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ISBN: 978-0-9797263-8-5
The Romanization of Korean words in this book follows the Korean Governments
Revised Romanization of Korean, except in the case of prominent figures and places
for which alternative usages are better known.
Contents
Timeline of Korean History 4
Founding Philosophy of Korea 5
Dangun Wanggeoms Eight Codes of Conduct 10
Gojoseon in Chinese Thoughts and Literature 13
Ancient Korean Civilization 16
The Hongik Ingan Lives On 23
The Noble Families of Korea 27
Queen Seondeok: Koreas First Female Leader 39
Master Wonhyo: Sharing Enlightenment 59
King Sejong the Great 87
Yi Yulgok: An Exemplary Seonbi 125
Heo Jun: A Legendary Doctor 161
Kim Mandeok: Jeju Islands Lady of Virtue 173
BC 57~AD 668
668
668~ 935
918~1392
Goryeo Dynasty
1392~ 1910
Joseon Dynasty
1910~1945
Japanese Occupation
1948
1950~1953
Korean War
1988
1995
2002
2010
Emperor
Hwanung.
Together
with
his
three
items it refers to could well have been a sword, a mirror, and jade. The
sword is an instrument used to punish criminals, a round mirror is an
instrument that reflects the round sky, and a bell made out of jade is an
instrument that conveys the voice of Heaven. These three items are the most
common relics that survive from the Gojoseon period.
5
the
three-hundred-and-sixty
cares
of
mankind,
The above story is taken from the famous work Samguk Yusa
(Memorabilia of Three Kingdoms) compiled by Iryon (1206-1289). Iryon, a
Buddhist monk, was appointed as State Counselor to advise the kings
court on issues of national importance. Samguk Yusa contains not only
official historical records but also various myths and folktales, and is
regarded as one of the most important historical sources on ancient
Korea.
The founding story of Gojoseon, the original kingdom of Korea,
appears in the opening pages of Samguk Yusa. While brief, it contains a
number of profound symbols and ideas that are intrinsic to Koreas
cultural and spiritual foundation.
The story suggests that Korean civilization came about due to the
grace of Heaven. From ancient times, Korean people have revered the
Heavens as a source of life and prosperity. In modern times as well, on
every 3rd of October, Koreans celebrate the festival of Gaecheonjeol
(literally the day when Heaven opens its heart) as a national holiday,
and perform ceremonies to express their gratitude.
Hwanung (Lord of Heaven), his son Hwanin, and his grandson
Dangun represent Cheon (Heaven), Ji (Earth), and In (Human). They are
not separate but linked as one, symbolizing the harmony of the universe.
This concept is found in almost all aspects of traditional Korean culture,
including language, music, art, architecture, scientific inventions and
even cuisine. One example is the vowels of the Korean alphabet (, ,
, , , , , , , ), created by King Sejong in 1443. They are a
In Chinese history, there were many short lived dynastiesfor example the
Sui, which existed for only thirtyeight years. Even the longest dynasty
(adding together the duration of both the Northern Song and the Southern
Song) existed for about three hundred years. In Japan, although there was an
emperor, the position was that of ruler in name only, and the actual power
was held by nobles and samurai, so that it had no period of dynasties with
centralized power. In contrast, Korean dynasties such as Goguryeo, Baekjae,
Silla, Goryeo, and Joseon, all lasted for over five hundred years.
8
taste bitter but are good for ones health. In the same way, lifes
hardships are painful to deal with, but they make us wiser and stronger.
Perseverance is a vital quality that enables us to endure and transcend
our difficulties. The Mongol invasions of Korea in the 13th century and
the Japanese colonization in the early 20th century, to name two
examples, were times of great suffering for the Korean people. During
such times, this teaching of endurance served as a powerful source of
strength and inspiration, making it possible to overcome such national
crises and preserve Koreas cultural identity.
The spiritual values conveyed in the story of Koreas founding can be
summed up in three words: reverence, compassion and perseverance.
Living a life of revering the Heavens, practicing compassion toward all
living
beings,
and
overcoming
obstacles,
discouragements
and
Dangun was a title held by the rulers of Gojoseon. The Dangun Segi
are the annals of 47 Dangun, compiled by renowned scholar and civil
official Yi Am (1297-1364). According to Dangun Segi, the first Dangun
guided people to lead a virtuous life by establishing the Eight Codes of
Conduct.
The One Law means principles based on the Truth that are wholly just
The One Mind is a spiritual concept; it refers to a pure mind without any
doubts and discriminations that has become one with the teachings of
Heaven. Traditionally, Koreans have believed that everyone is connected
with this One Mind, and all conflicts and confusion arise from the
forgetfulness of this fact.
10
2. Just as there is One Law in Heaven, so is there One Law for the
human
mind.
Examining
your
own
mind,
deepen
your
3. Take thought for your parents, who gave you life. Since your
parents are descended from the Heavens, it is only by serving
them well that you can serve the Heavens.
4. Animals have their mates, and even a worn out shoe has its
fellow. Even so, men and women should live in harmony. Do not
harbor resentment or jealousy, and
misconduct.
6. Look at the horses and cattlethey share their food and do not
quarrel. So should you yield to one another, refrain from theft by
stealth or by force, and work together to make your household
and nation prosperous
11
8. If you fight with one another and set the fields ablaze, the grain
will be burned up, and you will incur the wrath of both men and
God. No matter where you go or what you do to hide yourself,
good and evil each have their own scent and will reveal you.
Guard your inner nature well and do not cherish evil thoughts.
Do not conceal evil, and do not harbor the intent to harm others.
Only revere the Heavens and love the people, and your blessed
fortune will be boundless.
Let all the people honor and practice these words sincerely.
12
Korea is located to the east of China, and so Korean people were called
Although it has a strong army, it does not invade other territories. Its
customs are virtuous, and people yield to one another on the streets. The
hungry are fed so that no one will starve. In that country, men and
women keep separate living quarters. In view of this, it is truly a virtuous
and civilized nation in the East.
In Shenyijing (), Dongfang Shuo (; BC 153-BC 93), a well
known scholar of the Chinese Han Dynasty, spoke of the Korean people
as follows: They sit with decorum and do not try to harm others. They
respect one another and hold back from criticism. When they see others
who are in danger, they do not hesitate to sacrifice themselves to help
them.
One of the worlds oldest geographical works, the Classic of
14
15
The territory of Gojoseon was vast, covering not only the Korean
peninsula but also the greater part of Manchuria, which is now held by
China and Russia. Later Korean dynasties such as Buyeo, Goryeo and
Balhae were also established in this area. Recent archaeological
excavations and scientific studies show that Gojoseon was at the cuttingedge of both arts and science.
A Kingdom of Dolmens
Gojoseon existed from the 24th to the 2nd century BC, or in
archaeological terms, throughout the Bronze and Iron Ages. It also
coincided with the so-called megalithic period, when dolmen (Kor.
Goindol; single-chamber structures consisting of vertical and horizontal
stones) and menhirs (freestanding boulders) were erected, often for the
purpose of burial or religious ceremonies. In terms of scientific history,
this is when Korean astronomy began.
The largest concentration of dolmens in the world is found in
Manchuria and the Korean peninsula. Of the 80,000 dolmens across the
world, more than two-thirds are located in this area.
16
A Dolmen Structure
The Mesopotamian region, where the ancient kingdoms of Sumer,
Assyria, and Babylonia were located, has traditionally been regarded as
the birthplace of ancient astronomy and one of the four cradles of
human civilization. The Babylonian star catalogues dating from about
1200 BC are commonly regarded as the earliest examples of astronomy.
Remarkably,
recent
research
has
confirmed
that
images
of
17
Province. The cover stone of the dolmen tomb bears 80 holes, with the
center representing the North Pole, and the other holes making up 11
different constellations. The size of the holes also varies according to the
brightness of the star, and when the observations were dated, taking the
precession of equinoxes into account, it was determined that they
represent the night sky from 2800 BC (220 years).
Dolmen constellations have also been discovered in the southern
Korean peninsula. In 1978, Professor Lee Yung-jo discovered a small
stone tablet (23.5cm wide, 32.5cm long) in a dolmen site submerged in the
Daecheong Dam in North Chungcheong Province. The tablet bears 65
small and large holes, between 2cm and 7cm in diameter. Through
computer simulation, Professor Park Changbom of the Korea Institute for
Advanced Study established that it was an astronomical chart from 500
BC, depicting constellations such as the Big Dipper, the Little Dipper, the
Dragon and Cassiopeia. There was also a correlation between the size of
the holes and the brightness of the star.
There are no other monuments in the world that depict the
constellations as early as several thousand years ago, let alone on such a
vast scale and with such accuracy, discriminating by level of brightness.
Astronomers have remarked that these dolmen stones deserve to be
classified as one of the wonders of the world. However, these findings are
not yet widely publicized.
We can assume that this mysterious astronomical legacy is related in
some way to the culture of the Gojoseon people and their deep reverence
19
for the Heavens. The astronomical tradition was kept alive by their
descendants, who created the worlds oldest all-sky star chart, mapping
1,467 stars, in the 1st century AD, as well as the worlds oldest
observatory (Cheomseongdae) in the 7th century AD, and in addition
more than 20,000 systematic records of astronomical phenomena over
two millennia.
Bronze Mirror
represent
the
culmination
of
centuries
of
metal
20
22
23
and working together for a greater cause. 90 years before the gold
donation campaign in 1997, there was a similar movement called
24
just a little shy of Mont Blanc, the highest point in Europe. The text
consists of 52 million characters, and would take one person over 30
years to read.
The making of 80,000 printing blocks, from the preparation of the
wood itself to the actual engraving of the letters, required considerable
resources and manpower. Moreover, the project was undertaken in a
time of war. Nonetheless, the people of Goryeo believed a spiritual
foundation to be of utmost importance in defending the country. They
therefore turned to Buddha to restore peace in their land. People of
diverse social status, from high-ranking scholars to workaday farmers,
contributed to the project either with financial assistance or by taking
part in its actual making.
Because participation was entirely voluntary, the faith and devotion
of those who took part was wholly sincere. The engravers are said to
have made three full ceremonial bows to Buddha before carving each
characterin total, 150 million bows for 50 million characters. Such
dedication is difficult to imagine today, and perhaps this is why the
Tripitaka Koreana remains the worlds most accurate and beautifully
engraved copy of the Buddhist scriptures, and a place of pilgrimage for
many Buddhists in Asia.
In Korea, Buddhism was introduced in the 4th century AD and
flourished for the next 1,000 years. Confucianism took the place of
Buddhism as the official state religion during the 14th century, and in the
20th century Christianity grew to be one of the countrys main faiths.
25
26
For Korea, the last century began with Japanese occupation (19101945), and continued with the Korean War (1950-1953) and the countrys
subsequent division. For the South, this was followed by a period of rapid
economic development. In the course of this troubled period, many of
Koreas national heritage sites were lost.
A small number of the old buildings and palaces have survived,
however, and through them we can behold the beauty of ancient Korea.
We can also discern within them a scientific approach combined with a
respect for naturethe hallmark of traditional Korean architecture.
At
first
glance,
the
surviving
palaces
in
Seoul,
such
as
27
Seongyojang
Seongyojang is a 300-year-old stately home located near the eastern
coast, and is considered to be one of the most beautiful examples of
traditional Korean architecture. It was built by Yi Naebeon (17031781),
11th descendant of Prince Hyoryeong, who was himself the second son of
King Taejong and brother of King Sejong. Later, his own descendants
extended the building, until eventually the estate contained 120 rooms in
total.
