FABRICATION & MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF

SCREW PINE REINFORCED COMPOSITE WITH TiO2

NANO FILLER MATERIAL

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

I.RAZIK FAREED (120021601153)

SAIYED AHMED RIFAI (120021601158)
VIGNESH.G (120021601195)

Under the guidance of

Dr. BEER MOHAMMED.

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

B.S.ABDUR RAHMAN UNIVERSITY

(B.S. ABDUR RAHMAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY)

(Estd. u/s 3 of the UGC Act. 1956)

www.bsauniv.ac.in
May 2016

2
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project report FABRICATION & MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
OF SCREW PINE (NATURAL FIBRE) REINFORCED COMPOSITE WITH TiO2 NANO
FILLER MATERIAL is the bonafide work of
I.RAZIK FAREED (120021601153)
SAIYED AHMED RIFAI (120021601158)
VIGNESH.G (120021601195)

who carried out the project under my supervision. Certified further that to the best of my
knowledge the work reported here indies not form part of any other project report or
dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion
on this year or any other candidate

SIGNATURE
Dr. BEER MOHAMMED
GUIDE
Professor,
Department of Mechanical
Engg.,
B.S.Abdur Rahman University,
Vandalur,
Chennai - 600048.

SIGNATURE
Dr.R.RAJARAMAN
HEAD OF DEPT.
Head & Professor,
Department of Mechanical
Engg,
B.S.Abdur Rahman University,
Vandalur,
Chennai - 600048.

VIVA VOCE EXAMINATION

The viva-voice examination of the project work FABRICATION & MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF SCREW PINE REINFORCED COMPOSITE WITH TiO2 NANO
FILLER is done by
I.RAZIK FAREED (120021601153)
SAIYED AHMED RIFAI (120021601158)
G.VIGNESH (120021601195)

was held on

INTERNAL EXAMINER

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost we would like to express our thanks to our beloved Registrar, Dr. V.
Murugesan for being incredibly supportive in carrying out our project. We also
acknowledge the full-fledged encouragement of Dr. R. Rajaraman, Head of the
Department, Mechanical Engineering for his guidelines and support. We are highly
indebted to Dr. S. Beer Mohammed, Senior Grade Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, for his guidance and constant supervision also for installing in us a great zeal
for knowledge. We also thank our project coordinator , Mr. P. Dinesh, Assistant
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering for his encouraging views and support.
We express our sincere thanks to all the teaching and non-teaching staff members of the
organization for willingly helping us with their abilities for the successful completion of this
project.

5
ABSTRACT

Natural fibres are emerging as low cost, light weight and environmentally
superior alternatives to other fibres. Due to their low cost, fairly good
mechanical properties, high specific strength, non-abrasive, eco-friendly and
biodegradable characteristics they are exploited as a replacement for the
conventional fibres such as glass, aramid, carbon etc., we have used the
natural fibres from screw pine stems and epoxy resin, as the binder to form a
fibre reinforced composite. The samples were differentiated by the addition of
nano fillers. The nano fillers added were Titanium dioxide Nano powders. The
reason for using nano particles instead of micro particles is to reduce the
weight as much as possible and therefore increasing the strength to weight
ratio. Samples with the nano fillers and samples without nano fillers will be
compared using various mechanical testing. This project of fabrication of sisal
fibre (natural fibre) nano composite is going to be an innovation to current work
done using natural fibres. In this project we are looking forward to fabricate a
natural fibre from screw pine sheath. To

analyse the screw pine sheath and to

extract the natural composite fibre from the flower and characterise the fibre
properties using scanning electron microscope method (SEM). A composite
material (also called a composition material or composite) is a material from
two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or
chemical properties.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO.

TITLE
ABSTRACT

1.

(v)

LIST OF TABLES

(ix)

LIST OF GRAPHS

(ix)

LIST OF FIGURES

(x)

INTRODUCTION
1.1

OVERVIEW

1.2

NATURAL FIBRE COMPOSITES

1.2.1

PAGE NO.

APPLICATIONS

SCREW PINE FIBRE

1.3.1

CULTIVATION

1.3.2

FEATURES

1.3.3

ADVANTAGES

1.3.4

DISADVANTAGES

1.3.5

USES

1.3

1.4

EPOXY RESIN

1.4.1

EPOXY RESIN COMPOSITION

1.4.2

HARDENERS

1.4.3

APPLICATIONS

11

1.5

NANOPARTICLES

1.5.1

TiO2 NANO POWDER

12

1.5.2

APPLICATION

14

1.5.3

FEATURES

1.5.4

SIGNIFICANCE

15

7
2.

