Teaching Grammar in ContextConrents Preface Chapter | Grammar and the Teaching of Grammar: An Introduction ‘The meanings of grammar ‘Traditional school grammar in @ historical perspective Chapter 2 Teaching Grammar: Reasons for, Buidence Againse ‘Wy teach grammar? Early esearch summaries Research on the effects of structural and transformational xn Arnote on functional grammar A dissenting voice ‘Three studies in detail Why teachers continue to teach grammar ‘Toward other alternatives Chapter 3 Acquiring Grammatical Competence Linguistic cool for understanding and analysis ‘Grammatical competence and its acquisition ‘The process of language acquisition What is acquired Evidence from reading miscues wees Second language acquisition. « : : How language is acquired: A surumary (Chapter 4 Toward a Perspective on Error Errors as a necessary concomitant of growdh ‘More sophisticated errors replacing less sophisticated errors Reconsidering what counts as error... « . Handbook prohibitions and stylistic effectiveness Responding to errors in more constructive ways . - Reconceptualizing the writing process.“ Alternatives tothe ertoe hunt “Taming the Error Beast. (Chapcer 5 Reconcepuulising the Teaching of Grammar "Narrowing our focus and limiting the eenminology ‘Whar kinds of structures should we emphasize for syntactic growth and diversity of style? Promosing growth in syntactic complexity « . ‘Scope and sequence in the teaching of gramnar (Guidelines for the teaching of grammar Chapter 6 Learning Theory and the Teaching of Grammar “Teaching grammar via mini-lesons More on the diffrent learning theories Mini-lesons asa reflection of the cagnitivelconstructvise paradigm <=. ‘Toward a constructivist model of leaning and teaching Constructivism contrasted with behavioealise ‘An invitation Mini-lessons and other constructivist teaching strateles Eerlystoies supporting a constructivist model forthe teaching of grammar ‘More recent revearch on grammar in the writing proces Surumary of the research ‘The need for informal ae well as formal research Afterword: Conchson and a New Begining Appendix: Sample Lessons on Selected Aspects of Grammar ‘Teaching the meaningful pars of words ‘Teaching grammar incidencally: Basic pasts of speech and structures “Teaching subject, verb clause, sentence, and related concepts for editing “Teaching syle through sentence combining and sentence generating “Teaching sentence sense and se through the ‘anpltion of syntactic elements ‘Teaching the power of dialects and dialecs of power ‘Teaching punctuation and meckanies for convention, clarity, and style Cones Tie 87 2101 102 104 123 14 138 14k 48, 150 151 156 7 163 165 174 176 1p 180 181 185 137 188 190 ng m2 2 236 a — Glossy of Grammatical Terms References Index 3 261 an Cone viList oF IntustRrations Ja References for and against the teaching of formal gramaae 22 Maceuley's grammar test (1947). 73° Macauley’ results (1947). 1 Example of structuralists’ Immediate Constituent Analysis, 12. Surface and deeper) structure £3 Semantic reladionships in early urerances. 84 Grammatical constructions and pattems, other than coordinate constructions, analyzed by O'Donnell, Grif, and Noris (1967) fl Placement of periods by a fist grader 4.2 Developmental sequence in John’s drawings 43. Contrast berween behavioral md constructivist approaches to learners’ errors (Kroll and Schafer, 1978), sida Pre-phonemie writing 44 Early phonemic writing. de Later phonemic writing 44d Transitional writing, 44e Transitional writing. 45a One first grader’ writing in Sepwmiber and February (Fiagerakl, 1984). 45k One frst graders writing in September and June (Cochrane et al, 1984) 45e One frst graders writing in November and June 4.6 References on the early development of spelling and writing. 4.7 Use of apostrophes by a first grader 48 Use of commas by a first grader 49 Efcctive comma splices in published writing (Brosnahan, 1976). 410 Effective minor sentences (Kline and Memering, 1977). 4.11. Refecences for teaching grammer as syle. 4.12. Model of the writing proces. 4 BaSophomore's frst deft 413bFirt paragraph of sophomores sixth draft. 4414 References for instituting writen’ and readers workshops 4445 References for recommended grammar texts and reference books 416 Baiting checklist from a ise prder (Giacobbe, 1984), 417 Excerpts from copyedited manuscript (Little, 1994) rk 4.18a Fest draft of Shetty’ introduction, her zecher'’s comments on their conference, and Sherry’ final drat 4.18b Fest daft of Grant’ introduction, his eacher’s comments on thet conference, and Grant's final draft. 4.19. Published story by three first graders. 420 “Errorwocks.” 5.1 Frequency of errors and of teacher marking of errors in the Connors-Lansford (1988) sted. 5.2. Senences (rom Hairston’ (1981) study 5.3. Categorization of errs ffom Hairston’ (1981) study. 54 Comparison of eror raking in the Hairston (1981) and (Connors Lunsford (1988) studies. 5.5. Basic grammatical concepts that need to be understood 5.6 Narrative with Tamits, clauses, and free modifiers marked, 5.7 Poem with absolute constructions. 5.8 Sentence combining exercise (Hunt, 1970), 5.9. Examples of wring using free moder: (Christensen, 1967). 5.10 References on sentence combining and sentence generating, 5.11 Writing ample from Nicholas, a kindergattner. 5.12 Writing sample fom John, a fourth grater. 5.13 A minieum of grammar for maxieaum benefits 6.1 Ends of transinission-to-transational continu, 62. A constructivist model of learning and teaching 63. References on whole language as constuctivist learning and teaching. 