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Engineering Materials
Key Points
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Introduction
A multidisciplinary field concerned with the generation and
application of knowledge relating to the composition,
structure, and processing of materials to their properties
and uses. The field encompasses the complete knowledge
spectrum for materials ranging from the basic end to the applied
end. It forms a bridge of knowledge from the basic sciences to
various engineering disciplines.
Definition of Terms
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The Difference
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A Brief History
The Breakthrough
the thermodynamic properties
related to atomic structure in
various phases are related to the
physical properties of a material
Classification of Materials
Metals and Alloys
n Polymers
n Ceramics
n Composites
n Semiconductors
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Metals
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Cast iron - All cast irons consist of more than 2% carbon. This
high carbon content makes them excellent materials to use for
casting and at much lower temperatures than those required to
cast steel. They also have better flow characteristics when molten
helping them to fill the mould more easily.
Copper - A reddish or pink metal. Very good conductor of heat
and electricity. Ductile and is used to manufacture wire for
electrical use. PCBs have copper tracks on them.
Aluminum - Aluminum is a strong silver metal. It turns easily
being softer than steel. Aluminum has a low melting point and it
is the metal used for sand casting.
Metals - Applications
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Polymers
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Polymers are made from long chain molecules which may have cross linking
bonds affecting flexibility/stiffness.
Polymers - Applications
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Nylon is used for bearings and the cases for power tools also
used for fishing line and ropes. Nylon is very strong and wear
resistant it is also slippery without the need for lubrication.
Originally used as a silk substitute - stockings and climbing
ropes.
PVC is used for casings for electrical consumer items and is also
used in its flexible form as the insulating sheath on electrical
cable and flex.
Melamine is used as the protective layer on work surfaces and
laminated flooring.
UF is used to make electrical components when a good insulator
is needed such as plug tops and switch buttons.
Acrylic is used for safety shields but is not as tough as
polycarbonate. Polycarbonate is used for the lenses in safety eye
protection e.g. goggles.
Ceramics
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Ceramics - Properties
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Ceramics - Applications
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Composites
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Composites - Applications
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Properties of Materials
Economic
n General Physical
n Mechanical
n Thermal
n Electrical and Magnetic
n Environmental
n Production
n Aesthetic
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Technology EnabledToday
Emerging Materials
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Graphene
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Can carry more electricity more efficiency, faster and with more
precision than any other material.
Graphene stretches up to 20 percent of its length. And yet it is
also the stiffest known material even stiffer than diamond.
Holds the record for conducting heat it's better than any
other known material.
Review - Conductors
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Review - Insulators
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Early History
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Semiconductor
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Semiconductor
Semiconductors serve as the raw material
needed for various semiconductor devices like
the integrated circuit (IC).
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semiconductors, silicon is the most popular
because of its availability.
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Semiconductors - Intrinsic
The free electrons in the material due only to
natural causes are known as intrinsic carriers.
n Valence electrons can absorb kinetic energy
from natural causes like light and thermal energy
to break the covalent bond to become free.
n An increase in temperature of a semiconductor
results in an increase in the number of free
electrons in the material.
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Silicon
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Semiconductors
Recall
All matter is made of atoms; and all atoms
consist of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
n An atom is the smallest particle of an element
that retains the characteristics of that element.
n The nucleus consist of positively charged
particles called protons and uncharged particles
called neutrons.
n The basic particles of negative charge are called
electrons.
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Recall
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Exercise
Aluminum
n Carbon
n Iron
n Copper
n Germanium
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Covalent Bond
When atoms combine to form a solid crystalline
material, they arrange themselves in a
symmetrical pattern.
n The atoms within the crystal structure are held
together by covalent bonds which are created by
the interaction of the valence electrons of the
atoms.
n Each shared electron is attracted equally by the
atoms sharing it.
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Si
Si
Si
Doping
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Doping
Impurities used in the doping process:
a) elements that have 5 valence electrons (pentavalent); also known
as N type dopant,
e.g. Phosphorous, Antimony , Arsenic
b) elements that have 3 valence electrons (trivalent); also known as
P type dopant, e.g.
Boron, Gallium, Indium
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N-type Semiconductor
Si
Si
Sb
Si
Si
P-type Semiconductor
Si
Si
B
Si
Si
Doping
Semiconductor Devices
Semiconductor Devices
Semiconductor Devices
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Crystal Structure
Important Note
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Definition of Terms
Lattice- represents a set of points in space
which form a periodic structure. Each point sees
exactly the same environment.
n A lattice by itself is a mathematical abstraction.
n The identical building block mentioned, is called
basis.
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If R represents a point in the lattice, then any other point in the lattice can
be represented by R such that
R = R + m1a1 +m2a2 + m3a3
where: m1,m2, m3 are integers
a1,a2 and a3 are vectors
Such lattice is known as Bravais lattice or Bravais net.
Lattice
Definition of Terms
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Unit Cell
Unit cell
Sample 2D lattice
Unit Cell
Cubic Lattice
Simple Cubic each corner of the cube is
occupied by an atom
n Body Centered Cubic - similar to simple cubic,
in addition however to the corner atoms, an
atom is found at the center of the cube.
n Face Centered Cubic also similar to the simple
cubic, in addition however to the corner atoms,
an atom is found at the center of each face of
the cube.