LITERATURE OVERVIEW

17

vi
3.

EXPERIMENT AND PROCEDURE

3.1

21

SELECTION OF MATERIAL

3.1.1

SCREW PLANT FIBRE

3.1.2

EPOXY RESIN / HARDENER

3.1.3

OTHERS

3.1.4

COST

22

PROCESSING

23

RATIO

24

3.2
3.2.1
3.3

METHODOLOGY

3.3.1

EXTRACTION OF FIBRE

3.3.2

PREPARATION

3.3.3

PROCEDURE

3.4
4.

OUTPUT
TESTING AND ANALYSIS

4.1

26
28
29

TENSILE STRENGTH

4.1.1

SCOPE

4.1.2

APPARATUS

30

4.1.3

TEST SPECIMEN SIZE

31

4.1.4

SPECIMEN PREPARATION

32

4.1.5

SPEED OF TESTING

4.1.6

CONDITIONING

4.1.7

PRECAUTIONS

4.1.8

PREOCEDURE

4.1.9

RESULT

33

4.1.10

GRAPHS

34
8

4.2

IZOD IMPACT TEST (ISO 180)

41

4.2.1

SCOPE

4.2.2

APPARATUS

42

4.2.3

TEST SPECIMEN SIZE

43

4.2.4

SPECIMEN PREPARATION

4.2.5

CONDITIONING

4.2.6

PRECAUTIONS

4.2.7

PROCEDURE

4.2.8

RESULT

4.3

HARDNESS TEST(ISO D2240)

44

46
47

4.3.1

SCOPE

4.3.2

APPARATUS

4.3.3

TEST SPECIMEN SIZE

4.3.4

SPECIMEN PREPARATION

4.3.5

PRECAUTIONS

4.3.6

PROCEDURE

49

4.3.7

RESULT

51

4.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1

MECHANICAL TESTING RESULTS

4.2

DISCUSSIONS

5.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

5.1

CONCLUSION

5.2

FUTURE WORK

48

52

54

6.

REFERENCES

56

7.

TECHNICAL BIOGRAPHY

57

INTRODUCTION

Necessity is the mother of invention. In such a way, we expect a good

performance especially with new materials. In this project we would like to do mechanical
test on fibre nano composite. The primary objective of the project is to dope the screw pine
fibre with TiO2 (Titanium Oxide) and to perform mechanical testing on Titanium oxideScrew pine fibre nano composite and checking the mechanical properties of the material.
This is done by extracting the fibre of screw pine and adding TiO2 Nano filler material.The
primary advantage of this method id that the primary materials involved. (i.,e) Titanium
Oxide and screw pine fibre are easily available and easily synthesised.
1. NATURAL FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES
A fibre-reinforced composite (FRC) is a composite building material that consists of three
components: (i) the fibres as the discontinuous or dispersed
phase, (ii) the matrix as the continuous phase, and (iii) the fine interphase region, also
known as the interface. This is a type of advanced composite group, which makes use of
rice husk, rice hull, and plastic as ingredients. This
technology involves a method of refining, blending, and compounding natural fibres from
cellulosic waste streams to form a high-strength fibre composite material in a polymer
matrix. The designated waste or base raw materials used in this instance are those of
waste thermoplastics and various categories of cellulosic waste including rice husk and
saw dust.FRC is high-performance fibre composite achieved and made possible by crosslinking cellulosic fibre molecules with resins in the FRC material matrix through a
proprietary molecular re-engineering process, yielding a product of

exceptional structural properties. Through this feat of molecular re engineering selected

