CELL

DIVISION
1

CELL CYCLE

The cell cycle is a sequence of cell

growth and division.
The cell cycle is the period from the
beginning of one division to the
beginning of the next.
The time it takes to complete one cell
cycle is the generation time.

Cells divide when they reach a certain size

NO (nerve, skeletal muscle and red blood cells)

Cell division involves mitosis / meiosis and

cytokinesis.
Mitosis / Meiosis involves division of the
chromosomes.
Cytokinesis involves division of the cytoplasm.
Mitosis
without
cytokinesis
results
in
multinucleate cells.

CELL DIVISION

All cells are derived from pre-existing

cells
New cells are produced for growth and
to replace damaged or old cells
Differs in prokaryotes (bacteria) and
eukaryotes (protists, fungi, plants, &
animals)
It is necessary for reproduction
unicellular or multicellular organisms

in
4

PROKARYOTES

Prokaryotes
nucleus

have

no

They have a single

circular chromosome
Prokaryotes
simply
divide their cells in
two by binary fission

EUKARYOTES

Eukaryotes must divide their nucleus (and

other organelles such as mitochondria) in
preparation for cell division (mitosis or
meiosis)
Before the nucleus divides the genetic
material replicates (duplicates)

MITOSIS
Mitotic division
results in genetically
identical eukaryotic
cells (a clone)
Mitosis is the basis
of asexual
reproduction

MEIOSIS

Meiosis results in halving

of the chromosome
number in preparation
for fertilisation
Meiosis shuffles genes in
new combinations
Meiosis results in
genetically different
cells
Meiosis and fertilisation
are the basis of sexual
reproduction

COMPARING MITOSIS & MEIOSIS

COMPARING MITOSIS &MEIOSIS

CELL CYCLE

11

INTERPHASE - G1 STAGE
1st

growth stage after cell division

Cells
mature by making more
cytoplasm & organelles
Cell carries on its normal metabolic
activities

12

INTERPHASE S STAGE
Synthesis

stage
DNA is copied or replicated

Two
identica
l copies
of DNA

Original

13

INTERPHASE G2 STAGE
2nd

Growth Stage
Occurs after DNA has
All
cell structures
division are made (e.g.
Both
organelles &
synthesized

been copied
needed for
centrioles)
proteins are

14

WHATS HAPPENING IN INTERPHASE?

What the cell looks like

Animal Cell

Whats occurring
15

MITOSIS

16

 Division

of the
nucleus (called
karyokinesis)
Only occurs in
eukaryotes
Has four stages
Doesnt occur in
some cells such
as brain cells
17

FOUR MITOTIC STAGES

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

18

EARLY PROPHASE
Chromatin

in nucleus condenses to
form visible chromosomes
Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in
cytoskeleton or centrioles (animal)
Nucleolus

Cytoplasm

Nuclear Membrane
Chromosomes

19

LATE PROPHASE
Nuclear

membrane
&
are
broken

nucleolus
down
Chromosomes
continue
condensing & are clearly
visible
Spindle
fibers
called
kinetochores attach to
the centromere of each
chromosome
Spindle finishes forming
between the poles of the
cell

Chromoso
mes

20

REVIEW OF PROPHASE
What the cell looks
like

21

SPINDLE FIBERS
The mitotic spindle form from the microtubules
in plants and centrioles in animal cells
Polar fibers extend from one pole of the cell to
the opposite pole
Kinetochore fibers extend from the pole to the
centromere of the chromosome to which they
attach
Asters are
centrioles

short

fibers

radiating

from
22

SKETCH OF THE SPINDLE

23

METAPHASE
Chromosomes,
attached
to
the
kinetochore fibers, move to the center
of the cell
Chromosomes are now lined up at the
equator
Equator of Cell
Pole of
the Cell

24

METAPHASE
Asters at
the poles

Spindle
Fibers

Chromosom
es lined at
the Equator
25

REVIEW OF METAPHASE
What the cell looks
like

Whats
occurring
26

ANAPHASE
Occurs rapidly
Sister chromatids
are pulled apart to
opposite poles of
the cell by
kinetochore fibers

27

ANAPHASE

Sister
Chromatids
being
separated

28

REVIEW OF ANAPHASE
What the cell
looks like

Whats
occurring

29

TELOPHASE
Sister

chromatids at
opposite poles
Spindle disassembles
Nuclear envelope forms
around each set of
sister chromatids
Nucleolus reappears
CYTOKINESIS occurs
Chromosomes reappear
as chromatin

30

COMPARISON OF ANAPHASE & TELOPHASE

31

CYTOKINESIS
Means division of the cytoplasm
Division
of
cell
into
two,
identical halves called daughter
cells
In plant cells, cell plate forms
at the equator to divide cell
In animal cells, cleavage furrow
forms to split cell
32

