Igneous Geochemistry

What is magma?

What is magma phases, compositions, properties

Major igneous processes
Making magma how and where
Major-element variations
Classification using a whole-rock analysis
Fractional crystallization
Magma mixing
Trace-element variations
Compatible vs. incompatible trace elements
Partition coefficients
Partial melting
Crystallization
Relationship between rock texture and the kinetics of
nucleation & growth

- partly or completely molten rock

typically silicate-based (except for carbonities)
- variable properties include composition, temperature, density,
viscosity
- contains:
- silicate liquid (variable composition felsic, intermediate, mafic)
- volatiles (mainly H2O, CO2 in variable amounts)
- crystals (variable amount, absent if temperature above liquidus)
- gas bubbles (presence depends mostly on pressure and gas
content)

Average compositions (% by weight)

and liquidus temperatures of different magmas
Composition:

Ultramafic

Volc. rock name: Komatiite

(rare)

Mafic

Intermediate

Felsic

Basalt

Andesite

Rhyolite

SiO2

47.9

50.9

58.9

73.7

TiO2

0.4

1.7

0.9

0.2

Al2O3

4.1

14.6

17.1

14.3

FeO

9.7

14.6

6.2

2.1

2
MgO

27.5

4.8

3.8

0.3

CaO

7.5

8.7

5.3

1.4

Na2O

0.2

3.1

4.3

5.2

K2O

0.02

0.8

1.2

4.1

Temp (C)

~1600

~1200

~1000

~900

Eruption temperatures generally are a little lower than liquidus temperatures.

Variation in viscosity
with temperature and
magma composition

Higher viscosity,
thicker/stiffer

At higher temperatures,
magmas have lower
viscosities (i.e. they can flow
more easily) because higher
temperatures reduce the
degree of polymerization
(linkage of SiO4 tetrahedra)
Felsic magmas also are more
viscous than mafic magmas
because they contain more
silica and therefore are more
polymerized. Composition
plays a greater role than
temperature in controlling
viscosity.

Lower viscosity,
flows more easily

Fig 5.4 from Francis, 1993

What is polymerization?

Variation in viscosity
with water content
Adding water reduces the
degree of polymerization and
thereby reduces the viscosity.

Single
tetrahedron

The illustration shows the

relationship for a felsic melt.

Three
polymerized
tetrahedra
Three
Fig 2.16 Understanding Earth

In magmas, silicon-oxygen tetrahedra link together by sharing oxygen

atoms to form 3-dimensional networks.
The more the tetrahedra link together, the more polymerized is a
magma and the greater its viscosity or resistance to flow.

Fig 5.5 from Francis, 1993

Major processes
that control the
composition of
igneous rocks

Making magma
How to make rocks melt
- Increase temperature
- generally, temperature increases with depth within the earth
- intrusion of hot, mafic magma can heat the surrounding rocks
and produce melting
- least important way of making magmas
- Decrease pressure
- bring rocks closer to the surface
- extension of the lithosphere
- Change composition by adding fluids, especially water

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

10

Effect of water content on

melting a rock of granitic
composition

Deeper

Note that water content varies

along the curved line i.e. the
water content increases with
pressure along the curve. So,
this is not a simple P-T melting
diagram along the curved line.
For constant H2O (the straight
lines), the melting temperature
is be greater at higher pressure
as expected.
By adding water, the rock can
be made to melt at a lower
temperature. Or, the rock can
be made to melt to a greater
extent at the same temperature.
Brownlows Geochemistry

11

Igneous rocks and magmas are not pure substances,

but rather are complex mixtures of various components.
They do not change from liquid to solid or from solid to
liquid all at one temperature. When a rock melts, minerals
which have the lowest melting temperature melt first.

Deeper

Phase diagram for a simple two-component system

partial melt

Brownlow's Geochemistry

12

Pure substance13

Melting of dry basalt

Dry means that no volatiles
like water or carbon dioxide are
present.
If water is added, the
boundaries change, and melting
happens at lower temperatures
than illustrated.
Felsic rocks also melt at lower
temperatures than mafic rocks
like basalt.

14

Where and how are magmas formed?

Mixed substance:
(Basalt)

Mid-ocean ridges decompression melting

mafic (basaltic) magma

(primary mantle melt)

Continental rifts and other areas of extension decompression melting

mostly mafic (basaltic) magma (primary mantle melt)
some intermediate and felsic magmas (crustal melts, derivative magmas)

all
solid

Subduction zones melting largely due to addition of fluids

mafic, intermediate, and felsic magmas - often water-rich
Mantle plumes (hot spots) decompression melting

all
liquid

ocean basins: mafic magma

(primary mantle melt)

continents: mostly mafic magma,

(primary mantle melt)

some intermediate and felsic magmas

Fig 5.1 from Francis, 1993

(crustal melts, derivative magmas)

15

Locations of magma formation

16

Magma formation at subduction zones

The addition of water to the mantle overlying the subducting plate
causes partial melting. When enough melting has occurred, the liquid
separates from the residual solid and rises buoyantly because it is less
dense than the solid.
Winters Prin. Ig. Met. Petrol.