physical and structural properties of wood are successfully cloned and vested in the FRC
product, in addition to other critical attributes to yield performance properties superior to
contemporary wood. This material, unlike other composites, can be recycled up to 20
times, allowing scrap FRC to be reused again and again. The failure mechanisms in
materials include delamination, intralaminar matrix cracking, longitudinal matrix splitting,
fibre/matrix debonding, fibre pull-out, and fibre fracture.
Natural fibres are in general suitable for reinforcing inorganic polymers, synthetic polymers
and natural polymers due to their relative high strength, stiffness and low density. The
characteristics values for flax could reach to a level close to the values of E-glass fibre.
However, the range between minimum and maximum characteristic values as one of the
drawbacks for all natural products is remarkable structure due to the overall environmental
conditions during growth. The fibre properties and structure depends on several conditions
such as area of growth, climate and age of the plant etc.
1.2.1 APPLICATIONS
The application of natural fibres can be divided into three types:
Direct utilisation e.g. textile, paper and fabric
Degradation e.g. bio-fuel
Composites
The use of natural fibres for technical composite applications has recently been the
subject of intensive research in Europe. Many automotive components are already
produced in natural composites, mainly based on polyester or polypropylene and fibres
like flax, hemp or sisal. The adoption of natural fibre composites in this industry is lead by
motives of a) price b) weight reduction and c) marketing ('processing renewable
resources') rather than technical demands.The range of products is restricted to interior
and non-structural components like door upholstery or rear shelves.

11

RAW MATERIALS PROCURED:

1. Screw Pine Natural Fibre:

The screw pine is a tropical plant that grows in rain forests and semi-evergreen forests of
Madagascar, southern Asia and the islands of the south western Pacific. It has a pyramidal
shape supported by large stilt-like prop roots that emerge several feet above the ground.
In Borneo, New Guinea and other pacific islands, it is often called the walking palm
because of the way that the roots gradually carry the plant from one spot to another.
Screw pines are dioecious, meaning male and female flowers are born on separate plants.
Though male plants produce tiny fragrant flowers, gardeners often prefer the female plant
for its showy pineapple-like fruit. Although the fruit is edible, it is nicknamed the famine
fruit because of its unpleasant taste. While the fruit is not useful to humans, the tough
leaves not only provide thatching materials for mats and baskets, but also have medicinal

properties. The leaves possess anti-diabetic properties, are used to treat skin diseases
and serve as a diuretic. The screw pine is capable of reaching a mature height of 60 tall
but is typically 25 tall and 15 wide. It has a slow to moderate growth rate, and requires full

sun to partial shade and well-drained soil. The plant is hardy to USDA Hardiness Zones 10
12

2. TITANIUM PREPOXIDE:
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles have been prepared by hydrolysis of titanium iso propoxide. Aqueous solution with various pH and peptising the resultant suspension has been
applied for preparation of the TiO2 nano powder with narrow size distribution. The
inuence of pH on the particle size and morphology of prepared powder has been
evaluated. Synthesised powder is characterised by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron
microscopy(SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Experimental results have
shown that the as-prepared powders have entirely consisted with anatase crystalline
phase. Only powder acquired from an acidic solution has ne particle size with spherical

morphology. The anatase to rutile transformation occurred at temperatures lower than

600C.

13

3.Sodium Hydroxide:-

Figure 3 Sodium Hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also known caustic soda, is an inorganic. It is a white solid
and highly caustic metallic base and alkali salt of sodium which is available in pellets,
flakes, granules, and as prepared solutions at a number of different concentrations.Sodium
hydroxide forms an approximately 50% (by weight) saturated solution with water.
Sodium

hydroxide

is

soluble

in water, ethanol,

and methanol.

This alkali is deliquescent and readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide in air.
Sodium hydroxide is used in many industries, mostly as a strong chemical base in the
manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles, drinking water, soaps and detergents and as
a drain cleaner. Worldwide production in 2004 was approximately 60 million tonnes, while
demand was 51 million tonnes.

4.Acetone:-

Figure 4

Acetone

14

Acetone is the organic compound with the formula (CH3)2CO.It is a colourless, volatile,
flammable liquid, and is the simplest ketone.
Acetone is miscible with water and serves as an important solvent in its own right, typically
for cleaning purposes in the laboratory. About 6.7 million tonnes were produced worldwide
in 2010, mainly for use as a solvent and production of methyl methacrylate and
bisphenol. It is a common building block in organic chemistry. Familiar household uses of
acetone are as the active ingredient in nail polish remover and as paint thinner.

5.OHP Sheets:-

Figure 5 OHP Sheets

Mylar is often used to generically refer to polyester film or plastic sheet. However, it is a
registered trademark owned by Dupont Tejjin Films for a specific family of plastic sheet

products made from the resin Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET). The true generic term for
this material is Polyester Film or Plastic Sheet.
Polyester Film/Plastic Sheet is manufactured in a range of different styles, finishes and
thicknesses.

