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Lecture 2
Design for Strength Static Loading
Dr Prasad Gudimetla
18 July 2016

Failure Examples
Failure of truck driveshaft spline due to corrosion
fatigue

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Failure Examples
Impact failure of a lawn-mower blade driver hub
The blade impacted a surveying pipe marker

Failure Examples
Failure of an overhead-pulley retaining bolt on a
weightlifting machine
A manufacturing error caused a gap that forced
the bolt to take the entire moment load

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Failure Examples

Chain test fixture that failed in one cycle.

To alleviate complaints of excessive wear, the manufacturer decided
to case-harden the material
(a) Two halves showing brittle fracture initiated by stress
concentration
(b) Enlarged view showing cracks induced by stress concentration at
the support-pin holes

Failure Examples
Valve-spring failure caused by spring surge in an
oversped engine
The fractures exhibit the classic 45 degree shear failure

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Design for static loading

Static loading defined

Stationary force
Constant in magnitude and direction
Load cannot change in any manner
Fully settle (due to gravity alone)

Static loads can produce

Pure tension
Pure compression
Shear, bending, torsion and buckling

Static Strength
Usually necessary to design using published strength
values
Experimental test data is better, but generally only
warranted for large quantities or when failure is very
costly (in time, expense, or life)
Methods are needed to safely and efficiently use
published strength values for a variety of situations

Shigleys Mechanical Engineering

Design

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Stress concentrations
Localized increase of stress near discontinuities (points
of singularity)
Kt is the theoretical stress concentration factor (KSC)

Stress Concentration for Static and Ductile

Conditions
With static loads and ductile materials

Highest stressed fibers yield (cold work)

Load is shared with adjacent fibers
Cold working is localized
Overall part does not see damage unless ultimate strength is
exceeded
Stress concentration effect is commonly ignored for static loads
on ductile materials

Stress concentration must be included for dynamic

loading
Stress concentration must be included for brittle
materials, since localized yielding may reach brittle
failure rather than cold-working and sharing the load.

Shigleys Mechanical Engineering

Design

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Shaft with fillet (bending)

Shaft with fillet (axial)

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Shaft with fillet (torsion)

Grooved shaft (bending)

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Grooved shaft (axial)

Grooved shaft (torsion)

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Shaft with a radius hole

Failure theories
Machine elements can fail due to

Distortion
Cracking
Permanent plastic deformation
Rupture

If failure mechanism is simple, simple tests provide

clues
e.g., a simple tensile failure (tensile test)

But machine elements fail under complex conditions

Critical stress, strain or energy?

Hence the need for failure theories

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Need for static failure theories

Propose appropriate means of comparing multi-axial
stress states to single strength
Based on some hypothesis of what aspect of stress state
is critical
No universally accepted single theory

Failure theories
Ductile materials
Maximum shear stress theory (MSS)
Distortion energy theory (DE)
Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM)

Brittle materials
Maximum normal stress (MNS)
Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
Modified Mohr (MM)

We will study MSS and DE for now

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Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS)

Yielding begins when the maximum shear stress in a
stress element equals or exceeds the maximum shear
stress in a tension test specimen of the same material
when that specimen begins to yield.
Also called Tresca or Guest theory
A ductile material in tension exhibits failure at 45 slip
lines and this is usually considered as a failure
mechanism. Thus,
P

max
A
2
Sy
At yield , max
2

Sy is the yield strength of the material

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS)

For the general stress state, the principal can be
ordered as
1 2 3,
( )
max 1 3
2

Thus, for a general stress state, we have

( 1 3 ) S y

( 1 3 ) S y
2
2
( S sy 0.5S y ) [ yield strength in shear ]

max

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Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS)

For design purposes, incorporating a design factor n, we get

max

Sy
n

( 1 3 )

Sy
n

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS)

