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15.7.2. Constant Chord Method.

In the above method, it is seen that both the chordal thickness and chordal addendum are dependent
upon the number of teeth. Hence for measuring a large number of gears for set, each having different
number of teeth would involve
separate calculations,

in us tne proceaure Decomes laborious and time-consuming one.

The constant chord method does away with these difficulties. Constant chord of a gear is measured where
the tooth flanks touch the flanks of the basic rack. The teeth of the rack are straight and inclined to their
centre lines at the pressure angle as shown in Fig. 15.16.
Also the pitch line of the rack is tangential to the pitch circle of the gear and,- by definition, the tooth
thickness of the rack along this line is equal to the arc tooth thickness of the gear round its pitch circle.
Now, since the gear tooth and rack space are in contact in the symmetrical position at the points of contact
of the flanks, the chord is constant at this position irrespective of the gear of the system in mesh with the
rack.

Fig.

15.16

This is the property utilised in the constant chord method of the gear measurement.
The measurement of tooth thickness at constant chord simplified the problem for all number of teeth. If
an involute tooth is considered symmetrically in close mesh with a basic rack form, then it will be
observed that regardless of the number of teeth for a given size of tooth (same module), the contact
always occurs at two fixed point A and B. AB is known as constant chord. The constant chord is defined
as the chord joining those points, on opposite faces of the tooth, which make contact with the mating teeth
when the centre line of the tooth lies on the line of the gear centres. The value of AB and its depth from
the tip, where it occurs can be calculated mathematically and then verified by an instrument. The
advantage of the constant chord method is that for all number of teeth (of same module) value of constant
chord is same. In other words, the value of constant chord is constant for all gears of a meshing system.
Secondly it readily lends itself to a form of comparator which is more sensitive than the gear tooth
vernier.

15.7.5. The Base Tangent Method. (David Brown tangent comparator).


In this method, the span of a convenient number of teeth is measured with the help of the tangent
comparator. This uses a single vernier calliper and has, therefore, the following advantages over gear
tooth vernier which used two vernier scales :
(i) the measurements do not depend on two vernier readings, each being function of the
other.
(ii) the measurement is not made with an edge of the measuring jaw with the face. Consider a straight
generator

(edge)

ABC

being

rolled

back

and

forth

along

base

circle

(Fig. 15.19). Its ends thus sweep out opposed involutes A2 AA^ and C2 CCi respectively. Thus the
measurements made across these opposed involutes by span gauging will be constant (i.e. AC = AiCi =
A2C2 = A0Cq) and equal to the arc length of the base circle between the origins of involutes.
Further the position of the measuring faces is unimportant as long as they are parallel \ and on an opposed
pair of the true involutes. As the tooth form is most likely to conform to a true involute at the pitch point
of the gear, it is always preferable to choose a number of teeth such that the measurement is made
approximately at the pitch circle of the gear.
The value of the distance between two opposed involutes, or the dimension over parallel faces is equal to
the distance round the base circle between the points where the corresponding tooth flanks cut i.e., ABC
in Fig. 15.19. It can be derived mathematically as follows

Fig. 15.19. Generation of pair of involutes by a common generator.


The angle between the points A and C on the pitch circle where the flanks of the opposed involute teeth of
the gear cut this circle can be easily calculated.
Let us say that the gear has got W number of teeth and AC on pitch circle corresponds to S number of
teeth. (Fig. 15.20); .-. Distance AC = (S 1/2) pitches
.-. Angle subtended by AC = (S- 1/2) x 2rc/A7 radians.
Angles of arcs BE and BD

It may be noted that when backlash allowance is specified normal to the tooth flanks, this must be simply
subtracted from this derived value.
Tables are also available which directly give this value for the given values of S, N and m.
This distance is first calculated and then set in the David Brown tangent comparator (Fig. 15.21) with
the help of slip gauges. The instrument essentially consists of a fixed anvil and a movable anvil. There is
a micrometer on the moving anvil side and this has a very limited movement on either side of the setting.
The distance is adjusted by setting the fixed anvil at desired place with the help of looking ring and
setting tubes.
15.7.6. Tangential Gear Tooth Calliper.
It is utilised for measuring variations on the basic tooth profile from the outside diameter of spur and
helical gears. The instrument consists of body, on the underside of which there are two slides having the
tips acting like measuring contacts. The extended spindle of a dial indicator with the contact point A

Fig.

