Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants in which energy from sunlight is used

to convert carbon dioxide and water into molecules needed for growth. These
molecules include sugars, enzymes and chlorophyll.
Light energy is absorbed by the green chemical chlorophyll. This energy allows
the production of glucose by the reaction between carbon dioxide and water.
Oxygen is also produced as a waste product.
This reaction can be summarised in the word equation:
Carbon dioxide + water

glucose + oxygen

Photosynthesis - Higher tier

The chemical equation for photosynthesis is:
6CO2 + 6H2O

C6H12O6 + 6O2

Glucose from photosynthesis

Glucose is made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Glucose made by
the process of photosynthesis may be used in three ways:
1.

It can be converted into chemicals required for growth of plant cells such
as cellulose
2.
It can be converted into starch, a storage molecule, that can be converted
back to glucose when the plant requires it
3.
It can be broken down during the process of respiration, releasing energy
stored in the glucose molecules
Plants cells contain a number of structures that are involved in the process of
photosynthesis:

Diagram of a plant cell involved in production of glucose from photosynthesis

Chloroplasts - containing chlorophyll and enzymes needed for reactions

in photosynthesis.

Nucleus - containing DNA carrying the genetic code for enzymes and
other proteins used in photosynthesis

Cell membrane - allowing gas and water to pass in and out of the cell
while controlling the passage of other molecules

Vacuole - containing cell sap to keep the cell turgid

Cell wall - strengthens the cell

Cytoplasm - enzymes and other proteins used in photosynthesis made

here

Diffusion
Dissolved substances have to pass through the cell membrane to get into or out
of a cell. Diffusion is one of the processes that allows this to happen.
Diffusion occurs when particles spread. They move from a region where they are
in high concentration to a region where they are in low concentration. Diffusion
happens when the particles are free to move. This is true in gases and for
particles dissolved in solutions. Particles diffuse down a concentration gradient,
from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. This is how
the smell of cooking travels around the house from the kitchen, for example.
The movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide in and out of leaves during
photosynthesis occurs by diffusion.
The higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the air diffuses into the leaf for
photosynthesis.
Oxygen produced during photosynthesis builds up to higher concentrations and
diffuses out of the leaf into the air which has a lower concentration of oxygen.
Osmosis
Water can move across cell membranes because of osmosis. For osmosis to
happen you need:

Two solutions with different concentrations

A partially permeable membrane to separate them
Partially permeable membranes let some substances pass through them, but not
others. The animation shows an example of osmosis.
Osmosis is the movement of water from a less concentrated solution to a more
concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane.
This is shown in the animation above. Eventually the level on the more
concentrated side of the membrane rises, while the one on the less concentrated
side falls. When the concentration is the same on both sides of the membrane,
the movement of water molecules will be the same in both directions. At this

point, the net exchange of water is zero and there is no further change in the
liquid levels.
Osmosis is important to plants. They gain water by osmosis through their roots.
Water moves into plant cells by osmosis, making them turgid or stiff so they that
able to hold the plant upright.
The concentration of minerals in the soil is very low. They dissolve in water and
move around the soil in solution. Root hair cells are adapted to absorb the
water out of soil by osmosis they have a large surface area, thin walls and are
close to the xylem cells used for transporting water up the plant. Minerals such
as nitrate ions cannot be absorbed by osmosis (which is the movement of water
only) or diffusion(because the minerals are in very low concentration). The root
hair cells have carrier molecules on their surface that pick up the minerals and
move
them
into
the
cellagainst the
concentration
gradient.
This
requires energy, and is called active transport.

Factors affecting photosynthesis

Three factors can limit the speed of photosynthesis: light intensity, carbon
dioxide concentration and temperature.

Light intensity
Without enough light, a plant cannot photosynthesise very quickly, even if there
is plenty of water and carbon dioxide. Increasing the light intensity will boost the
speed of photosynthesis.

Carbon dioxide concentration

Sometimes photosynthesis is limited by the concentration of carbon dioxide in
the air. Even if there is plenty of light, a plant cannot photosynthesise if there is
insufficient carbon dioxide.

Temperature
If it gets too cold, the rate of photosynthesis will decrease. Plants cannot
photosynthesise if it gets too hot.
If you plot the rate of photosynthesis against the levels of these three limiting
factors, you get graphs like the ones above.
In practice, any one of these factors could limit the rate of photosynthesis.
Maximising growth
Farmers can use their knowledge of these limiting factors to increase crop
growth in greenhouses. They may use artificial light so that photosynthesis can
continue beyond daylight hours, or in a higher-than-normal light intensity. The
use of paraffin lamps inside a greenhouse increases the rate of photosynthesis
because the burning paraffin produces carbon dioxide, and heat too.