28
for those traveling through Gangwon Province. Indeed, the estate was
said to keep enough bowls to provide 300 visitors with a seven-dish meal
all at one sitting. As they departed, guests were given new clothes and
money for their journey.
Yi Naebeon, having cultivated salt farms and accumulated great
wealth, came to own a substantial amount of land in Gangwon Province.
By the time his grandson Yi Hu (17731832) was born, these lands were
producing in excess of 10,000 sacks of grain per year. When his two
brothers passed away, he had more rooms added to the residence, and
invited the families of his deceased brothers to come and live with him.
To his descendants, Yi Hu bequeathed the words according to which
he lived his own life. If you acquire wealth rightfully, your prosperity is
assured. If you acquire it wrongfully, you will come to ruin. If a man does
not share his wealth with others, Heaven brings disaster upon him, takes
his wealth away, and gives it to others just the same. He was considerate
in his dealings with farmers, and managed his land with their economic
wellbeing in mind. In gratitude, the tenant farmers once presented him
with an umbrella made of calico. Because it bore the signatures of 10,000
people, it was known as the Shade of Ten-Thousand Men.
The descendants of Seongyojang honored the tradition inherited from
their ancestors of sharing and giving away what they had. Yi Bonggu
(18021868), who was mayor of Tongcheon during King Yeongjos reign
once distributed 5,000 sacks of rice to the starving, when a severe famine
fell upon the land.
30
Seongyojang in Summer
31
34
In this house, there is a rice chest that has been in the family for
generations. It is a cylindrical chest, made from a hollowed-out log. On
the underside there is a small rectangular opening (5cm x 10cm), and on
the handle of the chest there is an inscription which reads Unto each
and all, meaning that anyone could freely take rice from the chest.
The Yu family used the rice chest to help needy people in the area.
Travelers who were passing through could also take rice from it. The
family placed the chest far away from the main building, so that those
who needed rice could take it without being observed.
The chest held up to two and a half sacks of rice (200 kg). When the
handle with the inscription was turned, the rice flowed out through the
opening at the base. Each person who used the chest normally withdrew
around two to four liters. People rarely took more than this, even though
there was no one to prevent them.
The Wunjoru family owned approximately 20 acres of rice paddy,
producing 200 sacks of rice every year. 36 of these were used to re-fill
the rice chestmeaning that the Yu family gave away almost one fifth of
their yearly income to those who needed it.
The owner of the household checked the contents of the chest each
month, and if there were ever any rice left over, he would say to his
daughter-in-law, For our family to prosper, we must practice the virtue
of giving. Find out if any of our neighbors are in need of food and give it
to them straightaway. Make sure that the chest is empty by the end of
every month.
35
The Gurye area experienced many peasant uprisings towards the end
of Joseon period and guerilla warfare during the Korean War.
Nevertheless, the Wunjoru house survived it all. This is without doubt
due to the familys benevolent spirit, embodied in the rice chest that
brought warmth to the hearts of many people.
The Kingdom of Silla lasted for 1,000 years, from the 1st century BC
to the 10th century AD. As mentioned earlier, such a lengthy period of
unbroken rule is uncommon in world history.
The capital city of Silla was Gyeongju. In this city, for 400 years, there
6
land during a time of drought. For three years after marrying into the
family, daughters-in-law shall wear clothes made of cotton only.
Travelers who stay with us must receive good hospitality. No one within
100 li (40km) of our house must be allowed to perish from hunger.
Knowing that excessive greed would bring disaster, they gave back to
society anything they earned beyond 10,000 sacks of grain. This could be
done in various ways, for example by reducing the rent payable by the
tenant farmers. Prohibiting the purchase of land during a drought
followed a similar reasoning. When drought strikes, the price of land
generally falls. Buying up land during such a time was an easy way for
rich people to increase their wealth. However, the house of Choi was
ashamed to profit from the misfortunes of others.
Furthermore, in spite of their riches, they tried to live frugally. Since
the keys to the storage houses were kept by women and not by men, it
was particularly important for the women to have a frugal attitude.
Although during that time wealthy people normally wore clothes of silk,
new daughters-in-law were expected to wear cotton for three years, to
help them grow accustomed to the frugal lifestyle of their new family.
Thus, they were strict with themselves but generous to others. It is said
that of the annual income of 3,000 sacks of grain, 1,000 were spent on the
upkeep of the house, 1,000 upon serving household guests, and the
remaining 1,000 on helping people in the surrounding area. The bulwark
of the household, which helped to preserve its wealth and honor for 400
years, was the practice of caring for those around them and giving to
37
others.
Today, the house of Choi is no longer wealthy. The last manseokgun
of the house was Choi Jun who, after Korea was liberated from Japan in
1945, donated his entire wealth to found Yeungnam University in Daegu.
His descendants today live in Seoul as ordinary citizens. Even the family
home, located in Gyodong, Gyeongju, has been made over to the
Yeungnam University Foundation. It can be safely said that the house of
Choi is one that has practiced Hongik Ingan to its fullest extent.
38
1,400 years ago in Korea, in the kingdom of Silla, King Jinpyeong was
concerned that he had no son to whom he could give the crown.
Recognizing the achievements of his first royal son-in-law, Yongchun, as
a leader in the elite youth forces or Hwarang, he decided to abdicate the
throne in his favor.
Aware of his intention, Princess Deokman, went to the king and said,
Father, I request that you make Yongchun my private subject.
The king was surprised, for it was clear that she herself was asking for
the throne. He was so impressed by her spirit, however, that he
eventually succeeded in having princess Deokman appointed as the new
heir to the throne.
Also, in deference to her request, the king commanded his son-in-law
Yongchun to pledge his allegiance to the new Queen. So it was that Queen
Seondeok came to power, the 27th ruler of the Silla kingdom, and the
first female monarch in Korean history.
39
In the first century BC, three rival kingdoms, Goguryeo, Baekje and
Silla, were established as separate nations in the Korean peninsula.
Goguryeo was located in the North. It successfully defended itself against
the continually invading forces of China, and steadily built up its power
against the influence of its formidable neighbor.
With its advanced steel-making technology and powerful military
system, Goguryeo had recovered the states of Yodong and Manchuria
from China. These states had originally been part of Korea during the
Gojoseon period (2333-108 BC). Goguryeo was at its zenith during the 5th
century, when it gained supremacy in the home peninsula and went on to
become the greatest power in East Asia.
The kingdom of Baekje lay in the southwest of the peninsula, covering
the present day provinces of Chungcheong and Jeolla. It was blessed with
the largest area of fertile agricultural land among the three kingdoms,
and so enjoyed the greatest economic prosperity. Fully exploiting its
geographical advantages, it became a focal point of ancient commerce,
serving as a trading intermediary between China and Japan.
The kingdom of Silla was slowest to develop, with a strong tribal
tradition that hindered its progress as a unified state. Being in the
mountainous southeast, it further suffered from a scarcity of farmland.
From the 6th century BC however, under the reign of King Jinheung, Silla
greatly increased and expanded its influence and power. By capturing the
40
basin of the Han River, previously held by Baekje, it came to occupy the
most strategically important point in the whole peninsula, and was in a
position to threaten even Goguryeo in the North.
In the early 7th century, during the reign of Queen Seondeok, the first
foundations for a unified Korea under Silla were laid. A series of attacks
by Baekje had brought the kingdom to a point of crisis, and the Queen
made the decision to form an alliance with the Chinese Tang Dynasty. Not
long afterwards, in 660 AD, the Silla-Tang coalition was victorious over
the forces of Baekje and conquered the entire kingdom, under the
command of the new Silla King Muyol (Kim Chun-chu) and his general,
Kim Yushin. The process of unification was completed eight years later
when Goguryeo finally admitted defeat before the forces of the alliance.
From that time onward, Tang China began to make its influence felt in
the former territories of Goguryeo and Baekje, and eventually came to
threaten Silla itself. In 670 AD, war broke out between the two powers,
when Silla crossed the Amnok River to attack its former ally.
Victory in two critical battles at Maesoseong (675) and Gibeolpo (676)
enabled Silla eventually to drive out the Tang from the peninsula, and
thus the integration of the three kingdoms was completed. The separate
states of Korea were established as one nation together, known from then
on as Unified Silla.
How was it possible for a small and remote country to defeat the
kingdoms of Baekje and Goguryeo, overcome the formidable Tang forces,
and bring the country under one rule? Behind the means which
41
accomplished this great task of the day, there lies the sincere and
cherished resolve of a single mind. It was Queen Seondeoks earnest
devotion that moved and guided the Silla people, and the concentrated
power of her will which enabled the dream of a unified Korea to become a
reality.
42
43
44
made a pile of dry logs and twigs in the garden outside his house, and set
it alight. High up on the mountain, the Queen was able to make out the
black clouds of smoke, and asked those accompanying her if they knew
the reason. No one dared to answer her, but simply looked at one
another in embarrassment. When the Queen pressed the issue, she
finally learned from them that Yushin was on the point of burning his
sister and her unborn child at the stake.
She was astonished and exclaimed, Yushin is not the kind of person
to do such a thing! There must be a reason. Who could the father be?
Chun-chu, who was present, blushed scarlet and was speechless with
embarrassment. After the truth was revealed, the Queen ordered him to
go and save Munhees life, granting him permission to marry her as his
second wife, to become his lawful spouse when his first wife passed away.
When Chun-chu later came to the throne as King Muyol, the 29th ruler of
Silla after Seondeok and her sister Jindeok, Munhee thus became his
queen. Their child grew up to be King Mun-mu, who completed the
unification of Korea 29 years after Queen Seondeoks death.
The tearing of Chun-chus robe and his feigned intention to kill his
sister Munhee were in fact both in accordance with a carefully laid plan.
Thanks to the Queens royal favor, Yushin and Chun-chu were able to
form kinship through marriage. And through this tie of kinship, a
political alliance was formed that swiftly brought the process of
unification to its fulfillment.
45
46
After two years, the pagoda was finally completed. Inside it, Jajang
enshrined the holy relics of the Buddha which he had brought from
China.
The nine levels of the pagoda stood for the peoples of nine different
countries, including Japan and various other districts which are now part
of China and Korea. According to the ancient architectural record
48
birth named Jigwi, who greatly admired the Queen in spite of their
difference in age and social status.
He had first encountered Seondeok as she passed him in the street
while on a visit to the capital city, and had fallen in love with her at first
sight. He stopped eating and sleeping, and did nothing but call out the
name of the Queen all day. Eventually, he went out of his mind.
One day soon afterwards, the Queen went to visit a Buddhist temple.
As she was passing a certain street corner, Jigwi appeared, calling out the
Queens name as usual, and was immediately thrust aside by the Queens
guards. The sight greatly stirred the onlookers, who lined the whole
street. When Queen asked one of her attendants about the disturbance,
he answered, Your majesty, a madman who tried to approach your royal
person was apprehended by the royal guard.
Why did they prevent him from coming to see me? the Queen asked.
The attendant was ashamed, as if he himself had committed a fault, and
said, Let me inform you then, Your Majesty, that the man in question is
named Jigwi, and is known to admire you.
The Queens heart was touched, and she ordered the attendant to
allow Jigwi to follow with her retinue to the temple, to the surprise of the
crowd and to the delight of Jigwi, who danced for joy.