To compare to experimental data, express max in
terms of principal stresses and plot
To simplify, consider a plane stress state
Let A and B represent the two non-zero principal
stresses, then order them with the zero principal
stress such that 1 2 3
Assuming A B there are three cases to consider
Case 1: A B 0
Case 2: A 0 B
Case 3: 0 A B

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Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS)

Case 1: A B 0 1 A , 3 0
1 3 S y A S y

Case 2: A 0 B 1 A , 3 B
1 3 S y A B S y

Case 3: 0 A B 1 0, 3 B
1 3 S y B S y

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS)

A Sy

A B Sy
B S y

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Notes on MSS
MSS predicts yield if a stress state is outside the shaded
region bordered by the yield stress envelope
For a point a within the envelope, as load is increased,
it moves proportionally to b
Design factor can be calculated as n Ob Oa

The equation max S y 2n is sufficient for shaft design

problems as they typically fall in the category where a
normal stress exists from bending and/or axial loading,
and a shear stress arises from torsion

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS)

Comparison to
experimental data
Conservative in all
quadrants by
about 15%
Commonly used
for design
situations

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Distortion Energy (DE) Failure Theory

Also known as:

Octahedral Shear Stress

Shear Energy
Von Mises
Von Mises Hencky

Distortion Energy (DE) Failure Theory

Originated from observation that ductile materials
stressed hydrostatically (equal principal stresses)
exhibited yield strengths greatly in excess of expected
values
Yielding occurs when the distortion strain energy per unit
volume reaches or exceeds the distortion strain energy
per unit volume for yield in simple tension or
compression of the same material

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Strain Energy

Essentially, the process of straining (deforming) a material

results in the change in its internal energy. Hence, it is possible
to examine Hookes Law and the stress-strain diagram from the
energy viewpoint

Consider the element of material shown in the figure. The stress

in the element develops a force on the top and bottom surfaces
after the element undergoes a vertical displacement ( z) given
by,

F A (x y)

Hence, the external work done by this force is the average force
times the displacement. This term must be equal to the internal
work or strain energy stored in the element.

Strain Energy

Assuming that no energy is lost in the form of heat, the strain energy
can be given as
1
1
U ( F )( z ) ( x y )( z )
2
2
1
U V
[V xyz ]
2

per unit volume, such that

It is convenient to formulate strain uenergy
2

2E

U 1

V 2

If the material is linearly elastic (Hookes Law applies), then

1 2

2E

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Distortion Energy (DE) Failure Theory

Deriving the Distortion Energy

Hydrostatic stress is average of principal stresses

ave

Strain energy per unit volume is

1
u
1
2
u [ 1 1 2 2 3 3 ]
2
Substituting for principal strains into strain energy equation,

1 2 3

1
x ( y z )
E

1
y ( x z )
E

1
z ( x y )
E

We get
u

1
[ 12 22 32 2 ( 1 2 2 3 3 1 )]
2E

1 2

2E

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Deriving the Distortion Energy

Or

Substituting for the average stress, we have

uv

uv

2
3 ave
(1 2 )
2E

1 2 2
[ 1 22 32 2( 1 2 2 3 3 1 )]
6E

Thus, distortional energy can now be given calculated as

u d u uv

1 ( 1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2

3E
2

Deriving the Distortion Energy

u d u uv

1 ( 1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2

3E
2

Tension test specimen at yield has 1 S y , 2 3 0

Distortion energy for tension test specimen is
1 2
ud

3E

Sy

DE theory predicts failure when distortion energy

exceeds distortion energy of tension test specimen,
( 1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2

Sy
2

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von Mises Stress

( 1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2

Sy
2

Left hand side is defined as von Mises stress

( 1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2

von Mises Stress can be thought of as a single, equivalent, or

effective stress for the entire general state of stress in a stress
element
DE failure theory simply compares von Mises stress to yield strength

Sy

von Mises Stress

For plane stress, the von Mises stress can be expressed
by the principal stresses A , B and 0

