Chapter 3

One-dimensional sound waves
The equation of continuity of 3D fluid

Three-dimensional acoustic waves
Acoustic Waves
MAGIC045
R. Erdlyi
SP2 RC, Department of Applied Mathematics
University of Sheffield
email: robertus@sheffield.ac.uk
web: robertus.staff.shef.ac.uk
With special thanx to .....!

R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Outline
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Outline
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Outline
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Outline
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Mass conservation
In general most phenomena associated with sound
propagation can be described well by assuming that air (or the
underlying fluid) has uniform density 0 and uniform pressure
p0 in the undisturbed state, and that sound generation causes
small changes in density and pressure p, and a small velocity
u.
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Mass conservation
u.
We shall suppose that p and are uniquely related:
p = p() = (p)
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves
(1)

Mass conservation
u.
We shall suppose that p and are uniquely related:
p = p() = (p)
We begin by assuming that the motion is 1D
u = u(x, t)i, p = p(x, t), = (x, t)

R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves
(1)

Mass conservation
Now and u are not independent since mass must be
conserved.
Consider a small tube of length x and cross-sectional area A.

At time t the mass of fluid in the tube is
(x, t)xA
and at time t + t it is
[(x, t) + ]xA = (x, t)xA +
R. Erdlyi
(x, t)
xtA.
t
Acoustic Waves

Mass conservation
The mass has increased by an amount
t xtA,
due to mass flowing into the tube: in time t this is equal to

u|(x,t) u|(x+x,t) tA = (u)xtA

x
u
xtA u xtA.
x
x
But u and /x are small (we linearize) this is equal to
=
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Mass conservation
t xtA,


x
u
xtA u xtA.
x
x
u
= 0 xtA
x
to highest order. Thus the 1D equation of continuity becomes
=
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Mass conservation
t xtA,


x
u
xtA u xtA.
x
x
u
= 0 xtA
x
to highest order. Thus the 1D equation of continuity becomes
u
= 0
(2)
t
x
=
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Conservation of momentum
Now we apply N2 to the fluid in the small tube. From Figure
below the force on the fluid is
[p(x, t)A p(x + x, t)A] =

neglecting gravity and this is equal to
u
u
xA
0 xA
t
t
by N2. Thus
u
1 p
=
.
t
0 x
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves
p
xA,
x
(3)

Wave equation in 1D
Now, by Eq. (1),
p
p
=
=
x
x
dp
d
:= c 2 ,
x
x
=0
where
c 2 = (p/).
(4)
Thus, from Eq. (2),

2
2u
= 0
0
2
xt
x
t
1
c2
0 x

,
2
2
= c2 2 .
2
t
x
Likewise, the same equation holds for u (and p). Thus
2
2u
2 u
=
c
t 2
x 2
R. Erdlyi
&
2
2p
2 p
=
c
.
t 2
x 2
Acoustic Waves
(5)

Sound in air
For sound in gases, the appropriate relationship Eq. (1)
between p and is the adiabatic law
p
=
p0
p
=
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Sound in air
p
=
p0
p
p0
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves
1
.

Sound in air
p
=
p0
p
p0
NB:
1
.
No heat exchange change occurs quickly. Newton

derived Eq. (5), but assumed that p and were related by the
isothermal law (Boyles Law)
p
p0
=
1/2
p0
c=
0
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Sound in air
p
=
p0
p
p0
NB:
1
.
No heat exchange change occurs quickly. Newton

derived Eq. (5), but assumed that p and were related by the
isothermal law (Boyles Law)
p
p0
=
1/2
p0
c=
280 m s1
0
Correct expression due to Laplace!
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Sound in air
By Eq. (4), the velocity of sound in air is

c=
p0
0
1/2
(6)
at standard temperature and pressure, e.g. T=288 K; = 1.4,,

p0 1.013 105 Nm2 , 0 1.293 kgm3 .
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Sound in air

c=
p0
0
1/2
330 m s1
(6)

p0 1.013 105 Nm2 , 0 1.293 kgm3 .
Eq. (6) agrees ......?
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Sound in air

c=
p0
0
1/2
330 m s1
(6)

p0 1.013 105 Nm2 , 0 1.293 kgm3 .
Eq. (6) agrees well with experiments.
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Sound in water
The same analysis applies to water where experiments show
that
(p p0 ) = ( 0 )/0
dp
=
d
0
c ......?
( 2.045 109 kgm1 s2 , 0 103 kg m3 )
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Sound in water
The same analysis applies to water where experiments show
that
(p p0 ) = ( 0 )/0
dp
=
d
0
c 1.430 103 m s1
( 2.045 109 kgm1 s2 , 0 103 kg m3 )
One dimensional sound waves can be treated by the same
mathematical methods as (one-dimensional) waves on strings.
Note, however, that in strings the motion is transverse; in sound
waves it is longitudinal.
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Outline
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

3D fluid
In reality, sound propagates in 3D (although the 1D result can

be applied approximately to e.g. pipes). We now assume the
fluid velocity u is still small but with three non-zero components:
u = u(x, t)i + v (x, t)j + w(x, t)k.
(7)
We must again ensure that mass is conserved - the resulting

equation, viz. Eq. (8), is known as the equation of continuity.
Consider a small cuboid with sides parallel to the axes, and of
lengths x, y , z.
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

3D fluid element xy z
As above, the increase in the mass within this cuboid between

times t and t is
xy zt.
t
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Mass conservation in 3D
This is equal to the mass flowing into the cuboid, i.e.
{u|OBCD u|O 0 B 0 C 0 D 0 } y zt
+ {v |OO 0 D 0 D v |BB 0 C 0 C } zxt
+ {w|OO 0 B 0 B w|DD 0 C 0 C } xy t