As the Queen was praying in the temple, Jigwi waited outside, sitting at
the base of a pagoda. It was a long time before she came out, and so Jigwi
at first grew bored, and then impatient as time passed. Eventually, he fell
asleep.
49
50
to one story, as he clasped it tightly, his joy soon turned into a fire. The
fierce flames of his love burned up the pagoda, and Jigwi himself, until
nothing remained of him but a fiery wraith.
From this tale we learn of the Queens great beauty, which made a
common man forget his position, fall lovesick, and eventually die in the
flames of love. What is even clearer, however, is the noble character of
the Queen, who accepted the devotion of an ordinary man, who dared to
love so far above himself.
An ordinary person might have been surprised or troubled by his
attention. If Seondeok had been intolerant or self-possessed, she might
have had him imprisoned or even executed for slighting her dignity.
Contrary to what one might expect, the Queen tried to understand the
unfortunate love of her humble subject. When Jigwi fell asleep waiting for
her, she could have taken offence, as it was a most indecorous thing to
happen in the presence of a queen. The guards must have been shaking
the man awake, while her courtiers would have urged her to hurry back
to the palace and her daily business. Queen Seondeok, however, asked
for silence and waited for a moment, looking at Jigwi with gentle eyes and
a calm smile. Since he continued to sleep, the Queen left him her own
ring so that he would not be disappointed when he later woke up.
Her love for Jigwi was not romantic, but she chose to empathize with
his feelings rather than ignore or reject them coldly. It is worth
remembering that, during her reign in Silla, the kingdom was constantly
at war, and she always had to fend off invasions from neighboring
51
Not being married was seen as highly dubious in the social climate of the
day, and regarded as a question mark over ones character. This insult was
intended to be very offensive indeed.
52
observation rather than any supernatural intelligence. From the fact that
bees and butterflies are known to gather around flowers, she inferred
that the flowers in the painting had no scent. Emperor Taizongs implicit
ridicule of Queen Seondeoks celibacy as related here also illustrates for
us the refined level of intellectual competition between the two monarchs.
Outdoing the emperor in taste and graciousness, Queen Seondeok later
responded by founding a Buddhist temple which she named Bunhwangsa,
or the Royal Fragrance Temple.
Five years after her enthronement, the Queen caused wonder among
her people by defeating an invading enemy force with the help of frogs.
Near the banks of the Seongjin River in the capital city, there was a
temple called Yeongmyosa. In the temple grounds was a pond named
Okmun, which means, literally, Jade Gate. On a certain day in winter, a
number of frogs gathered together at the pond and began to croak loudly
for several days. When this strange phenomenon was reported to the
Queen, she immediately ordered two of her generals to lead 2,000 of her
best soldiers to the western suburb of the city, and to look for a valley
named Yeogeungok (Cradle of Life). She added that an enemy force
would be found there lying in wait, which they would be sure to take by
surprise. The two generals led their armies to the western suburb, found
the valley the Queen had mentioned, which lay near Mt. Bu, and
destroyed not only the detachment of 500 Baekje soldiers they found
there, but also a force of 1200 reinforcements which came later to aid
them.
53
Her bewildered subjects asked the Queen how she had foreseen the
Baekje invasion simply because of the croaking of frogs. The Queen
explained, A group of angry frogs signifies an army. Jade Gate is an
expression for a womans chastity. Woman is one of the meanings of Yin,
which also has the meaning of white, and the white color stands for the
West. So, I knew that an army was lying in the West. As we say, a man is
supposed in some sense to die during the act of creating new life. Since
the Baekje army was hiding in the valley known as the Cradle of Life, I
knew that it would be easy to defeat them. All who heard the Queens
reasoning were amazed at her insight.
In this way, Seondeok defeated the enemy without the need for a
major battle. She was well-versed in the philosophy of Yin and Yang, and
interpreted all the icons correctly: Female=Yin=White=West. It is
remarkable also to see the Queens reference to the symbolic death of
the male during the act of love. Even today, it is not usual or easy to talk
about such things in public. 1,300 years ago, the Queen openly dealt with
the subject in front of her male courtiers, who were most likely
embarrassed by her boldness.
The third story concerns the Queens death. One day, although in
good health, she announced before her subjects that she would die on a
certain day in a certain year, and requested that she be buried in the
Doricheon, which in Buddhism refers to a certain level of Heaven. When
asked where the Doricheon was, she replied that it was on the southern
side of Mt. Nang. As she had predicted, she passed away on the foretold
54
day and year, and was duly buried on the southeast-facing side of the
Nang mountain.
32 years later, King Mun-mu founded the Temple of the Four Devas
on the same mountain, some way beneath the Queens royal tomb on the
slope of the Nang Mountain. According to the Theravada Buddhist
scripture Gusaron (), Heaven has many levels; above the Heaven of
the Four Devas lies the Doricheon, where 33 heavenly gods reside. Thus,
when the Four Devas Temple was built below her tomb, the Queens
prophecy finally came true, and her extraordinary powers of perception
were once again revealed.
A famous novelist once remarked, The day before you die, you are
sure to buy a new pair of shoes. For all of us, there is nothing more
certain than death, and nothing less certain than when death will come.
Queen Seondeok knew when she would die and where her body would
rest; furthermore, she asked to be buried in a place which did not exist
on earth, and in the end her wish was granted. It is certain that the
Queens noble wish to make Silla into Buddhas realm remains with her in
the tomb at Doricheon.
In 1429, the 17-year old heroine Joan of Arc went to war in obedience
to Gods voice, which told her to save France from disaster. Her
55
56
57
References
Historical sources
58
Master Wonhyo (617-686 AD), one of the most seminal thinkers in the
history of Buddhism, contributed greatly to the development of a
distinctively
Korean
style
of
Buddhist
philosophy
and
practice.
Known
as
the
Haedongso
(Korean
commentary),
his
one of the three great commentaries on that text. His commentary on the
Wonhyo was born in 617 AD, during the reign of King Jinpyeong (579632). Wonhyos grandfather was called Sir Ingpi, and his father,
Seoldamnal was a government official.
60
A Great Awakening
In 650, Wonhyo and his friend Uisang embarked on a journey to study
in Tang China. At the time, it was common to make the journey by sea.
The sea-route passed through Liadong in Goguryeo, which bordered with
China. Liaodong was a key transport link between China and Korea. In
the year 650, it was also a place of heightened tension due to a recent
invasion by the Tang forces. Because of this, the two practitioners from
Silla were wrongly identified as spies by a Goguryeo patrol, as they
attempted to cross the border. Wonhyo and Uisang were apprehended at
Liaodong and detained for several weeks. Finally attaining their release,
they made their way back to Silla with great difficulty, frustrated in their
hopes of studying abroad.
Wonhyo made a second attempt to study in the Tang in the year he
turned 44, again in the company of Master Uisang. In order to cross the
sea to Tang China, they traveled westward. By the time they reached the
harbor of the Danghang Castle, darkness had already fallen. Met with
strong winds and heavy rain, they were forced to spend the night in an
underground shelter.
When they awoke the next morning, they realized they had in fact
spent the night in a burial chamber. The heavy rain continued, and they
were compelled to spend a second night there. During that night, Wonhyo
was unable to sleep, kept awake by terrifying sounds and visions of
ghosts. This occasion served as an opportunity for a great awakening in
the young master.
62
On the previous night, his mind had been at ease because he thought
he was sleeping inside a harmless shelter. On the second night, however,
because he knew he was sleeping inside a place of death and burial, he
felt very uncomfortable. From this experience, he realized, When a
thought arises, all dharmas (phenomena) arise, and when a thought
disappears, the shelter and the tomb are as one.
The Three Worlds are simply the mind,
All phenomena are mere perception.
There being no Dharma outside the mind,
What is there left to seek?
I shall not go to the Tang.
Wonhyo then returned to Silla. He had been awakened to a great
Truth that the Dharma does not exist outside the mind. Truth is not
something that one can seek outside oneself, but is an inner realization.
Wonhyo perceived the essence of the mind that resides within the innerself of a human being. This realization of Master Wonhyo became famous
in later years, and was re-conceived in the more famous version of the
tale.
According to the story, Wonhyo felt very thirsty during the night, a
nd began to search for water in the darkness. He was able to discern
an object that looked like a gourd. He picked it up, and found that t
here was water inside. He tasted it, and it was very sweet. He drank t
he contents in one gulp, and having satisfied his thirst, slept soundly
63
until dawn. The next morning, when he awoke, he remembered what had
occurred and looked for the gourd. The gourd, however, was nowhere to
be seen, and he saw only human skulls littering the ground. The gourd
had in fact been one of these skulls, and the sweet-tasting water,
raindrops that had collected inside. Examining the inside of one of the
skulls, he saw that the water was alive with maggots. The profound
realization he attained through this experience brought to his mind a
Dharma Lecture he had read in the text Awakening of Faith.
When a thought arises, all manner of different minds arise,
When a thought disappears, all these diverse minds disappear.
As the Tathagata said, all the Three Worlds are illusion,
All is a mere fabrication of the mind.
Having realized the principle of Mind-Only through this experience, he
no longer needed to travel abroad to seek the Dharma. Having thus
attained enlightenment in a single moment, he expressed the state of his
mind as follows:
Because a mind arises, many kinds of dharma come into being.
When the mind subsides, the sanctuary and graveyard are one.
The Three Worlds are simply the mind,
And all phenomena are based on consciousness.
Since there is only the mind, what else is there to seek!
64
mind,
which
is
firmly
attached
to
When the Dharma Lecture came to an end, the crowd remained still
for a long time, their minds filled with profound reverence and joy. Then
Wonhyo departed from his place and said, A hundred rafters were
needed, and yet I was not summoned. The main bulwark is needed, yet I
alone am capable. This statement was referring to the fact that he had
not been allowed to attend the Assembly of Hundred Seats, a council of a
hundred eminent monks, or rafters according to the metaphor used
here. By referring to himself as the main bulwark, Wonhyo signified
that he alone was needed to provide a solid foundation for Buddhism in
67
Silla. It is important to realize that these words were not spoken out of
arrogance or disdain. By reprimanding the monks who were motivated by
success and praise, he thus liberated them from their ignorance and
conceit. Hearing Wonhyos reproach, it is said that the assembly of
distinguished monks lowered their heads in shame, and repented deeply
for their error.
Ornament Sutra. In the words of the song, Master Wonhyo distilled the
meaning of the original phrase in words that could be understood easily.
When a person has cultivated the mind, because he or she has no
discriminative thoughts, each and every task is approached with wisdom
and equanimity. When the mind has thus become completely free, one is
liberated from the unending cycle of rebirth. To be unhindered means, in
other words, to have no grudges, ill feelings or other obstacles or
hindrances in ones mind, and therefore to treat everything and everyone
wisely and reverently. In a mind that is truly liberated, no feelings of
regret or guilt remain. Singing this Song of Non-hindrance, Master
Wonhyo traveled from village to village, never staying long in a single
place, wandering through every part of the country.
All sentient beings, listen!
Listen to Lord Buddhas words!
Good and bad depend on the mind,
Clean and unclean depend on the mind.
If the mind is compassionate and benevolent
Like the mind of Lord Buddha,
All shall enter the Land of Happiness!
Making Buddhas teachings accessible to everyone, the song became
known in every village Master Wonhyo visited. Moreover, as people
gathered to build temples and pagodas, it helped to foster a sense of
harmony and cooperation among the citizens of Unified Silla.