A2 A B B2

1/ 2

Graphically, this equation is a rotated ellipse in the plane

A , B
Using xyz components, the von Mises stress can be
represented as

1/ 2
1
( x y ) 2 ( x z ) 2 ( z x ) 2 6( xy2 yz2 zx2 )
2

For plane stress,

1/ 2
x2 x y 3 xy2

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DET and von Mises Stress

Introducing a design factor,

For the case of pure shear

have

2 1/ 2
xy

Sy
Sy
n

Sy

xy , where x y 0 , for yield we

S y xy

Sy
3

0.577 S y

Thus, the shear yield strength predicted by DET is

S sy 0.577 S y

15% higher than MSS Theory

MSST and DET

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Example 4
A hot-rolled steel has a yield strength of Syt = Syc = 700 MPa
and a true strain at fracture of 0.55. Estimate the factor of safety
for the following principal stresses:
(a) 490, 490, 0 MPa
(b) 210, 490, 0 MPa
(c) 0,490, -210 MPa
(d) 0, -210, -490 MPa
(e) 210, 210, 210 MPa
Solution: Since the fail strain is greater than 0.5 and yield
strength in tension and compression are equal, we can apply the
DET. We shall compare these with the MSST.

(a) 490, 490, 0 MPa A 1 490, B 2 490, 3 0

Using DET : A2 A B B2

1/ 2

490 2 (490)(490) 490 2

1/ 2

490 MPa

S y 700
n

1.43
490
Using MSST :
n

Sy

700
1.43
490

(b) 210, 490, 0 MPa A 1 490, B 2 210, 3 0

Using DET : A2 A B B2
Sy

1/ 2

490 2 (490)(210) 210 2

1/ 2

426 MPa

700
1.64
426
Using MSST :

Sy

700
1.43
490

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(c) 0,490, -210 MPa

A 1 490, 2 0, B 3 210 MPa

Using DET : A2 A B B2

1/ 2

490 2 (490)(210) (210) 2

1/ 2

622 MPa

S y 700
n

1.13
622
Using MSST :
n

Sy

A B

700
1.00
490 (210)

(d) 0, -210, -490 MPa 1 0, A 2 210, B 3 490 MPa

Using DET : A2 A B B2

1/ 2

(490) 2 (490)(210) (210) 2

1/ 2

426 MPa

S y 700
n

1.64
426
Using MSST :
n

Sy

700
1.43
490

(e) 210, 210, 210 MPa 1 210, 2 210, 3 210 MPa

Using DET : A2 A B B2

1/ 2

(210 210) 2 (210 210) 2 (210 210) 2

1/ 2

0 MPa

S y 700
n

0
Using MSST :
n

Sy

1 3

700

210 210
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

DET

1.43

1.64

1.13

1.64

MSST

1.43

1.43

1.00

1.43

MSST will always predict a factor of safety less than or equal to DET.

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Design process
DET

Sy
n

MSST

xy

Sy
2n

Select material, density, availability (Sy and Su)

Choose a factor of safety
Directly proportional to size, weight and cost

FOS should be based on the following

Degree of uncertainty about loading, material strength, stress
analysis
Consequence of failure, human safety, economics
Type of manufacturing process
Codes and standards

Design factor (n)

Design factor guide
n = 1.2 to 1.5 for reliable materials subjected to loads
that can be determined with certainty
n = 1.5 to 2.5 for average materials subjected to loads
that can be determined. Also, human safety and
economics are not an issue
n = 3.0 to 4.0 for well known materials subjected to
uncertain loads

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Compute the factor of safety based on DET

for the stress elements A and B for machine element
shown. Assume the material of the bar to be
AISI 1006 cold drawn steel with loadings as:
F = 0.55 kN, P = 4.0 kN and T = 25 N.m.
For element A:

For stress element B:

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Analyse the system shown in figure below and compare the design
factors using MSST and DET.

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(From tables)

MSST:

You cannot get the design factor

unless you have calculated and
identified the principal stresses!

DET:

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