Photosynthesis in Plants
In plants, photosynthesis occurs mainly within the leaves. Since photosynthesis
requires carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight, all of these substances must be
obtained by or transported to the leaves. Carbon dioxide is obtained through tiny
pores in plant leaves called stomata. Oxygen is also released through the
stomata. Water is obtained by the plant through the roots and delivered to the
leaves through vascular plant tissue systems . Sunlight is absorbed by
chlorophyll, a green pigment located inplant cell structures called chloroplasts .
Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts contain several
structures, each having specific functions:

Outer and inner membranes:protective coverings that keep chloroplast

structures enclosed.
Stroma: dense fluid within the chloroplast. Site of conversion of carbon
dioxide to sugar.
Thylakoid: flattened sac-like membrane structures. Site of conversion of light
energy to chemical energy.
Grana: dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs. Sites of conversion of light
energy to chemical energy.
Chlorophyll: a green pigment within the chloroplast. Absorbs light energy.

Stages of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. These stages are called the light reactions
and the dark reactions. The light reactions take place in the presence of light.
The dark reactions do not require direct light, however dark reactions in most
plants occur during the day.
Light reactions occur mostly in the thylakoid stacks of the grana. Here, sunlight
is converted to chemical energy in the form of ATP (free energy containing
molecule) and NADPH (high energy electron carrying molecule). Chlorophyll
absorbs light energy and starts a chain of steps that result in the production of
ATP, NADPH, and oxygen (through the splitting of water). Oxygen is released
through the stomata. Both ATP and NADPH are used in the dark reactions to
produce sugar.
Dark reactions occur in the stroma. Carbon dioxide is converted to sugar using
ATP and NADPH. This process is known as carbon fixation or the Calvin cycle .
The Calvin cycle has three main stages: carbon fixation, reduction, and
regeneration. In carbon fixation, carbon dioxide is combined with a 5-carbon
sugar [ribulose1,5-biphosphate (RuBP)] creating a 6-carbon sugar. In the
reduction stage, ATP and NADPH produced in the light reaction stage are used to
convert the 6-carbon sugar into two molecules of a 3-carbon carbohydrate ,
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is used to make

glucose and fructose. These two molecules (glucose and fructose) combine to
make sucrose or sugar. In the regeneration stage, some molecules of
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate are combined with ATP and are converted back into
the 5-carbon sugar RuBP. With the cycle complete, RuBP is available to be
combined with carbon dioxide to begin the cycle over again.
Photosynthesis Summary
In summary, photosynthesis is a process in which light energy is converted to
chemical energy and used to produce organic compounds. In plants,
photosynthesis typically occurs within the chloroplasts located in plant leaves.
Photosynthesis consists of two stages, the light reactions and the dark reactions.
The light reactions convert light into energy (ATP and NADHP) and the dark
reactions use the energy and carbon dioxide to produce sugar. For a review of
photosynthesis, take thePhotosynthesis Quiz .

Leaf structure
The structure of a leaf has adaptations so that it can carry
outphotosynthesis effectively.
A leaf needs:
a way to transport water to the leaf, and glucose to other parts of the
plant
a way to exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen

the ability to absorb light energy efficiently

Transport
Xylem tissue delivers water from the roots to the leaf, and phloemtissue
transports glucose away from the leaf. These tissues formvascular bundles in
the plant.

Gas exchange
Gas exchange happens in the spongy mesophyll tissue of the leaf. Spongy
mesophyll cells are covered by a thin layer of water and loosely packed.
When the plant is photosynthesising during the day, these features allow carbon
dioxide to diffuse into the spongy mesophyll cells, and oxygen to diffuse out of
it.
To get to the spongy mesophyll cells inside the leaf, gases diffuse through small
pores called stomata. They also open or close to control the loss of water from
leaf by the process of transpiration.
Absorbing light energy
Light absorption happens in the palisade mesophyll tissue of the leaf. Palisade
cells are column shaped and packed with manychloroplasts. They are arranged
closely together so that a lot of light energy can be absorbed.

A cross-section through a leaf

Features of leaves and their functions
Feature

Function

Large surface area

Maximise light absorption

Thin

Short distance for carbon dioxide to diffuse into leaf

cells

Thin waxy cuticle

This protects the leaves without blocking out light

Thin transparent epidermis

Allows light to reach the palisade cells