69
There are numerous tales and anecdotes about the life of Master
Wonhyo, some of which contain fantastical elements. The following is a
well-known tale, which relates how Wonhyo saved the lives of many
Chinese monks with his Dharma power.
Once, Master Wonhyo was staying at the Taegosa Temple. As he was
about to begin his evening meal, he saw with his wisdom-eye that a large,
ageing temple in China was about to collapse.
Meanwhile, at the temple in China, the 1,000 resident student-monks10
were about to eat their dinner, unaware that they were in danger of being
crushed to death. At that moment, Wonhyo quickly removed the plates
from his dining table and hurled the table towards the temple in China.
The monks supper was interrupted when a strange object appeared in
the sky and began to circle above the temple courtyard. The kitchen
monk saw it first and alerted his fellow practitioners. The monks stopped
eating, astonished by the remarkable sight and poured out into the yard.
The object began to make its way slowly towards the forest outside the
temple, as if beckoning the monks forward. When the monks had all
emerged from the temple grounds, the temple suddenly collapsed behind
them. The monks turned, and saw in disbelief the place where they had
recently been standing reduced to ruins. It had all happened in a matter
10
Novice monks who focus on studying the Sutras, before progressing to the
practice of meditation.
70
of moments.
The object fell from the sky into a field, and the monks pressed
around it. It was a wooden table, and on it was written This table is from
Wonhyo in the East to save his fellow monks. Finally realizing what had
happened, they all folded their hands and bowed with reverence towards
Silla in the East. As they continued to give thanks and express their
respects, the table rose again into the empty sky and began to move
slowly eastwards. The monks followed it, and having boarded a ship,
crossed the Yellow Sea to seek Master Wonhyo in Silla.
Wonhyo was staying at Cheokpanam Monastery, which was part of the
Jangansa Temple in Busan. He was surprised to find a thousand monks
suddenly requesting an audience with him. As the monastery was too
small to accommodate 1,000 people, Wonhyo arranged temporary
residences for them at Jangansa, and searched for a place where the
monks could be housed permanently. Eventually, he built a large temple
to accommodate the monks. Above the temple was a plain where he
taught the monks and trained them in the teachings of the Flower
Ornament Sutra. For this reason, the mountain is called Mt. Cheonseong
(Thousand Saints Mountain), and the stretch of land is called Hwaom
(Flower Ornament Plain).
Although this tale is extraordinary, at the very least we can infer that
a considerable number of Chinese monks studied under Wonhyo and that
the basis of his teaching was the Flower Ornament Sutra. It is a fact that
the Chinese Dharma Master Xianshou Fazang, a proponent of the Flower
71
73
rediscover the root of our One Mind. Here, we find a parallel with the
German philosopher Martin Heidegger's concepts of homelessness and
homecoming. Sentient beings are in essence homesick, and Buddha is
the home they seek. Methods of spiritual practice are simply a means of
completing this journey homewards.
With the One Mind as his guiding principle, Wonhyo devoted himself to
serving Buddha. It was with this One Mind that he produced literary
works, and it was with the ever-present goal of the One Mind that he lived
his life of Muae or Non-Hindrance. By returning to the root of One
Mind, he sought to be with his true self and to benefit all living beings.
74
difficult to see an object as it really is. We see the world filtered through
our own perspective, we measure things by our own personal standards,
and approach matters with ourselves as the central point of reference.
All such expressions of arrogance come from the ego.
To avoid distorting reality with a self-centered perspective, we need to
be free from preconceptions and prejudices. This means both to humble
and to open our minds. As Wonhyo remarked in the Commentary on the
Awakening of Faith, If you are free from preconceptions, you and the
other person will be equal. In order to measure something with
dimensions that exceed the limitations of our own standards, we must be
prepared to discard these fixed standards.
Although it is easy to say that we have let go of something, it is in
fact very difficult for our mind to truly let go. As long as we cling to
ourselves, or believe that others are separate from us, it is impossible for
us to empty the mind. A person who tries to stop a fight must be impartial.
Hwajaeng is possible only when it is based on absolute impartiality. When
we are capable of acts that are truly without ego, like the acts of the
Buddha, we can finally be freed from differences and disputes between
scholars and academics.
If we remain trapped within the narrowness of our own perceptions,
and insist on the absolute validity of a certain viewpoint, or dogmatize a
given position, problems will inevitably arise. Wonhyo described this
attitude as follows: There are those who put forward their own limited
opinion on the basis of the little they have heard; if others agree, they are
77
pleased, but if others disagree, they say that they are wrong. Like a man
who observes the sky through a hole in a reed, such people approve
when others view the sky through the same hole, but claim that those
who do not are unable to see the sky.
Wonhyo reprimanded the foolishness of those who, being narrowminded and weak, maintain that only their opinion is correct and do not
accept the words of others. Though standards are not always the same,
they are not always different. Nothing is the same, and yet nothing is
really different. In the words of Wonhyo: Because they are many, many
ways are possible, and because they are one, all ways are ultimately one,
single way. How could there be only one path in life? There is a broad
highway, a sea-route, and a solitary footpath. How could we say only one
road is right? Any of the paths can lead us to the ultimate goal of
happiness. If we open the narrow and constrained mind, an open sky of
possibilities is revealed.
The spoken or written word is like a finger that points to the moon. It
is important to look at the moon, rather than simply look at the finger. As
Wonhyo said: With words, I will illustrate the Dharma that is beyond
words. Just like the finger that points at the moon, the moon and the
finger are not the same.
If one focuses on figures of speech, it is easy to miss the essence of
what is being said. Therefore it is better to seek the meaning behind the
words, rather than focusing on the words themselves. Looking at words
alone, it is difficult to accommodate anothers opinion, whatever it might
78
be. But if we look at the meaning of the words, there is nothing that
cannot be accommodated.
With words, there is nothing to accept;
With meaning, there is nothing to deny.
This is another lesson from Wonhyo. If we lose sight of the meaning,
and merely cling to words, it is no different from examining the tip of
ones finger and concluding that it is not the moon. It would be better to
shed our preconceptions and prejudices, and listen to the words of others.
Better still if we were able to look through the eyes of others and perceive
the true unspoken words of the mind.
of
Hwajaeng
and
One
Mind.
With
respect
to
personal
11
enter the Pure Land after death, regardless of age, gender or social class.
Because Pure Land Buddhism was easy to understand and practice, it
spoke to those who were not well-versed in the more complex aspects of
Buddhist philosophy and practice. This is why Wonhyo chose this simple
and approachable doctrine to propagate Buddhism amongst ordinary
people.
Wonhyos unhindered way of life began after his realization of the One
Mind. Spending time with clowns, butchers, prostitutes, aged farmers,
and unlettered peasants, he shared in their joys and sorrows, and
practiced compassion towards all he met. As he travelled the country
singing and dancing, everybody from housekeepers to young children in
the streets came to know Buddhas name through his words. Wonhyo had
become fully aware of the innate preciousness of all living beings. He
tried to bridge the spurious division between the nobles and common
people. If Korea was to be unified, it was not enough for the borders of
three kingdoms to be erased and for one monarch to rule the country.
True unification could only be achieved when the walls within peoples
hearts were broken down and everyone desired to live together without
hate and mistrust. Thus Wonhyo conceived, from a Buddhist perspective,
what the true unification of Koreas three kingdoms should be.
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82
insisted that anyone who realizes the truth of the One Mind can be
enlightened in this world.
Wonhyo also thought that the ultimate purpose of Buddhism was to
rescue sentient beings from suffering. However great a theory may be, if
it is not applied in our daily lives, it is lifeless and useless. His own life is
a perfect example of the propagation of Buddhism based on philosophical
truth and the coming together of theory and practice. In this sense, the
life and works of Wonhyo, a pillar of Korean Buddhism, remain a source
of guidance and inspiration for us today.
It is noteworthy that the people of Silla praised him using the terms
described above. A Match for Ten Thousand means one who has the
wisdom and courage to confront countless enemy troops alone without
difficulty. Legendary generals such as Guanyu and Zhangfei were given
this title, and it is interesting that Wonhyo, a Buddhist monk, was
compared to the most capable generals from ancient times. It is a way of
expressing his vigorous and distinctive approach to life, on the battlefield
of the Dharma.
For the people of Silla, a match for ten thousand was certainly no
exaggeration. In the 1,600 year history of Korean Buddhism, his teachings
and writings occupy the summit of achievement. No previous master had
scaled the heights attained by Wonhyo in his lifetime, and subsequent
masters of a similar caliber are few and far between.
Sharing the Buddhas teachings and his realizations for the benefit of
all were his earnest wishes. The 100 works Wonhyo is known to have
written, covering almost every aspect of Buddhism, including Hinayana,
84
Mahayana and the Tripitaka of sutras, vinaya and shastras, can only be
described as a superhuman effort of study and authorship. The depth of
perception and clarity of interpretation that are evident in his key works
such as Daesung Gisillon So (Commentary on the Awakening of Faith)
and Geumgang Sammaegyeong Non (Exposition of the Vajrasamadhi
Sutra) have inspired countless Buddhist scholars and practitioners
across the globe, and remain a beacon of Truth that burns eternally.
85
References
Historical sources
86
The Chinese of the early 15th century referred to their king as Son of
the Heavens, while isolationist Japan gave the title Ruler of the
Heavens to its emperor. At a time when the monarchs of neighbouring
states were glorifying their offices with divine-like honors, King Sejong of
Korea established the notion of the People of the Heavens. Sejong
revered each and every one of his people as being of Heavenly origin and
served them as such. He believed that the duty of a king was to look after
the people of a noble, heavenly race.
Sejongs care and attention extended to every member of his kingdom.
Female servants in government office, for example, were given 30 days of
leave prior to giving birth and a further 100 days of leave after, while
their husbands were granted 30 days of paternity leave. He also
considered the rights of prisoners, frequently inquiring about the
temperatures at which the prisons were kept and ensuring that they were
cleaned and maintained properly.
The People of the Heavens, in King Sejongs view, were not simply
the people of Korea. Even foreign peoples, such as the tribes of Jurchens,
then considered by Korea and China as barbarians, were, as he believed,
no less worthy of his respect. His views are all the more remarkable, if we
87
88
consider that this was an age in which men were classed by common
perception as either civilized or barbarous.
Sejong did not regard the people simply as objects of his care and
governance, but believed that they possessed a limitless potential to
transform, realize, and awaken themselves to a higher cultural and
spiritual level. To help them achieve this, as he thought, was the real
duty of kings and officials. The great efforts he devoted to developing the
new alphabet Hangeul and to advance printing technology for the
publication of books on many and various subjects were all made to
achieve this one end of helping the heavenly race of mankind educate
and improve itself.
To share in the joys of living with Heavens People was the goal of
King Sejong, and he never rested for a moment in his pursuit of it. When
his people starved during times of famine, he starved with them and
prepared himself for death, offering up prayers to the Heavens. Even
when his eyesight became seriously impaired and his health was in a
grave condition, he devoted himself wholly to the betterment and
progress of the country. He fortified the nations defences by
strengthening the army and improving its standards of weaponry. He also
revolutionized the sciences, particularly those of agriculture, medicine
and astronomy. A scientific dictionary, published in Japan in 1983,
recorded that 29 of the worlds scientific achievements in the first half of
the 15th century were made in Korea, five in China, none in Japan, and 28
in the rest of the world. In step with scientific progress, literature and the
arts also flourished and the peoples standard of living rose substantially.
