figure 2.1 Influence of Dimensional Tolerance on Cost of Manufacture (Schematic)

Tolerances can be expressed in either of two ways. A bilateral tolerance is defined

tolerance is 0.008 inch. Unilateral tolerances have the advantages that

make it unnecessary for shop personnel to perform

involved calculations for setting up the production equipment. On the other