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Simple Cubic
Coordination Number
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Simple Cubic
Semiconductors
Structures, Lattice Points and Plains
Side Notes
Modern electronic research lives constantly on the edge of
the state of the art in device technology, and it is no longer
adequate for an engineer or scientist to possess only a
phenomenological knowledge of the material physics that
underlies device operation. Rather, a thorough knowledge of
the physics of the basic materials processes, as well as the
device physics, is necessary for those working in the area of
semiconductors.
D.K. Ferry
Remember!
Essentially, all semiconductors of interest for
electronics and optoelectronics have one
underlying FCC lattice.
n They have two atoms per basis having
coordinates of (000) and (a/4, a/4, a/4)
n The semiconductor material follows another
type of crystal structure, this is known as the
diamond structure (for silicon or germanium)
or the zinc blende (for GaAs).
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Zinc Blend
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Examples
Diamonds Si, Ge, C
n Zinc Blend GaAs, AlAs, CdS
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Some Terms
Semiconductors with diamond structures are
also called elemental semiconductors
n Semiconductors with zinc blend structures are
called compound semiconductors
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Sample Problem 1
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Sample Problem 2
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Miller Indices
There is a standard procedure for naming a
crystal plane. The planes are named by a
technique called Millers indices.
n Used to indicate the different planes in a crystal
structure.
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Miller Indices
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Miller Indices
Step 1 :
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Step 2 :
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Step 3 :
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Miller Indices
1. Draw the (124) plane
Exercise1
Intercepts: a, a,
Fractional Intercepts: 1,1,
Miller Indices :(110)
Exercise 2
Intercepts: a, a, a
Fractional Intercepts: 1,1,1
Miller Indices :(1,1,1)
Exercise 3
Intercepts : a , a ,
Fractional intercepts : , 1 ,
Miller Indices : (210)
Miller Indices
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Looking Back
Recall that our interest is on semiconductors
n These semiconductors produce devices essential
in our field
n Recall that our very first raw material is sand.
The sand will undergo Si extraction process. The
end product on this stage is actually a
polycrystalline Si.
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Czochralski Method
Low grade Si is first produced by heating Silica
with carbon in an electric furnace.
n The carbon pulls away oxygen leaving behind a
pure Si. Ferrosilicon is chlorinated to yield
n SiCl4 (silicon tetrachloride) or (Silicon chloride
hydride) SiHCl3 in liquid form. This mixture is
further purified through multiple distillation and
other procedures before it is reacted with H2.
n The Poly Si will be subjected to the first major
process known as Crystal Growth and Wafer
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Czochralski Method
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Chunks of poly si are placed in a graphite crucible and then heated to around
1400oC melting point of Si. A Seed crystal of single crystalline structure is
then lowered to the molten mixture until they come in contact. The seed is
slowly raised up. Surface tension causes the molten material to rise with the
seed. As the molten material moves up it cools down and solidify. Upon
cooling, the atoms in the melt reorient its atomic structure in accordance with
the seed producing a single crystalline material.
Czochralski Method
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Sample Problems
Given a BCC lattice of atomic density of
1.6x10^22 atoms/cubic cm, find the lattice
constant if the basis is single atom.
n A compound semiconductor has a lattice
constant of 5.2 A, find the atomic density of
each elements both having equal number of
atoms per cube.
n Given the lattice constant 5.1 A, and atomic
density of 3.015x10^22 atoms/cubic cm, what is
the lattice structure if the basis is single atom.
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Exercise
Intercepts: 1/2a, a,
Fractional Intercepts: ,1,
Miller Indices :(210)
Exercise
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Carrier Modeling
Review!
Classification of materials
n Properties of materials
n Functional class of materials
n Coordination number of SCC
n Coordination number of BCC
n Coordination number of FCC
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Review!
Given a SCC lattice of atomic density of
1.6x10^22 atoms/cubic cm, find the lattice
constant if there are two atoms per basis.
n Calculate the atomic density of As atoms in
GaAs which lattice constant is 5.65 A.
n The lattice constant of silicon is 5.43 Angstrom.
Calculate the number of Silicon atoms in a cubic
centimetre.
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Review!
Intercepts
n Fractional Intercepts
n Millers Indices (hkl)
n Given intercepts, a, 2a and 3a, find the distance
between the
given planes.
=/2+2+2
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Carriers
Entities that transport charge from place to
place inside a material.
n Therefore they give rise to electric current.
n Electron is the most common type of carrier but
there is another, equally important, carrier called
holes.
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Quantization Concept
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Quantization Concept
The quantization of the electrons angular momentum was, in turn, coupled
directly to energized quantization. If the electrons angular momentum is
assumed to be n h . Then,
where EH is the electron binding energy within the hydrogen atom, m0 is the
mass of a free electron, q is the magnitude of the electronic charge, 0 is the
permittivity of free space, h is Plancks constant, h = h / 2 , and n is the
energy quantum number or orbit identifier.
Quantization Concept
Electron Volt
The electron volt (eV) is a unit of energy equal
to 1.6 10-19 joules.
n The amount of energy gained by a charge of a
single electron moved across an electric potential
difference of one volt.
n Volt (J/C) multiplied by electron charge (C),
gives a unit of Joules.
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Bonding Model
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Bonding Model
Under a temperature of 0 K, the bonding between atoms can be considered
stable. However, above this temperature, bond breaking may occur causing
a crystal condition known as point defect.
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Review
Carriers
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Carriers
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Carriers
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Carriers
Electrons and holes are the main carriers being
considered.
n Electrons are negatively charged.
n Holes are positively charged.
n q = 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb
n -q for electrons
n +q for holes
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Group Work
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