89
Prince Chungnyeong
Sejong was born on the 15th of May, 1397 (April 10th by the lunar
calendar) and given the birth name of Do. He was the third son of Queen
Wongyeong and King Taejong of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). At the
age of 12, Do became a prince and was given the name of Chungnyeong.
Prince Chungnyeong had two elder brothers, Yangnyeong and
Hyoryeong. Prince Yangnyeong was burly in physique and lively in spirit.
Although he possessed talents in poetry and calligraphy, he preferred
wild amusements in the outside world to reading quietly in the palace
behind nine fast-closed gates. Prince Hyoryeong was tender-hearted by
nature. He was obedient to his parents and kind to his siblings. Later, he
became a Buddhist monk and built many temples.
In the Confucian Joseon Dynasty, it was customary for the eldest
prince to succeed to the throne. Accordingly, Prince Yangnyeong was
proclaimed Crown Prince at the age of 11. Crown Prince Yangnyeong had
to receive daily lessons in the classics and in princely deportment from
royal scholars. However, much to the disappointment of King Taejong,
Yangnyeong soon lost interest in studying and would instead go out
shooting with a bow and arrow, or climb over the palace walls in the
mingled company of his servants, or summon his companions of loose
conduct into his palace to drink, sing and laugh at naughty plays the
whole night. Still worse, Yangnyeong was a notorious philanderer. Once,
he heard of the beauty of Ori, a concubine of Gwak Jeong, vice counsellor
90
to the Kings Central Council. He ordered his servants to bring her to the
palace and made her his mistress.
For many years, whenever these bad reports reached the throne, the
King reprimanded Yangnyeong, who in turn would read aloud his written
words of repentance before the spirits of his ancestors at the Royal
Shrine. Nevertheless, he had already reached an incorrigible state, and
his bad habits of drinking and love-making had become hardened. King
Taejong was chagrined at the conduct of Yangnyeong, whom he found to
be unworthy of throne, and grew to hate the very sight of him. Other
courtiers were also becoming deeply concerned over the abnormal
behavior of the Crown Prince and the future of the state.
Finally, a formal complaint against the Crown Prince was submitted.
The Prime Minister, the heads of the six cabinet ministries, the supreme
military councillors, together with important officials from every
government department, presented a request to the throne under joint
signature to depose Yangnyeong as the Crown Prince, since he had
shown no sign of repentance for his sins and his wild behaviour was seen
to be inimical to the state.
King Taejong, who had long pondered this very course of action,
approved the request. Accordingly, on 2nd of June 1418, the King decided
to remove Yangnyeong from the seat of Crown Prince. The discussion
then turned to who should be his replacement.
At this time, Prince Chungnyeong was 22 years old. He had read
almost all the books in the palace library and acquired knowledge
91
Since early childhood, Sejong had always loved to read. Once he had
read a book, he would read it again 100 times, and some books, he read
over 200 times until he had learned them by heart. Seeing his sons
devotion to reading and studying, King Taejong grew anxious for his
92
health and forbade him to read during the night. When his reading
continued, Taejong sent an attendant to confiscate and hide all the books
in his room. Disheartened, Sejong began to search, and found one book
that had escaped the attendants notice called Guso Sugan (Ou-Sus
letters) lying behind a screen. Overcome with joy, he picked it up and
proceeded to read it several hundred times. When he learned of this,
King Taejong said, Why do you let your body suffer so, as if you were a
scholar preparing for the state examination?
Sejongs desire to learn grew even stronger when he became king and
began to attend the Gyeong-yeon, where he studied and discussed
Confucian Classics and historical texts with the countrys most
accomplished scholarly officials. After ascending to the throne in August
1418, Sejong began to hold the Gyeong-yeon in October and attended it
as part of his daily routine. After 20 years, Sejong had participated in no
fewer than 1,898 of its lectures.
As time passed, various problems arose with holding the Gyeongyeon. The officials in charge of the meeting were still obliged to perform
their routine government duties, and as a result were often unable to
prepare the lectures adequately. Furthermore, the young kings
knowledge was already so advanced and his zeal for literature so fervent
that the number and depth of the lectures he required were often difficult
to provide. To solve this problem, Sejong appointed full-time teachers to
oversee the Gyeong-yeon, laying the foundations of what eventually grew
to become the Jiphyeonjeon.
93
Gukjo Bangmok, all but one of the scholars who resided at the
Jiphyeonjeon during the institutions existence had succeeded in the state
examination, and just under half were among the top five in their year.
They were clearly a very talented group, despite being very young when
they joined the Jiphyeonjeon, usually at the age of 23 or 24.
Sejong earnestly supported these scholars in the belief that they were
essential to the countrys livelihood. As residents of the Jiphyeonjeon,
they enjoyed many privileges. Sejong ordered the stewards of the Royal
Palace to take charge of their meals, providing them on occasion with the
kingdoms finest food and drink. The King would often visit the
Jiphyeonjeon in person to encourage the scholars in their studies. They
were also granted exemption from routine administrative duties and the
mandatory cycle of offices, as well as special leave for intensive periods
of study at home or at quiet Buddhist temples in the mountains.
Once, as the King was taking a quiet walk in the Royal Palace at night,
he saw a lamp burning in the Jiphyeonjeon, where a scholar named Sin
94
Suk-ju was reading, forgetful of sleep. Sejong returned to his room, and
ordered one of his servants to observe the scholars movements. Upon
learning from the servant later on that the light had not been put out
until dawn, the King went to the Jiphyeonjeon and gently placed his
Gonryongpo (a regal coat made of silk) over Sin Suk-ju, who was now
asleep, and some time after went to bed himself. As soon as the young
scholar awoke, he saw the Kings coat had been put over his body and
had kept him warm all night. Astonished at the Kings kindness, he bowed
toward the Kings chambers with tears in his eyes.
12
Sejong took on many projects in the 32 years of his reign, all of which
contributed to the welfare of the public, but took many years to complete.
He was determined to achieve perfection in these projects, and made
great use of the intellectual resources available to him at the
Jiphyeonjeon.
The duties assigned to the scholars ranged widely from purely
academic assignments to more active advisory roles in politics. They
included the preparation of lectures for the Gyeong-yeon, historical and
cultural research, an investigative study of the rituals and institutions of
ancient
dynasties, administration
of
the state
examinations,
the
through the Jiphyeonjeon during the reign of King Sejong, covering the
subjects of politics, history, literature, linguistics, geography, philosophy,
law, music, agriculture, medicine, astronomy, and others.
The most noteworthy publications included Nongsa Jikseol (A Plain
Guide to Farming, 1429), Taejong Sillok (The Annals of King Taejong,
1431), Paldo Jiriji (The Geographical Descriptions of the Eight Provinces,
1432), Samgang Haengsildo (Illustrated Guide to Conduct and the Three
Bonds, 1432), Hyangyak Jipseongbang (Great Collection of Native Korean
Prescriptions, 1433), Jachi Tonggam Hunie (Notes on the History of China,
1436), Hunmin Jeongeum (The Proper Sounds to Instruct the People,
1446), and Goryeosa (The History of Goryeo, 1450).
The volume and variety of books published through the Jiphyeonjeon
demonstrate King Sejongs deep concern with improving the daily life of
all his subjects regardless of their class or status through wise
government and the study of literature. Though the Jiphyeonjeon existed
for a relatively short period of 36 years, it won unparalleled fame for its
lasting cultural achievements, which have been an important legacy for
the nation of Korea.
96
13
John Man, Alpha Beta: How 26 Letters Shaped the Western World (New
Hangeul calligraphy
Of the 6,000 languages in existence today, only a few hundred have
their own alphabets. Of these few hundred languages, Hangeul is the only
alphabet whose inventor, theory, and motives behind its creation have
been fully set out and explained. Roman characters have their origins in
the hieroglyphics of Egypt and the syllabic Phoenician alphabets, and had
to undergo a process of gradual evolution to become what they are today.
Chinese characters, similarly, began as inscriptions on bones and
tortoise shells, and took thousands of years to reach their current form.
However, Hangeul is neither based on ancient written languages nor an
imitation of another set of characters, but an alphabet unique to Korea.
Moreover, as a highly scientific writing system, based on profound
linguistic knowledge and philosophical principles, Hangeul is practical
and convenient as well as beautiful.
98
99
These were the three basic vowels, and others were made by placing
the round dot above or below the horizontal line, and to the left and right
of the vertical line : , , , , , , , . The vowels therefore
represent the harmony of heaven, earth and men.
The consonants and vowels each represent a phoneme, or unit of
speech, and together the letters make a syllable. For example, Moon in
Korean is (dal), which consists of: (consonant) + (vowel) +
(consonant). In other words, Korean is both a phonemic and a syllabic
language.
Hangeuls qualities have fascinated modern-day scholars around the
world. Robert Ramsey, a professor at Maryland University, described the
originality of Hangeul as follows:
100
unquestionably
rank
as
one
of
the
great
15
Robert Ramsey, The Korean Alphabet, King Sejong the Great, ed.
Thanks to the new alphabet, the lives of ordinary people, men and
women alike, changed dramatically. They were able to access a wealth of
knowledge by reading books and to write letters to their loved ones. With
an illiteracy rate of almost zero in Korea today, the Korean people are
still benefiting from the kings determination and self-sacrifice.
In memory of King Sejongs noble spirit, Koreans commemorate
Hangeul Day as a national holiday every year on October 9th. UNESCO
has also established the King Sejong Literacy Prize, annually awarded
to individuals or groups that have contributed greatly to the battle
against global illiteracy.
Used now as an alternative alphabet for the worlds minorities who
have no written language, Sejongs invention continues to be a guiding
light for the illiterate. The Chepang Tribe from Nepal, who are without an
alphabet of their own, have adopted the Korean letters Hangeul in an
effort to preserve their language and culture. Over in Indonesia, the CiaCia, a small ethnic group with a population of 60,000, has adopted
Hangeul as its alphabet for transcribing the aboriginal Austronesian
language.
Linguists of the world acknowledge the originality and depth of
Hangeul, and its logical and pragmatic basis. More valuable than the
alphabet itself, however, is the selfless love and devotion of Sejong
embodied within it. His sincere wish that all people be able to express
their thoughts in writing is the true pride of Korea and a spiritual
heritage to share with the whole world.
103
17
th
Century
105
Due
to
the
knowledge
provided
by
the
medical
106
Whenever a book was published, Sejong would hold a great feast in his
delight. Through his earnest desire to share the blessings of culture and
literature with many, the art of printing in 15th century Korea took many great
steps forward.
The society of 15th century Korea was rigidly hierarchical, as was the
case in the most of the world at that time. High-ranking positions in
government were open only to the nobility, namely the yangban class.
Yang means two or both, and ban means seat, position, or status. In
the royal court, officials were seated to the right and left hand of the king,
and this is how the name was derived. Yangban families married into one
another and lived apart from the other classes.
In Joseon Korea, there were three types of state examination: Literary,
Military and Technical. Since proficiency in literary studies was more
highly regarded than expertise in more practical studies such as law,
medicine and foreign languages, the highest roles in government were
awarded to those who had been successful in the literary examinations.