(u) +
(v ) +
(w) xy zt.

x
y
z

Thus
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Mass conservation in 3D
This is equal to the mass flowing into the cuboid, i.e.
{u|OBCD u|O 0 B 0 C 0 D 0 } y zt
+ {v |OO 0 D 0 D v |BB 0 C 0 C } zxt
+ {w|OO 0 B 0 B w|DD 0 C 0 C } xy t

(u) +
(v ) +
(w) xy zt.

x
y
z

Thus
+
(u) +
(v ) +
(w) = 0.
t
x
y
z
(8)
Eq. (8) is exact since no assumption of smallness has yet been

made. This is the equation of continuity for any fluid.
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Outline
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Linear mass conservation in 3D

When 0 and u, v , w are small, Eq. (8) becomes
+ 0
t
u v
w
+
+
x
y
z

+ ( 0 )
|

u v
w
+
+
x
y
z
{z
}
+u
+v
+w
= 0.
x
y
z
|
{z
}
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Linear mass conservation in 3D

When 0 and u, v , w are small, Eq. (8) becomes
+ 0
t
u v
w
+
+
x
y
z

u v
w
+ ( 0 )
+
+
x
y
z
{z
}
|
2nd order
+u
+v
+w
= 0.
x
y
z
|
{z
}
2nd order
Thus
= 0
t
u v
w
+
+
x
y
z
replaces Eq. (2) for acoustic waves.

R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

(9)

Linear conservation of momentum in 3D
N2 gives three equations like Eq. (3)1 :

1 p
u
=
,
t
0 x
v
1 p
=
,
t
0 y
w
1 p
=
t
0 z
(10)
or,
The LHS of Eq. (10) - and Eq. (3) earlier - involve an assumption of u, v ,
w being small. See (4.1)
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Linear conservation of momentum in 3D
N2 gives three equations like Eq. (3)1 :

1 p
u
=
,
t
0 x
v
1 p
=
,
t
0 y
w
1 p
=
t
0 z
(10)
v
c 2
=
,
t
0 y
w
c 2
=
t
0 z
(11)
or, using Eq. (4):

u
c 2
=
,
t
0 x
The LHS of Eq. (10) - and Eq. (3) earlier - involve an assumption of u, v ,
w being small. See (4.1)
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Linear wave equation in 3D

Thus, from Eq. (9)
2
t 2

= 0
2u
2v
2w
+
+
xt
y t
zt
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves


Thus, from Eq. (9)
2
t 2

2u
2v
2w
= 0
+
+
xt
y t
zt

2

= 0
x
0 x
2

2

c
+
.
y
0 y
z
0 z

Hence
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves


Thus, from Eq. (9)
2
t 2

2u
2v
2w
= 0
+
+
xt
y t
zt

2

= 0
x
0 x
2

2

c
+
.
y
0 y
z
0 z

Hence
2
= c2
t 2

2
2
2
+
+
.
x 2 y 2 z 2
This is the 3D wave equation with speed c.

R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves
(12)

Velocity potential
In most circumstances u = ui + v j + wk, where

u=
,
x
v=
,
y
w=
,
z
and is the velocity potential. It can be shown that also

satisfies the same equation (so therefore do u, v , w):
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves
(13)

Velocity potential
In most circumstances u = ui + v j + wk, where

u=
,
x
v=
,
y
w=
,
z
(13)
and is the velocity potential. It can be shown that also

satisfies the same equation (so therefore do u, v , w):
2

2 2
2
2
=c
+
+
.
(14)
t 2
x 2 y 2 z 2
R. Erdlyi
Acoustic Waves

Chapter 3

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Chapter 3

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One-dimensional sound waves

The equation of continuity of 3D fluid

With special thanx to .....!

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves

The equation of continuity of 3D fluid

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves

The equation of continuity of 3D fluid

Three-dimensional acoustic waves

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves

The equation of continuity of 3D fluid

Three-dimensional acoustic waves

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves

u = u(x, t)i, p = p(x, t), = (x, t)

One-dimensional sound waves

Consider a small tube of length x and cross-sectional area A.

One-dimensional sound waves

u|(x,t) u|(x+x,t) tA = (u)xtA

One-dimensional sound waves

u|(x,t) u|(x+x,t) tA = (u)xtA

One-dimensional sound waves

u|(x,t) u|(x+x,t) tA = (u)xtA

One-dimensional sound waves

[p(x, t)A p(x + x, t)A] =

One-dimensional sound waves

Thus, from Eq. (2),

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves

No heat exchange change occurs quickly. Newton

One-dimensional sound waves

No heat exchange change occurs quickly. Newton

One-dimensional sound waves

By Eq. (4), the velocity of sound in air is

at standard temperature and pressure, e.g. T=288 K; = 1.4,,

One-dimensional sound waves

By Eq. (4), the velocity of sound in air is

at standard temperature and pressure, e.g. T=288 K; = 1.4,,

One-dimensional sound waves

By Eq. (4), the velocity of sound in air is

at standard temperature and pressure, e.g. T=288 K; = 1.4,,

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves

The equation of continuity of 3D fluid

Three-dimensional acoustic waves

One-dimensional sound waves

In reality, sound propagates in 3D (although the 1D result can

We must again ensure that mass is conserved - the resulting

One-dimensional sound waves

As above, the increase in the mass within this cuboid between

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves

Eq. (8) is exact since no assumption of smallness has yet been

One-dimensional sound waves

One-dimensional sound waves