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Bishwajit Mazumder
Nursing Instructor
Dhaka Nursing College, Dhaka
1. Cell Reproduction:
1.1 Cell growth
1.2 Cell division
1.3 Regulating the cell cycle
1. Cell Reproduction
Cell reproduction is the process by which cells divide to form new
cells. Each time a cell divides, it makes a copy of all of
its chromosomes, which are tightly coiled strands of DNA, the genetic
material that holds the instructions for all life, and sends an identical
copy to the new cell that is created.
A chromosome consists of two halves, called Chromatids. These
halves are divided in their center by a centromere. This structure is
what attaches to spindle fibers during mitosis to pull one chromatid to
each side of the cell when it divides.
In humans, 44 of the chromosomes consist of autosomes, and the
remaining two are the sex chromosomes. These chromosomes
determine the gender of the organism. (A male has an X and a Y,
while a female has to Xs).
In addition, all the chromosomes in an organism excluding the sex
chromosomes are part of a homologous pair. They contain genes to
control the same traits but the genes do not have the same
instructions. For example, one chromosome might have the genes for
brown eyes while its homolouge might have genes for blue eyes. One
homolouge is inherited from the mother while the other is inherited
from the father.
Function of chromosome:
In the broadest sense, chromosome functions refer to control of all the
activities of a living cell. These functions can be elaborated as:
Cell Division Process:
Chromosomes are essential for the process of cell division and are
4.
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Cytokinesis then divides the rest of the cell, and two identical cells
result.
Meiosis
Meiosis is the process of cellular division that produces the gametes
which take part in sexual reproduction. Where mitosis produces two
daughter cells from one mother cell, meiosis produces four daughter
cells from one mother cell. The end products of meiosis, the gametes,
contain only half the genome of a organism. This is like each cell
ending up with only a single shoe; there are not pairs in these cells
anymore. The two gametes fuse to produce a zygote . Because each
gamete has half the genetic material of the mother cell,
this fusion results in a zygote with the correct amount of genetic
material.
There are two stages in meiosis, meiosis I and meiosis II. There are
five steps in meiosis I.
Interphase I. Chromosomes replicate, resulting in two identical sister
chromatids for each chromosome.
Prophase I. Chromosomes change shape. Homologous pairs of
chromosomes, each with two sister chromatids, come together in a
process called synapsis. This tetrad of chromatids is joined in several
places, called chiasmata, and crossing-over occurs.
Metaphase I. Tetrads line up on the metaphase plate, still joined.
Anaphase I. Homologous chromosomes split apart. Sister chromatids
remain together. Microtubules pull each homologue to opposite sides
of the cell. This is like putting the left shoes on one side and the right
shoes on the other.
Telophase I and Cytokinesis. The cell divides. Each cell contains a
pair of sister chromatids.
G1 Phase
S Phase
3.
G2 Phase
4.
M Phase
5.
Cytokinesis
G1 Phase
During the G1 Phase, the cell grows and stores up energy that it
will use during cell division. Nutrients are taken in and all the usual
cell processes take place. Once cells are fully grown, they proceed on
to the S Phase.
S Phase
During the S Phase, the DNA in the cell's nucleus is copied. This
means that the cell then attains two copies of the entire necessary
DNA for normal cell activity, leaving a full set to be transferred into
the new cell that will be created after the cell divides.
G2 Phase
During this phase, the cell prepares for cell division. This phase
represents a time gap between the time when the cell copies its DNA
and when it divides.
M Phase
During this phase, cell division takes place through Mitosis.
Cytokinesis
During Cytokinesis, the cytoplasm in the cell divides
and the cell's membrane pinches inward and the cell begins to divide.
Also, when plant cells divide, a cell plate forms between the two new
cells to divide them
Other Methods of Cell Reproduction
Several other methods of cell reproduction exist. These
include meiosis and binary fission. During binary fission, bacterial
cells divide asexually. Meiosis is used to change diploid body cells
into haploid reproductive cells.
Binary Fission
Bacterial cells reproduce through a process called binary fission.
During this process, bacterial cells reproduce by budding new
genetically identical organisms from portions of their bodies. Asexual
reproduction is a disadvantage to mitosis because it negates the
positive effects of genetic variation and recombination.
1.1 Cell growth:
The term cell growth is used in the contexts of biological cell
development and cell division (reproduction). When used in the
context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, where
a cell, known as the "mother cell", grows and divides to produce two
"daughter cells" (M phase). When used in the context of cell
development, the term refers to increase in cytoplasmic and organelle
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