The literary state examinations could only be taken by the offspring of a
legal wife of yangban rank; the children of a yangbans concubine could
only enter the science-based technical examinations, and such men
generally went on to become professionals such as physicians, inspectors,
107
108
Jang, who later became famous for his invention of the sundial and
automated water-clock, began his career as a servant in the government
offices at Dongrae. According to the Sejong Sillok, his father was from
Sohangju in China and his mother was a gisaeng (professional
entertainer) from Dongrae. Despite his lowly origin, he displayed an
exceptional talent for mechanics and engineering.
When he learned of Changs gifts, Sejong sent him abroad so that he
could familiarize himself with the most advanced theories in technology
and science. After studying at various observatories, Jang was relieved of
his servant status and appointed a Royal Scientist in the seventh year of
Sejongs reign (1425). When the decision for his appointment to office was
first made known, opposition from several ministers temporarily halted
proceedings altogether. When Taejong later added his support to Jangs
case at the next discussion of his appointment, he was finally given the
undisputed right to become an official of the Royal Household.
Having been raised from servant status to the rank of Royal Scientist
within a single day, Jang continued to enjoy the favor of Sejong for the 20
years that followed. He went on to contribute to the design and
construction of the celestial globe, the astrolabe, the sundial, the
automatic water clock, and the rain gauge, many of which were solely the
result of his own work. He also worked with Yi Cheon to improve printing
technology, and so made great a many contributions to the study of
science before he died.
During Sejongs reign, many political reforms were undertaken, and the
109
changes of legal system are among the most noteworthy. Sejong was deeply
concerned that the majority of judicial officers were giving judgment on a
subjective basis, rather than on grounds of evidence obtained through proper
investigation, and that many mistakes and failures were taking place within the
justice system. Thus, in the 13th year of his reign, he composed and dispatched
a letter of almost 4,000 words, urging officers throughout the country to give
fair and carefully measured verdicts.
Though he was eager that trials should be carried out fairly, Sejongs
ultimate aspiration was a country which could exist without a penal system,
and a harmonious society whose prisons were all empty. Faced in reality with
circumstances that required penal laws, Sejong often agonized greatly over
verdicts he was called to deliver, and would often lighten punishments as far as
possible whenever he could.
A True Altruist
Sejong firmly believed that it was the duty and mission of a king to
serve his country as well as he possibly could, and to sacrifice himself for
the sake of its people. The peoples happiness was the sole standard
against which he measured his success as ruler. Furthermore, Sejongs
love for his people was not confined to a particular class. When we
consider his warm compassion for the young and old, his concern for the
rights of slaves and prisoners, and his policies of welfare and openness
110
111
pum18, you must first inform the Central Government. If his position is
18
All government officials were given ranks from one pum to nine pum, with
equal to or less than four pum, you may judge his offence there and then.
If the need for relief is urgent, open the storehouses yourselves and give
the people relief.
113
the turn came for Prince Hyoryeong (King Sejong's elder brother) to pour
wine for the King, the King stood to receive it.
Later, two envoys from China asked Hwang Hee, At todays banquet,
why did the King stand to receive wine from Prince Hyoryeong?
Hwang Hee replied, If you think of His Majesty and Prince Hyoryeong
as a king and his subject, he was under no obligation to stand. The
reason that the King stood up was because he regards it as his duty to
respect his elder brother.
The envoys were moved by the Kings actions and praised his virtue
highly.
114
115
concern for the fact that harm might come to the baby if she returned
leaving the child at home, and so this period of leave was later increased
to 100 days. However, there have been instances of women whose time
was near, and who gave birth before reaching home. I therefore suggest
that one month of full leave be granted prior to giving birth. Please
amend the relevant laws.
116
117
118
Gyeongbokgung Palace
119
120
121
Unlike many other kings given the title Great by posterity, Sejongs
greatness did not lie in brute force or in the conquering and subduing of
other peoples, but in a series of intellectual and cultural achievements that
have continued to benefit his nation throughout many generations, and which
enrich the lives of his people today.
Through his intelligence, creative energy, compassion, and good judgment,
the King worked with untiring dedication to free his countrymen from poverty,
injustice, and ignorance. He surrounded himself with capable scholars and
scientists, whose ingenuity found an ordered and splendid means of expression
under his leadership. It is for this reason that the name of Sejong is given to
many streets, schools, research institutes, cultural centers, and even
businesses in modern Korea.
Sejong was a king who served the people with reverence and humility, who
promoted the power and beauty of culture out of love and benevolence, and
who instilled in his country a sense of independence and a new cultural identity.
He possessed a deep respect for history and tradition, valued learning and
scholarship, and led his country forward with bold and innovative reforms.
Dressed in patched clothing and living beneath a humble roof, he never
faltered in his sense of duty and responsibility even in the days when his work
on the alphabet caused him to become almost blind. He was a father to the
poor, the weak, the ignorant, and even those who committed crimes
against the national law.
122
123
Bibliography
Historical Sources
124
Yulgok composed this work in 1577 to provide a basic guide for young
scholars. After its publication, the book was widely used as a textbook in
secondary schools until the end of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). The title
of the book means Dispelling Ignorance.
20
Yulgok is the courtesy name of Yi Yi, originating from the name of his
contemplated
profound
126
The 5,000 won bill has a portrait of Yulgok, as well as pictures of his
birthplace and Sin Saimdangs art. The portrait on the 1,000 won bill is of
Toegye, and Sin Saimdang appears on the 50,000 won bill.
128
129
130
131
Yulgoks birthplace
brightness. The sea nymph gave the baby to Saimdang, and she awoke.
Soon after the dream, she became pregnant, and on the night before the
baby was born, she had another auspicious dream. This time, a black
dragon soared upwards out of the sea, flew to her bedroom and landed
on the balcony. For this reason, Yulgoks boyhood name was
Hyeonyong, literally meaning a dragon manifests itself. His birth
room was called Mongyongsil (literally, Room of Dragon Dream).
Several years later, Yulgoks father also had an unusual dream. In the
dream, a sage-like gentleman pointed to the boy Yulgok and said, This
child will be reckoned among the greatest philosophers of our land.
133
Therefore, let his name be Yi. From then on, the letter Yi was used for
his given name. The Chinese character of Yi refers to a halo, or corona,
and was here used to signify the future greatness of Yulgok.
As these dreams portended, Yulgok showed an extraordinary
precociousness from a very early age. His biographies state that as soon
as he learned to speak, he was able to read. At the age of 3, his
grandmother took up a pomegranate and asked him, What is this like?
Yulgok replied with a phrase from an old poem, Broken red gem stones
are wrapped in the skin of a pomegranate, to the amusement and
surprise of all.
His intellectual progress was so rapid that, at the age of 10, he had
read all the major historical works and the classics of Daoism and
Confucianism. His progress received official recognition when he passed
the qualification for the civil service examination at the age of 13.
At the time, there was another prodigy taking the exam, who was the
same age as Yulgok. As both of them passed, the court officials in charge
of the examination were very impressed, and arranged to meet with them.
The other boy was apparently very boastful, while Yulgok was modest
and humble. Many who witnessed this meeting foresaw that Yulgok would
become a great scholar and a man of character.
Later at the age of 29, Yulgok won first place at the final stage of the
examination. The civil service examination consisted of many stages, and
candidates had to pass the beginner and intermediate stages before
reaching the final exam. Yulgoks achievements became legendary after
134
Filial Devotion
Like his mother Shin Saimdang, Yulgok was known for his filial
devotion from early childhood. When Saimdang once fell seriously ill,
Yulgok, then only 5 years old, went into the ancestral shrine to pray for
his mother. Other family members consoled the young boy and brought
him back home.
At 11, when his father became ill and was in a coma, he cut his arm
and let the drops of blood fall into his fathers mouth. He then prayed to
the ancestors to take his life instead of his fathers.
At the age of 16, when Saimdang passed away, he and his brothers
together held a three-year mourning period at the burial site. During that
time, they dressed in full mourning attire, and personally carried out all
135
the ceremonial rites, from setting the daily memorial table to washing the
dishes, and left none of the duties to the servants. After the customary
mourning period, Yulgok continued to mourn in conscience for another
year. Mourning in conscience means to continue to observe formal
morning rites even though the official mourning period has ended.
Although mourning at the burial site of ones parents was common
among aristocrats of the day, Yulgok, who was only 16, practiced it out of
a genuine affection and respect for his mother. He paid further tribute to
his mother by writing A Record of My Late Mothers Life, which remains
an important historical source about Saimdangs life and art.
Yulgok was known for his love and filial devotion towards his
maternal grandmother as well. When he was 31 years old, he was
appointed to the post of Civil Affairs Official after returning from a
diplomatic trip to China. Hearing that his 89 year old grandmother was
seriously ill, he immediately resigned his post and left for his
grandmothers house. This incident became a minor scandal in the court,
since he had left before he was permitted to do so. Certain officials
pressed strongly for his dismissal as punishment for his error. The King
did not listen to them, however, reasoning that Yulgoks act signified
great filial piety, rather than disloyalty to his country. Yulgok also wrote
136
The stories we have regarding Yulgoks step-mother tell of his selfdiscipline as well as filial devotion. Shin Saimdang told her husband not
to marry another woman if she should die early, as in fact she did.
Perhaps with regard to Saimdangs request, Yulgoks father entrusted the
management of the household to a concubine, instead of formally
marrying someone of his own class. The concubine, who was rude and
coarse in manner, did not treat Yulgok and his siblings well.
When Yulgoks father passed away, his step-mother began to drink
soju (rice wine) in the morning, a habit she acquired out of lonesomeness.
Instead of criticizing her, Yulgok called on her every morning, warming
the jar himself before serving her wine. He took good care of his stepmother, so that she would not feel isolated from the rest of the family
members. His step-mothers attitude towards him eventually softened,
and later when Yulgok passed away, she remained in mourning for three
years to express her deep gratitude.
Scholarship
22
to recover from his deep-seated grief, learn from the monks about the
Buddhist
scriptures
and
to
practice
Buddhist
meditation.
His
Self-Discipline
To Confucian scholars, the most important virtue was to put ones
knowledge into practice. To learn and then to act was a Confucian
tenet that required inner discipline. In this regard, Yulgok was genuinely
an exemplary figure, and tried hard to live up to the ideal throughout his
life. His resolution is clearly seen in two pieces of his writing in particular.
One is Minding the Self, written after he returned from Mt. Kumgang at
the age of 20. It tells of his resolve to follow the example of the sages and
other great men, how to conduct everyday speech and behavior, and the
correct attitude to learning. In it he says, One with peaceful mind does
not talk much. Putting ones soul and heart to a given task is a way to
calm the mind. All evils result from not being mindful when one is alone.
139
Facing disaster and hardship, find faults in oneself and repent. Learning
should be neither hurried nor desultory. It should cease only at death. If
one seeks to reap the rewards of learning too soon, this is greed. If one
does not pursue learning, this is a disgrace, and one is no longer
human. Here learning means more than academic study. More
precisely, it means disciplining and cultivating ones mind according to
the principles of the Heavens.
Another work which deals with self-discipline is Repentance on
Winter Solstice. Yulgok wrote it at midnight on the winter solstice, in a
reflection on his life up to that day, at the age of 25 years old.
Contemplating the many changes in the world and the universe, he came
to realize: When all is in flux, is it not right that I too should change?
The following poem expresses his intention in greater detail:
The cycle of the Heavens is about to repeat itself,
Filling me with awe and wonder.
The cosmic essence lives and breathes in all things,
The three elements of Heaven, Earth, and Man.
Virtue is the gift of the Heavens,
As bright as the moon and the sun.