15.20

passes between the two tips along the vertical axis of symmetry of the instrument. The measuring tips are
spread apart or brought together simultaneously and symmetrically in reference to the central axis by a
screw which has a right-hand and a left-hand thread. The contact faces of the measuring tips are flat and
arranged

Fig.

at

15.21.

David

angles

Brown

Base

of

Tangent

Comparator.

14.5 or 20 with the central axis. The calliper is set up by means of a cylindrical master gauge of proper
diameter based on the module of the gear being checked. After adjusting the tips by the screw, these are
locked in position by locking nuts. The properly set up instrument is applied to the gear tooth and the dial
indicator reading shows how much the position of the basic tooth profile deviates in reference to the
outside

diameter

of

the

gear.

15.7.7. Test Plug Method for Checking Pitch Diameter and Tooth Spacing. Measurement over the rollers
placed in the space between a pair of gear teeth gives a convenient method for checking tooth spacing and
the pitch diameter. The special case of the roller with its centre on the pitch circle simplifies the problem.
It is, therefore, considered desirable to find the diameter on the roller whose centre will lie on the pitch
circle and to derive an expression for the distance over the rollers placed in opposite teeth spaces with the
centres

of

rollers

lying

on

the

pitch

circle.

Fig.

15.22

Fig.

15.23

In Fig. 15.23 a rack tooth is shown symmetrically in mesh with a gear tooth space, the curved sides of the
gear tooth touching the straight rack sides at A and B on the line of action. Let us assume that the centre
of the roller lies on the pitch point O. Now, if the rack tooth be considered as an empty space bounded by
its outline, a circle with centre O and radius OB would fit and touch the rack space at A and B since OA
and OB are perpendicular to the sides of the rack tooth. Thus the circle would touch the gear teeth at A
and

B.

In

OBD,

OD

OB

is

the

Circular

radius

pitch/2

of

roller

(7t/4)m

OBD =90, BdD = <|> = pressure angle, .. OB = OD cos <j> = (re/4) m cos <(>
Dia.

of

roller

OB

(ron/4)

cos

<|)

(rc/4)

cos

<|>.

This is the diameter of a roller which will rest in tooth space and lie with its centre on the pitch circle.
This

value

is

constant

for

all

gears

of

same

pitch

and

pressure

angle.

For gears with even number of teeth, a direct measurement by placing two rollers in exactly opposite
tooth

spaces

is

possible.

In

this

case,

the

gauging

diameter

over

the

rollers

If the gear has an old number of teeth, a radial measurement with the gear between centres can be carried
out, using a comparator with the gear. The accuracy of the spacing over any number of teeth may be
checked by finding the angles subtended at the centre and comparing this with that obtained from a

chordal

check

of

the

plugs.

As already indicated, precision gears and other gears are generally checked for tooth thickness by
dimension over pins, as the dimensions over pins reading is mathematically related to the tooth thickness.
This also verifies the correctness of profile and other elements of gear. Under this method two pins of
equal

diameter

for

are

gears

placed

in

having

two

odd

opposite

number

tooth

of

spaces

teeth.

where M = Required size over the wires, m = Module, (j) = Pressure angle, d = Diameter of wire = 1.728
x

m,

Pressure

angle

at

centre

of

pin

and

is

given

by

the

relation

Using the above equations, the size AT over wires can be calculated. In case of helical gears the formulae
used

are

as

below

The helical gears with odd number of teeth should not be measured with two wires, because in this case
the correction factor cos (90/iV) is not valid and can result in serious errors. In such cases the gear can be
mounted on an arbour and a radial measurement made from the top of the wire to the axis of gear.
Size

over

wires/balls

for

helical

gears

15.7.8. Checking of Profile of Involute Shape of Gear.


Profile is the portion of tooth flank between the outside circle or start of tooth tip and the specified form
circle of diameter approximately equal to pitch circle diameter minus twice the module.
Profile error is the deviation of the actual tooth from the theoretical profile in the designed reference plane
of rotation. For testing profile, tip relief and any portion of the tooth surface below the active profile is not
to be considered. The tolerance on the profile error is permitted as per the following table.