64 Brainstorminglelusering end subsequent writing in a "Shows, don’t tell lesson. 65 Pact of scory by Kendall, a kindengarces 66 Sarmple less from level 8 of the Daily Oral Language program (Vail and Papenfis, 1989/1990). AA. Sentence of fragment? (Hates sed Rowan, 1989) A Subjects and verbs, with emphasis on arnillary and main verbs. A3- Common prepesitions A4 Coordinating conjunctions and cortelasve conjunctions. ‘AS Common subordinating conjunctions. A6 Common conjunctive adverbs AZT Punctuation DOS and DON'TS. ‘A.Ba Examples of I am” poems in which the writers were encouraged to use participial phrases ‘Ah Examples of “I am" poems The top rwo were written by college faeshmen encouraged to se pariciplal shrases as free modifies. sof Basa fxAQ Sentences for creating perteipal phrases and absolutes. AL10 References on dialects versus the Language of Wider Communication. ‘ALLL Rayfords song (Inada, 1993), A112 References represencing various dialects. A.13 Punctuating possessive nouns A.14 Ordinary plurals versus possessives % Las op linsernarions i Preract More than fifteen years ago, the National Counc! of Teachers of English ppablished my Grammar for Teachers (1979). In the intervening year, this book has been one of NCTE’ bestellen, attesting w the widespread ‘concern about teaching grammar but also reflecting che book's congruence with the writing proces movement ofthe 1980s and 1990s. While suguest- ing that teachers need to know graramar in order to reach writing more effectively Lalo argued that students mainly need to be guided in earning fand applying certain grammatical concepts at they revise and edit their writing For @ long while I had nothing new to say on the topic of teaching grammar, Indeed, | was no longer teaching courses in grammar, but instead teaching courees in the reading and writing processes and whole language ‘education. My books have reflected chat thrast for example, Reading Process and Practice: From Sorionsycholingustics to Whole Language (1994) and Understanding Whole Language (1990). Bu forte past seven or eight years, [have alo been teaching, once a yeas, a grxduare/undergraduste course on ‘grammar and the teaching of grammar. Teaching ths course has forced me to reread and updace myself on the relevant research, naturally, but also to reexamine, refine, and expand my thinking about what aspects of grammat need ro be taught to writers, slong with the related questions of why, when. and how, ‘The present book derives, then, not enly fom my original background jn grammar and linguistics, language acquisition, the writing process, and the teaching of writing, bu from more recent forays into learning theory and the acquisition of literacy. As much as anything else, the book is informed by my experiences as @veachedtesearcher, always taking nes risks and trying to figure out why something las or hast’ worked. Thus, what I currently think about teaching grammar in the context of writing reflects fan amalgam of research and experience, which is always co some degree in flux. I is chs evolving theary that [invite you to explore in these pases, and to which I urge yo to contibute as a reacher/esearcher yourself. The book is intended for teachers at all levels, bue especially che junior high and high school levels, where grammar has been taught most incesivelyChapter { introices some common meanings of grammar and provides 4 historical overview of ditional school grammar books and grammar teaching: Chapter 2 examines reasons commonly given fr teaching gram- ‘mar 0 school subject and alls these reasons into question by describing decades of research that how the teaching of grammar in isolation ta have litle, ifany, effect on the writing of most students. What might be more effective? To lay the groundwork for exploration of this topic, Chapeer 3 considers how preschoolers acquite the besie seruceues of their native language and how the basic grarar of second language may likewise be acquired. Developing an important point from that discsston, Chapter 4 suggests a research-hased perspective on the concept of ero itself and on the “errors” our students make as writers, chen concludes with practical alternatives to what Lois Rosen (1987) has dubbed “the eror lant.” Cap ter 5 draws upon the preceding chipters and farther research in suesesting what aspects of grammar we might focus on, as we guide our seudents in becoming mere effective in writing and revising sentences and in editing theie writing. Finally, Chapter 6 aldresses the teaching of grammar from the peropective of leaning theon Crigially, these six chapeers were co be followed by chapters dealing with teaching differen grammatical concept in the context of writing. Bt as met with teachers interested in sharing more effective ways of teaching ‘sel agpects of grammar, we relied that it would be good to have these chapters written by varies teachers who have tried fren rings i thee classrooms. Before fong, we conchied that I should publish the more theoretical, researchederved chapters as a separae book and hat wgether wwe should work toward a sequel in which we will share some ofthe lessons we've leamed, through experience, about teaching grammar in the context of writing. The Appendix, with sample lesons from my own teaching, looks forward to the facure book. These lessons illustrate the kinds recommended in Chapter 6 incidental teaching, inductive learning, mini-lesons, and extended mini-lessons. The aio ilsrate the ive broad topics for grammar lessons suggested in Chapter 5: (1) reaching concepts of subject, verb,