But foolish thoughts have dimmed its brightness,
Small at first, but great in time.
As an ax devours the tree,
Foolishness has gnawed at my soul.
These five and twenty years
140
Yulgok lived a life of integrity and honesty. When he came into the
possession of a house, he immediately sold it and shared the money
amongst his poorest relatives. At times he barely had enough to feed
himself. A statesman recorded, When Yulgok passed away, his family
was so poor that they had to borrow clothes to dress the body. Not
having a house of their own in Seoul, they were constantly on the move,
suffering from cold and hunger. Yulgoks friends and the other scholars
all contributed to buy them a house. At the time, it was common for
government officials to embezzle funds and abuse their position. But
Yulgok was exemplary and heroic in his inner discipline and dedication to
the countrys good.
Visiting Toegye
Yulgok visited the great scholar, Toegye, when he was 23 years old
and Toegye was 57. Although Yulgok had won the first place at the civil
service examination a year before, he was still largely unknown. By
contrast, Toegye had long been renowned for his scholarship and
virtuous conduct. However, when they met each other, Toegye
recognized Yulgoks character and potential. In a letter to one of his
students, Toegye wrote: He [Yulgok] is positive and cheerful in
personality, and has an excellent memory. He is thoroughly set upon
learning. A sage once said, A man must respect his juniors. I now
appreciate the wisdom of this saying.
142
differs
from
Toegyes
in several
important
respects.
143
24
served as the
24
material cause behind it. Li and ki together make up sim (mind). Jeong
(emotion) arises when the mind responds to the outside world.
Yulgoks contribution to the development of the Neo-Confucian
philosophy centers around two metaphysical issues. One was the issue of
human emotion in relation to li and ki, which eventually came to be
called the Four-Seven Debate. The other was the question as to
whether the nature of humans was the same as that of other beings, such
as animals. The Four-Seven debate initially began between Toegye and
Gobong, another philosopher. Yulgok re-opened the debate 13 years
later. By further elaborating on the issues explored by the two
predecessors, he resolved some of the disputed points and built a unique
and compelling framework of metaphysics with profound philosophical,
ethical, and political ramifications.
The Four-Seven debate marks one of the most important events in
Asian philosophical development. It culminated in a distinctively Korean
interpretation of Neo-Confucianism, and is testament to the vitality and
maturity of the intellectual world in 16th century Korea. The debate
reached its height at the time of Toegye and Yulgok, and lasted for three
more centuries, engendering fierce controversy among Joseon scholars.25
Four-Seven refers to the four beginnings of virtue and seven
emotions. According to Mencius and Zhu Xi, the principles of human
nature are the virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and
25
in
the
understanding
of
right
and
wrong.
These
four
146
feelings.26
When Yulgok took up the issue years later, he adopted Gobongs
position and developed it into a clearer, more original and systematic
viewpoint. While Gobong somewhat modified his initial position after the
debates with Toegye, Yulgok totally opposed Toegyes dualistic thesis. He
criticized Toegye for postulating two different sources of goodness.
According to Yulgok, because li and ki are always inseparable in physical
phenomena, it is not possible to have one group of feelings (the Four) as
manifestations of li and the other group of feelings (the Seven) as
manifestations of ki. From Yulgoks point of view, the Four are rooted
within the Seven as a subset consisting of good feelings. Thus the Four
encompasses good only, while the Seven includes both good and evil.
27
Toegye, as a dualistic thinker, separated the mind into two parts: the
moral mind and the human mind, assigning the former to the Four, and
the latter to the Seven. By contrast, Yulgok argued that the mind is
fundamentally one and cannot be separated into two minds. This is
because the Seven, or the totality of feelings, include both the moral
mind and the human mind together. Yulgok stressed that the moral mind
and the human mind refer simply to two dimensions of one mind
virtuous and emotional. Unlike Toegye, Yulgok strenuously asserted the
inseparability of li and ki in the phenomenal world. While Toegye
assigned an active role to li so that it could manifest itself in human
26
27
Its
original
mystery,
however,
exists
ki
moves
without
ceasing,
ascending
and
28
29
and
political
responsibility.
Yulgok
took
government
151
one of the pillars of good governance. He advised the King that freedom
of speech must be encouraged, so that the ruler would know clearly what
his people wanted. Second, Yulgok urged that in order to restore the
integrity of the government, bribery must be eliminated altogether. At the
time, corrupt practices were commonplace among government officials
of every rank. Third, Yulgok recommended that those born of
concubines be allowed to qualify to take the civil service examination. In
Joseon, concubines were legally permitted to the ruling class, but
children from such unions were not given the same status as the father.
Because only those of aristocratic status were qualified for high-ranking
government positions, such men had no prospects of a public career and
thus inhabited a kind of social limbo. Yulgok reasoned that only the
talent and character of a person should be taken into account, and not
his background. Moreover, he also proposed to lessen the compulsory
duties of servants belonging to government offices, and is recorded as
saying Servants also rank among our people. His reform measures may
well fall short of modern democracy. Nonetheless, it would be fair to say
that Yulgok strived to establish a more egalitarian and democratic
society in the context of the highly stratified Neo-Confucian social order.
Yulgok continually advised the King to test new reforms in order to
make the nation more stable and prosperous. The ruler and most other
statesmen did not understand the urgency of change, and thus their
actions were not of much use. Rather, many of them considered that
Yulgoks proposals were unbalanced, and even that he was exaggerating
152
some of societys problems. In this political climate, his ideas for reform
could not be realized. At the time, the Joseon Dynasty was in great need
of reformers like Yulgok, but the royal court and the ruling class were
not ready either to implement or to accept any of his plans.
153
them take turns to guard the capital, but in time of war, let them come
together for our national defense. If we do not prepare in advance, we
will be unable to do anything should an emergency arise, but merely
drive untrained people into the fields of war. Then we will be without
hope.
The proposal to train 100,000 soldiers arose from an acute sense of
crisis on Yulgoks part. He had been following the international
developments outside the Korean peninsula carefully, and was concerned
that the country was unstable domestically and highly vulnerable to an
attack by neighbors. King Seonjo seemed initially inclined to favor
Yulgoks proposals, but a prominent statesman by the name of Yu
Songnyong set up a vigorous opposition to the plan. Yu reasoned that
training military forces in time of peace would serve only to provoke
neighboring countries, and his point of view gained the support of other
officials.
In June, Yulgok was impeached by a group of fellow statesmen on the
charge of abusing his power and humiliating the king. The aim of this
group was to put pressure on the King to dismiss Yulgok from office.
Yulgok himself offered to resign six times, and was each time refused by
the King. King Seonjo trusted Yulgok absolutely, but owing to mounting
pressure eventually had to accept his withdrawal from the government.
Both the King and his advisers would live to regret their decision, and
had ample time to contemplate their foolishness amid the disastrous
train of events that followed.
154
Yulgok passed away in the January of the following year. Within less
than a decade, the country was invaded by Japan. Just as he had feared,
Joseon was thoroughly unprepared to defend itself. Prime Minister Yu,
who had originally thwarted Yulgoks proposal, shed tears of contrition
and declared, Yulgok was truly a leader, thinker, and sage. He realized
with sorrow that Yulgoks advice had been inspired by his deep sense of
responsibility for the country and people, as well as his grasp of reality.
155
Yulgok spent the final 13 days of his life confined to his bed. During
these final days, he made no mention of family matters, but spoke only of
national affairs. The day before his death, King Seonjo sent an official
responsible for policing the border to Yulgok to ask his opinion. Family
members and others advised him against meeting with the official. My
body exists only to serve the country, he replied, Even if my illness
worsens, this is my destiny.
With help he raised himself into a sitting position, and his brother Wu
took down the words he dictated. This was to be his final work, Six
Articles for Guarding the Border.
When he had finished dictating, he collapsed and fell unconscious, as
the exertion had drained him completely of energy. The final moment
came later after an attack of asthma. He said, Let me cut my nails and
bathe. Lying down restfully after this, he died in peace with his head
directed eastwards. It was January 16th in 1584, the 17th year of King
Seonjos reign, and he was 49 years old.
When the news of Yulgoks death came, King Seonjo wept. He ordered
that no meat should be served at his meals, and cancelled three
consecutive daily meetings of the cabinet. A scholar named Wu
Seongjeon recorded: Even country folk from remote villages cried and
wailed in grief. University students, soldiers, shopkeepers in the market
place, lower officials in government offices, and people from all walks of
life hurried to bow in front of the funeral altar, many of them shedding
tears. When the funeral procession left Yulgoks home, the streets were
156
157
As the war continued to go badly, King Seonjo was at one point forced
to flee his palace in the capital and seek refuge in a remote part of the
country. According to the story, when the King and his retinue arrived at
the banks of the Imjin River, north of Seoul, it was extremely dark and
raining heavily. The Kings attendants were at a loss as to how to cross
the river in the dead of night, when they chanced upon a small pavilion
near a ferry. They set this pavilion on fire to provide a light by which to
work, and were able to convey the King safely across the river.
This pavilion had been built by one of Yulgoks ancestors. Yulgok had
visited it frequently during his lifetime, with his mother and siblings when
young, with friends and students when grown, and occasionally by
himself. In later years when Yulgok was visiting the pavilion, he would
make sure that his disciples carried with them a bottle of oil, and ordered
them to apply the oil to the wooden floor. He would also apply pine resin
to the pavilion pillars, and when asked why, he would reply that he was
preparing for an emergency. Thanks to these measures, the pavilion
could be used as a torch, and its flames were not extinguished even in
the pouring rain.
Yulgok himself was a torch that shone brightly in the darkness of the
age in which he lived. It is tragic indeed that his contemporaries chose
not to see the reality which he might have shown them.
Above all else, Yulgok was a man of action and of integrity. He is the
most outstanding among the many prominent scholars of Joseon Dynasty
Korea, thanks to his tireless efforts to realize Confucian ideals in the real
158
world.
While the Neo-Confucian scholarship of Joseon has often been
criticized by many later scholars for being overly theoretical, Yulgok was
exceptional and even pioneering in his pragmatic reform efforts. Even
though most of his proposals for political and social reforms were
dismissed during his lifetime, they were accepted and enacted in later
years by King Yeongjo, Jeongjo and Gojong.
He was a genuine seonbi who sought to reach sagehood through
self-cultivation on the one hand, and to improve the living conditions of
ordinary people through action on the other. Throughout his life, he
maintained his convictions and did not compromise his ideals. For his
knowledge, filial devotion, compassion, and loyalty, he has been held up
by subsequent generations as a model for study and imitation. As in his
lifetime, he is still the most popular of all the famous Confucian scholars
amongst ordinary Koreans.
In its history, Korea has experienced many difficulties, owing in part
to its geographic position between Japan and China. Yet, despite these
difficulties, Koreans have maintained their identity as a nation. Yulgok is
one of the national heroes that Koreans have traditionally looked to as an
archetype of this identity, and is still alive in the hearts of his people
today.
159
References
Sources in Korean
Han, Young-Woo. Yulgok: Biography. Seoul: Mineumsa, 2014.
Hwang, Jun-Yeon. An Understanding of Yulgoks Philosophy. Seoul:
Seogwangsa, 1995.
________. Yi Yulgok: A Portrait of A Life. Seoul: Seoul National University
Press, 2000.
Yi, Eun-Sang. Saimdang and Yulgok. Seoul: Seongmungak, 1980.