Table
Accuracy Class or Grade of Gear

Profile Tolerance in Microns

2.0 + 0.06 x *

2.5 + 0.10 xk

3.0 + 0.16 x A;

4.0 + 0.25 x h

5.0 + 0.40 x k

6.3 + 0.63 x k

8.0 + 1.0 x k

10 + 1.6 x k

16 + 2.5 x k

10

25 + 4.0 x k

11

40 + 6.3 x k

12

63 + 10xA

Where
(a)

is

Inspection

module,
of

and

profile

is

using

the

pitch

dividing

circle
head

diameter
and

height

in

mm.
gauge.

This method has been derived from the property of the involute as shown in Fig. 15.24. The distance
between points A and B measured on the generatix tangent to the base circle is equal to the arc from the
tangent point B to the origin P of the involute on the base circle, i.e. arc BP = AB = (Db ji/360) x ez
S.No.

Dividing Head Reading

ez values

ez

ez + 10

CO

ez + 20

Dbxn AB values = . x e, obu

ez-10

e,-20

CO

10

When involute profile is rotated on dividing head by small roll angles, then the consecutive profile points
A fall on to the vertical tangent line. It is possible to compute suitable roll angles for any diameter Dz
from the corresponding pressure angle by equations : DJDb = sec <j>z, ez = (180/rc) x tan
Initially for any known diameter; say pitch diameter, the value of ez and so AB is found. The highest
gauge is set to zero at this height above the gear centre by means of slip gauges, then the corresponding
position of gear profile is obtained by rotating the gear tooth towards indicating stylus until zero is
obtained. Number of angles is increased or decreased in steps of 10 or half degree as is convenient and
for these values of ez the values of AB are calculated, and the height gauge is set to this height by means
of slips and then the dial reading over the tooth is compared. The deviation of dial reading gives the error
of

profile

at

these

points.

This is a very time consuming method but best suited for calibration of master involute. It is therefore
useful

only

for

very

precision

components

and

involute

master

cams.

(b) Gear involute measuring machine. This machine is designed for checking the involute profiles of
the spur and other gears. The machine is suitable for inspection of gear having module from 1 to 10 mm
having maximum outside diameter upto 300 mm. The machine is provided with a measuring stylus. The
kinematic design of the machine is such that when job is rotated the measuring stylus which is initially set
at base circle radius of the gear by means of slip gauge, is also slided along the involute curve. The
deviation of the tooth profile from the correct involute is indicated by a dial indicator of accuracy 0.001
mm connected by lever mechanism with the stylus. A master involute template is also provided with the
machine

for

setting

and

calibration

of

the

machine.

(c) Checking of involute shape of gear. As the involute curve is traced by the end A of a straight edge
which rolls without slipping on a base circle diameter cylinder, any point C on the curve will correspond
to the position CE of the straight edge, which, therefore, always remains tangential to the base circle.
Conversely if the base circle cylinder were to roll on a fixed straight edge, any fixed point e.g., C would
move in an involute path, such as CA, as the cylinder rolls along the straight edge CE.
A straight edge rolled on the edge of a disc will be seen to be the equivalent of this arrangement, and
provides the principle on which the involute tester operates. The gear to be tested is held on the mandrel
m, which carries a ground disc d having exactly the same diameter as the base circle of the gear under test
(Fig. 15.25). A straight edge e is mounted on a slide on the body of the instrument and in contact with
base circle disc, so that as the straight edge moves along the slide, the base circle disc and gear are rotated

without slip. A point on straight edge thus describes the true involute corresponding to the base circle, and
if

the

top

of

an

indicator

of

some

kind

is

mounted exactly in the plane of the edge of the straight edge and in contact with the tooth flank it will
register by its movements any departure of the tooth profile from the theoretical involute resulting either
from errors or from deliberate modification of the profile. The indicator can also be replaced by the
sensing element of a recorder so that permanent records of the gear teeth profiles can be made.

Fig.

15.25.

Principle

of

Involute

Tester.

(d) Involute profile testing machine. Such machines can be set to desired base circle radius values, thus
doing away the necessity of having base disc for each gear of different dimensions. This facility is
provided by a master base, disc or involute cam, built into the machine, and coupled to a linkage system
which enables the base radius of the generated curve to be varied by adjustment of the linkage bar
positions.
These machines generate the required involute shape, measure the departures from it that exist on the
actual tooth flanks of the gear. The principle of operation is that of a base circle rolling without slip along
a straight edge, or vice versa. A stylus detects the deviations in the metal condition of the tooth flank from
the true involute in the form of a continuous trace on a strip chart recorder. A perfect profile will result in
a straight trace parallel to the longitudinal axis of the chart paper.
15.7.9. Measurement of Gear Pitch. Gear pitch can be measured in the following
ways :
(i) Cumulative
(ii) Adjacent

circular
pitch

pitch
error

or

error

over

pitch

variation. (iii) Base

span

of
pitch

teeth.
variation.