CYTOKINESIS
Cleavage
furrow in
animal cell

Cell plate in
animal cell

33

MITOTIC STAGES

34

DAUGHTER CELLS OF MITOSIS

Have

the
same
number
of
chromosomes as each other and as
the parent cell from which they were
formed
Identical to each other, but smaller
than parent cell
Must grow in size to become mature
cells (G1 of Interphase)
35

MEIOSIS

36

FACTS ABOUT MEIOSIS

Preceded by interphase which
includes chromosome replication
Two meiotic divisions --- Meiosis I
and Meiosis II
Called Reduction- division
Original cell is diploid (2n)
Four daughter cells produced that
are monoploid (1n)
37

FACTS ABOUT MEIOSIS

Daughter cells contain half
the
number of chromosomes as the
original cell
Produces gametes (eggs & sperm)
Occurs in the testes in males
(Spermatogenesis)
Occurs in the ovaries in females
(Oogenesis)
38

WHY DO WE NEED MEIOSIS?

It

is the fundamental basis of

sexual reproduction
Two
haploid (1n) gametes are
brought
together
through
fertilization to form a diploid (2n)
zygote

39

MEIOSIS I: REDUCTION
DIVISION

Nucleus
Early Prophase
I
(Chromosome
number
doubled)

Spindle
fibers
Late
Prophase I

Nuclear
envelope
Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I
(diploid)

40

PROPHASE I

Early prophase
Homologs pair.
Crossing over
occurs.

Late prophase

Chromosomes condense.
Spindle forms.
Nuclear envelope
fragments.
41

TETRADS FORM IN PROPHASE I

Homologous chromosomes
(each with sister chromatids)

Join to form a
TETRAD

Called Synapsis
42

CROSSING-OVER
Homologous
chromosomes in
a tetrad cross
over each other
Pieces of
chromosomes or
genes are
exchanged
Produces
Genetic
recombination in
the offspring
43

HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
DURING CROSSING-OVER

Crossing-over multiplies the already huge

number of different gamete types produced
by independent assortment

44

METAPHASE I

Homologous pairs
of chromosomes
align along the
equator of the
cell
45

ANAPHASE I

Homologs separate and

move to opposite poles.
Sister chromatids remain
attached at their
centromeres.
46

TELOPHASE I
Nuclear envelopes
reassemble.
Spindle disappears.
Cytokinesis divides cell into
two.

47

MEIOSIS II: REDUCING CHROMOSOME

NUMBER

Prophase II

Metaphase
II

Anaphase
Telophase II
II

4 Identical
haploid cells
48

PROPHASE II
Nuclear envelope
fragments.
Spindle forms.

49

METAPHASE II

Chromosomes align
along equator of cell.

50

ANAPHASE II
Equator

Pole

Sister chromatids
separate and
move to opposite
poles.

51

TELOPHASE II
Nuclear envelope
assembles.
Chromosomes
decondense.
Spindle disappears.
Cytokinesis divides
cell into two.
52

53

RESULTS OF MEIOSIS
Gametes (egg & sperm)
form
Four haploid cells with
one copy of each
chromosome
One allele of each gene
Different combinations of
alleles for different
genes along the
chromosome
54

COMPARISON OF DIVISIONS
Mitosis

Meiosis
2

Number of divisions

Number of daughter
cells

Genetically identical?

Yes

No

Same as parent

Half of parent

Where

Somatic cells

Germ cells

When

Throughout life

At sexual maturity

Growth and repair

Sexual reproduction

Chromosome #

Role

55

CELL CYCLE REGULATION

For all living eukaryotic organisms it is

essential that the different phases of
the cell cycle are precisely coordinated
Errors in this coordination may lead to
chromosomal alterations. Chromosomes or
parts of chromosomes may be lost,
rearranged
or
distributed
unequally
between the two daughter cells

CELL CYCLE REGULATION

Cell-cell
contact

Cell size

Nutrient
s

Growth
factors

Regulatory
proteins &
Protein kinases

CHECKPOINTS

Much of the control of the progression

through the phases of a cell cycle are
exerted at checkpoints
There are many such checkpoints but
the three most critical are those that
occur near the end of G1 prior to Sphase entry, near the end of G2 prior
to mitosis, and at metaphase

Is cell big
enough?
Is environment
favourable?
Is all DNA
replicated?

G2 Checkpoint

Are all
chromosomes
aligned on
spindle?
Metaphase
Checkpoint

GG

S
S

11

GG

22

M
M

G
G00

G1 Checkpoint
Is cell big
enough?
Is environment