Yi, Jong-Ho. Yulgok: His Character and Ideas. Seoul: Jisik. 1994.
Yi, Yi. Gyeok-mong-yo-gyul. Annotated by Hu-Soo Jung. Seoul: Jangnak,
2004 [1577].
Sources in English
Chung, Edward Y. J. The Korean Neo-Confucianism of Yi Toegye and Yi
160
Although he lived some 400 years ago, Heo Jun (1539-1615) remains
the most famous and revered doctor in all of Korea. In his day, he
overcame the class restrictions placed on medical officials, achieving the
highest position attained by a physician in the 500-year history of Joseon
Korea. His crowning achievement was the Dongui Bogam, a medical work
composed over 14 years amid many trials and tribulations. This book, a
classic in the medical tradition of East Asia, is still widely read and used
today.
The many novels and dramas about the life of Heo Jun have enjoyed
great popularity. In particular, the biographical drama Hur Jun,
broadcast by MBC in 1999, enjoyed record-breaking viewing figures in
Korea and was exported to many countries.
What is the reason behind the popularity of works based on Heo Juns
life among people of different ages and countries? As well as being a
skilled doctor, he was also a noble and compassionate human being who
saved the lives of many, making no distinction between aristocrat and
commoner.
Many folk tales about Heo Jun have been handed down. The following
story is recorded in the Yakpa Manrok written by Yi Hui-ryong (16971776).
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162
Education as a Physician
163
164
disease.
mortality rate. In 18th century Europe, for instance, about 400,000 people died
from it every year.
165
166
prevent and treat it. In the afterword, he specifically stated that he wrote
the book in Hangeul, rather than in Chinese characters, in order that
everyone in the kingdom would have equal access to the knowledge it
contained.
167
When King Seonjo passed away in 1608, the government held Chief
Physician Heo Jun responsible for his death, and exiled him to Uiju. The
new king (formerly Prince Gwanghae), who owed his own life to Heo Juns
skill as a doctor, tried his best to defend him. He put it to the court that it
was beyond Heo Juns skill to save King Seonjo and that the will to save
the king had not been lacking. However, as Heo Jun had attracted so
much jealousy and criticism from the civil officials, owing to his exalted
rank that transcended his social status, even the new king could do
nothing to save him.
His exile lasted for one year and eight months. In this period of
greatest hardship, Heo Jun completed the most important achievement of
his life, the Dongui Bogam. Drawing upon all his medical knowledge and
experience,
he
wrote
this
book
to
provide
the
reader
with
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king (formerly Prince Gwanghae), recalled the 71 year old Heo Jun to the
Naeuiwon to tend to the kings illness. After returning to the capital, Heo
Jun set before the king the 25-volume work Dongui Bogam, now finished
after 14 years. The first edition of the book, printed by the Naeuiwon in
1613, has been registered under UNESCOs Memory of the World
Programme.
Even after completing the Dongui Bogam, Heo Jun did not allow
himself to rest. He devoted the remainder of his life to teaching the next
generation of medical officers at the Naeuiwon and writing a number of
books on contagious diseases. He died in 1615 at the age of 77.
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This was the afterword to the Chinese edition of Dongui Bogam written by
Lingyu, a Chinese scholar. In Japan, the book was published by order of the
Shogun, the purpose being to establish Dongui Bogam as a common medical
standard for all to follow. Minamotono Motodouru, a Japanese medical scholar
from the 18th century, praised Dongui Bogam highly, saying, It is a divine work
that keeps the common people from harm and contains the secret methods of the
medical profession.
Heo Jun made it clear in the Dongui Bogam that it is of greater importance to
prevent diseases through the care of mind and body, rather than relying on
remedies after disease has struck. He also helped people to understand that the
natural environment, human disease and its treatment are all part of an
interconnected whole. In this way, he combined the tradition of medicine
(restoring health) with the art of maintaining health; and from this perspective he
discussed each body part and the conditions that affected it. This holistic
approach is what gives Dongui Bogam a special place in the history of East Asian
medicine.
The book was more than a means of conveying detailed knowledge to medical
professionals. Its more important function was to be used as a widely available
guide for ordinary people, who lacked the medical knowledge to perform essential
tasks such as delivering a baby, caring for mothers who had given birth, or
dealing with emergency situations when no doctor was available or nearby. It
furthermore provided a list of medicinal herbs by name, with information on
where and at what time of year one could find them, and how to prepare them for
use as medicine.
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For the benefit of the poorer citizens who could not afford to buy expensive
medicine, the book focused wherever possible on common ingredients that could
easily be obtained. While we find some medicines that require many expensive
ingredients, there are also many simple remedies that require just one ingredient.
Gathering together the whole of East Asian medical knowledge at the time was
a great accomplishment from a scholarly perspective. Heo Juns greater purpose,
however, was always to pursue medicine for the benefit of all.
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References
Historical sources
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allowed her to be removed from the register of gisaengs. Later, at the age
of 20, she was married to Go Seonheum, but lost her husband soon
afterwards to an infectious disease.
Having suffered so many of lifes hardships so soon in life, Mandeok
began to save money and to lead a life of thrift and diligence. Noting the
advantages and unique characteristics of Jeju as a harbor city, she set up
an inn for traveling merchants near the port. Besides being a place where
they could rest, it offered commercial services as well, such as the
handling and sale of foreign goods shipped on consignment.
Gifted as she was with a natural talent for business, her inn soon
prospered. Drawing upon her experiences as a gisaeng, she sold textiles,
personal ornaments, cosmetics and the similar wares to the female
aristocracy of Jeju Island. She also traded in Jejus own specialties, such
as tangerines and the antlers of young deer, selling them on to the
mainland. She sought to attract more shipping to the port, eventually
possessing a ship of her own.
In an age when talented women were often overlooked and even
suppressed, the story of her success soon became a common topic of
conversation. In spite of her success, she continued to lead a frugal life.
Her belief was, In a year of good harvest, we must prepare for a bad
harvest, and save for the future. Those who live in comfort must think of
those in need, and live sparingly in gratitude to the Heavens.
In 1794, as Mandeok neared her mid-fifties, the whole of Jeju fell
under a great famine, as a result of a series of typhoons which battered
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the island in succession. The Governor of Jeju submitted a request for aid
to the Royal Court, stating that the Island had suffered devastating
damage when powerful easterly winds blew on August 27th and 28th,
sending roof-tiles flying and stones rolling. In the February of the
following year, five ships carrying relief supplies were sunk in a storm,
and as Jeju looked forward to a barren spring harvest, death cast its long,
grim shadow over the island.
Meanwhile, Mandeok thought to herself, Has not all my wealth come
from the people of Jeju? What is the use of holding on to my riches if they
are all to perish? What benefit would my wealth be then? Since it
belonged to the people to begin with, to them it should be returned. She
then used all her wealth to purchase 500 sacks of grain. She shared a
tenth of these with her relatives and those who had shown her particular
kindness, and offered the remaining 450 sacks as general relief for the
public.
The Governor of Jeju was very surprised by Mandeoks gift. The
greatest donations up to this point had been from the former local
magistrate Go Hanrok, who had donated 300 sacks, and the military
official Hong Sampil and the scholar Yang Seongbeom, who had given
100 sacks each. The Governor of Jeju had described Go Hanroks
contribution as an astonishing amount, and the King had granted him
the special appointment of chief local magistrate, later awarding him the
mayorship as well. Hong Sampil and Yang Seongbeom were promoted to
the Royal Guard in recognition of their gifts. The King was heard to say at
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the time that to give 100 sacks in a land as barren as Jeju is equal to
giving 1,000 on the mainland. Therefore it was only natural that the
Governor should be astounded by Mandeoks donation of 450 sacks, by
which she exhausted her entire personal fortune. The government of Jeju
distributed the rice given by Mandeok to the people, according to their
level of hardship, and the streets were filled with grateful citizens calling
out her name.
In time, news of Mandeoks act of charity reached the Royal Court.
Such an act of compassion, from one who was not even a member of the
aristocracy, greatly moved King Jeongjo, who immediately ordered the
Governor of Jeju to carry out any wish the lady Mandeok might have,
however difficult it is. Hearing this, Mandeok made a request which no
one expected: I have no other wish than to visit the capital Seoul and
look upon the Palace where our King resides, and to behold the Twelve
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the most beautiful sights in the world. It is particularly famous for the
splendor of its 12,000 peaks. Comments on its beauty, from the past up to
the present, include: To be born in Goryeo, and to behold the Dimaond
Mountain, that is my hearts greatest wish. (A scholar of Northern Song
China, 960-1127); Surely the beauty of that eleven miles is not much
exceeded anywhere on earth (Isabella Bird, an English explorer, 1890); Of
the six days God spent creating Heaven and Earth, He must have devoted the
last day solely to Mt. Kumgang. (Gustaf VI Adolf, King of Sweden, 1926)
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leave the Island, the King willingly granted her wish. He provided a horse
for her carriage, and ordered the various provincial governors to tend to
her comfort as she made her journey from the south.
In 1796, upon her arrival in the capital, the King gave her an official
position within the Palace Infirmary, so that she would be able have an
audience with the King and the Queen (according to the law of that time,
commoners could not be granted a direct audience with the King). On
this occasion, the King said to her, That you have saved thousands who
were suffering from starvation in a heroic spirit is indeed worthy of
praise. And with these words, the King bestowed special gifts upon her.
Mandeok spent the winter in Seoul that year, and in the following
spring traveled to Kumgang Mountain, where she was greeted by the
magnificent spectacle of the Twelve Thousand Summits. It was there also
that she came across a golden statue of the Buddha, before which she
reverently bowed down and offered her respects. At the time there were
no Buddhist temples in Jeju, and this was the first time that Mandeok had
seen a temple and statue of the Buddha.
On her return to Seoul, she visited the Palace again and expressed the
wish to go back to Jeju Island, whereupon the King again presented her
with gifts. By this time, Mandeoks name had spread far and wide in the
capital, and many were seeking her acquaintance, including scholars and
nobles of the court. Chae Jegong, the Prime Minister, wrote a biography
of her, and great scholars of the time such as Pak Jega, Jeong Yakyong
and Yi Gahwan, all left verses commemorating her deedsdeeds which it
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would have been difficult for aristocrats, officials, and even the state
itself to accomplish.
With all her wishes fulfilled, Mandeok returned to Jeju Island. 15 years
later, in October 1812, she died at the age of 74. According to her wish,
she was buried on a mountain which commanded a view of the entire
island. The Province of Jeju has since established the Mandeok Award, a
yearly
prize
awarded
to
lady
of
outstanding
conduct,
in
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Jiseon Lee is a full-time editor of the Korean Spirit and Culture series. She
graduated in English Language and Literature from Ewha Womans University, and
studied Literature and Philosophy at Wilson College and Boston College in the
United States.
Hang-Jin Chang is a lawyer at Linklaters LLP in Hongkong, specializing in
international finance. He read Law at Oxford University, and has extensive
experience in Korean-English translations.
Yoon-Sang Han is a lawyer in New York City. He majored in Economics at
Wesleyan University and received his law degree from William and Mary School of
Law. He has translated various texts from Korean to English, including Polishing the
Diamond, Enlightening the Mind (Wisdom Publications, 1999).
Matthew Jackson is a management consultant in Dubai. He read Classics at
Oxford University, and has worked for many years as an editor of English
translations. He regularly writes on Korean issues, in particular the traditional arts
and science.
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