Here L = Knm2, where If is the sector of pitches over which pitch error is to be checked.
The pitch error of gear can be easily determined by comparing the span length over a specified number of
teeth

i.e.,

the

cumulative

error

on

sector

of

predetermined

pitches

is

measured.

The pitch variation is the difference between the longest and shortest circular pitch in the whole gear.
The measurement of cumulative error over a span of teeth and also the pitch variations can be
conveniently measured using a dividing head and height gauge fitted with dial indicator. The basic
method of measurement involves indexing the gear through single or multiple tooth angles and
determining flank position circumferentially by means of a precision indicator mounted on a radially
disposed slide. By means of the dividing head, rotation to the gear is given by the amount of theoretical
angular pitch, the variation in the position of tooth is measured by the dial indicator. For larger gears, the
angular accuracy of the dividing table must be higher in order that pitch error is determined accurately.
Though dividing tables with 10 seconds of arc resolution are common, dividing tables are available
which can be read to the nearest second of arc. Of course, these have to be calibrated using precision
polygon and photo-electric autocollimator. The indicator unit should be capable of measuring reliably
upto 0.001 mm over a range of0.025 mm. For gears having larger cumulative pitch errors, indicators of
lower sensitivity have to be used.
Tolerances on pitch errors A. Tolerance over a sector of K Pitches
Grade of Accuracy Class of gear

Permissible Error in Microns

0.25 <L + 0.6

0.4a/L + 1.0

0.63 VZT +1.6

1.0 +2.5

1.6 <L +4.0

2.5VT+6.0

3.55^+8.0

5.0 <L+ 12

7.1 VT + 17

10

10 +28

11

14 -4L+ 33

12

20VT+83

B. Tolerance on Pitch Variations


Class

Permissible Error in Microns

0.80 + 0.06 F

1.25 + 0.1F

2.0 + 0.16F

3.2 + 0.25 F

5.0 + 0.40 F

8.0 + 0.63 F

11 + 0.90 F

16 + 1.25 F

22 + 1.80 F

10

32 +2.50 F

11

45 + 3.55 F

12

63 +5.0 F

The base pitch is the circular pitch of the teeth measured on the base circle, as we know that the base
pitch = p x cos . This is also the distance between the tangent to the curved positions of any two adjacent
teeth. The base pitch can be very conveniently measured using ordinary base pitch measuring instruments
which

measure

Base

pitch

Here

the

straight

distance

between

can

be

accurately

measured

using

0.25

-H5

where

is

tangents
tool

makers

the

pitch

to
or
circle

the

adjacent

universal
diameter

teeth.

microscope.
in

mm.

Tooth-to-tooth pitch errors can be easily determined by use of two dial gauges by measuring the position
of a suitable point on a tooth after the gear has been indexed through a suitable angle.
The gear is mounted in the centre with indexing arrangement. Two dial gauges are mounted as shown in
Fig. 15.26. There is a spindle below the dial gauge having a small sphere at the end and touching the gear
tooth at the pitch circle. The gear is then indexed through successive pitches to give a constant reading on
dial gauge A. Any changes in the reading on dial gauge B indicate that pitch errors are present. The actual
error can be determined by deducting the individual reading on dial B from the mean of the readings.
The pitch of the gear teeth can also be measured by measuring the distance from a point on one tooth to a
suitable point on the next tooth.

Circular Pitch Measuring Machine.

This

instru-

Fig.

15.26

ment is used lor checking the circular pitch ol gear tooth. The two measuring contact tips are applied on
the same sides of adjacent teeth of the gear. The left-hand tip is first set up to the required module by
means of some suitable arrangement. The right hand tip is a two armed lever whose one contacts the gear
tooth and the other one actuates the contact point of the dial indicator. Two guide points are also provided
for

the

stability

of

the

instrument.

The pitch variations can also be measured by the instrument shown in Fig. 15.27. It employs a fixed
finger and stop for consistent positioning on successive pairs of teeth, and a movable finger whose
movement

can

be

sensed

by

dial

indicator.