Fig 4.8 Understanding Earth

Fig 4.19 Understanding Earth

General Controls on Magma Compositions

During Melting

17

18

The composition of the resulting melt depends upon:

(a) temperature
(b) pressure: greater pressure produces more alkaline melts with
lower silica content
(c) volatile content (e.g. amount of water present)
(d) mineral composition of the source rock (e.g. peridotite in the
mantle melts to produce mafic magma like basalt; melting of
mafic rock in the crust can produce a felsic melt)
(e) amount or degree of melting: with more melting, the magma
composition becomes more like the source material
composition

Brownlow's Geochemistry

20

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

19

Brownlow's Geochemistry

21

Brownlow's Geochemistry

22

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

23

24

Use the X-Y values

for creating this
chart in Excel

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

25

26

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

27

Fe oxides

28

Igneous Classification
16
control points for
chart
Columbia River

14

basalts
Mount Rainier

12

Alkalis
Na2O + K2O

MgO

Na2O + K2O

10

8
Rh yo lite

6
4
Basaltic

Dacite

Andesite

An d esite

2
Basalt

0
35

Winters Prin. Ig. Met. Petrol.

40

45
70

50
75

SiO
2

55
80

60

65

29

30

Processes which change magma compositions

Primary vs. derivative magmas

A magma which has not been changed after leaving its
source region is considered to be primary.

Fractional crystallization removal of crystals from the magma

If it has been modified after leaving the source area, it is

a derivative or secondary magma.

Mixing

More FC = more evolved or more differentiated

with another magma

(magma mixing)

with fragments of wall rock

(assimilation)

with a partial melt from the wall rock

31

32

Potential
complexities of
magma
differentiation
and mixing

Fractional crystallization - part 1

Fig 4.9 Understanding Earth

Fig 4.12 Understanding Earth

Bowens reaction series When a magma crystallizes, those minerals with the33
highest melting temperatures form first. The starting point depends on the
composition of the magma. For example, rhyolite doesnt crystallize olivine.
When melting a rock, the sequence takes place in reverse. Minerals like quartz
and mica melt before pyroxene, for example.

34

Crystallization

Fig 4.11 Understanding Earth

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

35

Analyses of glass in volcanic ash and pumice (tephra)

by electron microprobe

Crystallization

Winters Prin. Ig. Met. Petrol.

Kuehn-Negrini, in press

36

37

38

Kuehn-Negrini, in press

Kuehn-Negrini, in press

39

40

Trace Elements
Show a range of behaviors so can be sensitive indicators of
igneous processes
e.g.

Kuehn-Negrini, in press

amount of fractional crystallization & minerals involved

% partial melting of source rocks
type of source rock (minerals present)
tectonic setting (e.g. subduction-related or not)

Classification of the trace-elements

41

Rare-earth element abundances are often

presented as normalized values to
simplify interpretation.

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

43

Rare-earth element abundances of mafic rocks by type

Brownlow's Geochemistry

42

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

Mean trace element abundances by rock type

44

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

45

46

Distribution coefficients

Classification of the trace-elements

(a.k.a. partition coefficients)

Compatible prefer the solid phases during melting/crystallization
A type of equilibrium constant.
Incompatible prefer the liquid phase during melting/crystallization

Used to describe the distribution of trace elements between two

phases.
Most typically used for distribution between solid & liquid phases,
but sometimes also used for distribution between two solids.

Whether an element is compatible or incompatible depends upon

which solid phase(s) are present.
Whether an element is compatible or incompatible depends upon

c
K D = solid
cliquid

During partial melting, the first liquid is enriched in incompatible

elements relative to the source rock.
During crystallization, the liquid becomes progressively enriched in
incompatible elements and progressively depleted in compatible as
crystallization proceeds.

concentration of the trace element

in a specific solid phase
concentration of the same trace
element in the liquid phase

Like other equilibrium constants, this relationship is affected by both

pressure and temperature. It is also affected by the composition of
the liquid and often by oxygen fugacity.

47

48

Distribution coefficients
If multiple solid phases are present, a bulk distribution coefficient
may be calculated for each trace element of interest.
D = x1Kd1 + x2Kd2 + x3Kd3 etc.
x1, x2, and x3 represent the relative proportions of the individual phases
(e.g. 0.2, 0.2, and 0.6)

Brownlow's Geochemistry

49

50

Variation in
KD with melt
composition

Variation in
distribution
coefficients with
melt composition
All of these but Eu have
a 3+ charge, so the
observed pattern largely
reflects ionic size.

Brownlow's Geochemistry

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

51

Variation in
distribution
coefficients ionic
radius and charge

52

Effect of pressure
on KD

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

53

Effect of oxygen
fugacity on KD

54

Enrichment/
depletion with
partial melting

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

Brownlow's Geochemistry

55

Enrichment with
fractional
crystallization

56

Trace elements
during fractional
crystallization

5% liquid

Crystallization

90% liquid

Brownlow's Geochemistry

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

57

Plagioclase fractional
crystallization vs.
accumulation

58

Trace elements
during fractional
crystallization

Brownlow's Geochemistry

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

59

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

Extra Stuff

60

Rollinson's Using Geochem Data

61

Extra
Stuff

Brownlow's Geochemistry

62

Extra Stuff

Brownlow's Geochemistry

Extra Stuff

63

Winters Prin. Ig. Met. Petrol.