It may be noted that readings obtained by above instrument will be affected by profile variations and
runout

of

the

gear.

In the case of helical gears, measurements may be made in the normal plane of the conjugate rack and
divided

by

the

cosine

of

helix

angle

for

comparison

with

standard

tolerances.

It may be mentioned that the above method of measuring pitch error can be applied to medium sized
gears measuring from a few cms upto about a metre diameter. Small gears as used in watches and clock
are inspected by optical proj ection in which the enlarged images of some of the teeth are compared

Fig.

15.27.

Schematic

arrangement

of

pitch

checking

instrument.

against a master diameter at the screen of the projector, b or thick gears convergent illumination is used to
enable optical focussing at a selected section across the face-width. Effect of Eccentricity of Pitch Error
It may be emphasized that gear pitch error and tooth eccentricity are inseparable because presence of one
affects the other. Since eccentricity can take any position with reference to the tooth under consideration,
the effective eccentricity for various positions of gear rotation at angle 6 is expressed as equal to e sec
sin

(cj)

8),

where

eccentricity

and

<|>

pressure

angle.

Thus if a gear has been measured for tooth spacing error, the effect of its mounting eccentrically on pitch
error can be taken care of by applying corrections progressively to the observed error values by
calculating the correction applicable to each tooth from the above equation.
15.7.10. Runout. Runout means the eccentricity in the reference or pitch circle.
Gears that are eccentric tend to have a vibration per revolution. A badly eccentric tooth may cause an
abrupt gear failure. The runout in the gears is measured by employing gear eccentricity testers. The gear is
held on a mandrel in the centres and the dial indicator of the tester possesses the special tip depending
upon the module of gear being checked. The tip is inserted in between the tooth spaces. The gear is
rotated tooth by tooth. The maximum variation is noted from the dial indicator reading and it gives the
runout of the gear. The runout is twice the eccentricity. The adjoining table indicates the permissible
runouts.
Class or Grade

Permissible Runout
in Microns

0.224 F + 3.0

0.335 F + 4.5

0.560 F +7.0

0.900 F + 11

1AF+ 18

2.24 F + 28

3.15^+40

4.0 F + 50

5.CF+63

10

6.3 F + 80

11

8.0 + 100

12

10.0 F+ 125

15.7.11. Lead.
It is the axial advance of the helix or the worm thread per turn. The control of thread lead is necessary to
ensure adequate contact across the face width. The relationship to the helix angle has already been
explained earlier.
The instrument which checks the lead consists of a probe being advanced along a tooth surface, parallel to
the axis. The probe is a suitable dial indicator tip fixed in a suitable device.
When the gear is rotated, the displacement of the probe in one complete revolution of gear is found which
is the lead.
In the case of worm thread, the axial pitch of the thread is first measured which multiplied by the number
of threads in the worm gives the lead.
15.7.12. Backlash.
Backlash in the gears is the play between the mating tooth surfaces. For the purposes of measurement and
calculations, backlash is defined as the amount by which a tooth space exceeds the thickness on an
engaging tooth. Backlash in the gear teeth results on account of errors in profile, pitch thickness of teeth
etc. It is measured by mounting the gears in specified position. Backlash should be measured at the
tightest point of the mesh. The pinion is held solidly against rotation and a rigidly mounted dial indicator
is placed against the tooth at the extreme heel perpendicular to the surface. The backlash is determined by
moving the gear back and forth. The backlash variation is measured by locating the points of maximum
and minimum backlash in the pair and obtaining the difference. For precision gears the variation should
not exceed 0.02 to 0.03 mm.
15.7.13. Lead Measurement.
In order that tooth load be uniformly distributed across the face width of the gears, it is essential that lead
per tooth of mating gears should be closely matched. Errors in the helix of either gear would result in
non-uniform load concentration, resulting in noisy operation and damage. Irregularities in lead could
occur

due

to

either

poor

manufacture

or

from

the

presence

of

tooth

undulations.

It is important to note that while the helix angle of pinion and gear is same but their lead is different

depending on their diameters. Also the helix angle value increases from the roots to the tips of the teeth.
Lead can be measured either on a point-to-point basis, or by means of continuous generation using special
purpose measuring machines. One type of generating machine incorporates a sine bar mechanism
together with a means of converting a derived linear motion into a rotary motion.

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