15

6.Epoxy resin and hardener :

Epoxy is a term used to denote both the basic components and the cured end
products of epoxy resins, as well as a colloquial name for the epoxide functional group.
Epoxy resins, also known as polyepoxides, are a class of
reactive prepolymers and polymers which contain epoxide groups. Epoxy resins may be
reacted (cross-linked) either with themselves through catalytic homopolymerisation, or with
a wide range of co-reactants including polyfunctional amines, acids (and acid anhydrides),
phenols, alcohols and thiols. These co-reactants are often referred to as hardeners or
curatives, and the cross-linking reaction is commonly referred to as curing. Reaction of
polyepoxides with themselves or with polyfunctional hardeners forms
a thermosetting polymer, often with high mechanical properties, temperature and chemical
resistance. Epoxy has a wide range of applications, including metal coatings, use in
electronics / electrical components, high tension electrical insulators, fiber-reinforced
plastic materials and structural adhesives.

1.3.2 FEATURES
Screw pine fibre is 100% bio-degradable and recyclable, therefore making it
environmental friendly
Zero pesticides and fertilizers are used in sisal cultivation.
It is exceptionally durable with a low maintenance with minimal wear and
tear.
It is available as plaid, herringbone and twill.

 The fibres are anti static, does not attract or trap dust particles and do not
absorb moisture or water easily.
The fine texture takes dyes easily and offers the largest range of dyed
colors of all natural fibres.
It exhibits good sound and impact absorbing properties.
Its leaves can be treated with natural borax for fire resistance properties.
It has good tensile strength and low extensibility.
It is leading material for agricultural twine or baler twine.
16
1.3.3 ADVANTAGES
It is sustainable and 100% biodegradable.
It is extremely hard wearing and strong.
It is anti-static, helping to control the humidity in the atmosphere. This is
a great bonus for any office settings with computers and also means that
the flooring is less likely to attract dirt.
It also provides a natural sound insulation.
It is a recommendation for those prone to allergies and asthmatic
reactions. As it is prized for its natural look, it does not usually incorporate
any artificial colors or chemicals, which can release toxic gases into your
home environment. This also means that there is less worry of colors
fading in the sunlight the subtle color changes only serve to make the
sisal more attractive.
It is dyed with natural dyes and it is available in a wide range of colors
and styles.
1.3.4 DISADVANTAGES
Lower strength properties, particularly its impact strength.
Variable quality, depending on unpredictable influences such as weather.
Moisture absorption, which causes swelling of the fibres.
Restricted maximum processing temperature.
Lower durability, fibre treatments can improve this considerably.

 Poor fire resistance

Price can fluctuate by harvest results or agricultural politics.
Its bio-degradable and prone to microbial attacks.
1.3.5 USES
Traditionally, screw pine has been the leading material for agricultural twine (binder
twine and baler twine) because of its strength, durability, ability to stretch, affinity for
certain dyestuffs, and resistance to deterioration in saltwater. The importance of this
tradition
al use is diminishing with competition from polypropylene and the development of other
17
haymaking techniques, while new higher-valued sisal products have been developed.
Apart from ropes, twines, and general cordage, sisal is used in low-cost and especialty
paper, dartboards, buffing cloth, filters, geotextiles, mattresses, carpets, handicrafts, wire
rope cores, and Macram. Screw pine has been utilized as an environmentally friendly
strengthening agent to replace asbestos and fibreglass in composite materials in various
uses including the automobile industry. The lower-grade fibre is processed by the paper
industry because of its high content of cellulose and hemicelluloses. The medium-grade
fibre is used in the cordage industry for making ropes, baler and binder twine. Ropes and
twines are widely employed for marine, agricultural, and general industrial use. The highergrade fibre after treatment is converted into yarns and used by the carpet industry.
Other products developed from screw pine fibre include spa products, cat scratching
posts, lumbar support belts, rugs, slippers, cloths, and disc buffers. Sisal wall covering
meets the abrasion and tearing resistance standards of the American Society for Testing
and Materials and of the National Fire Protection Association.
As extraction of fibre uses only a small percentage of the plant, some attempts to improve
economic viability have focused on utilizing the waste material for production of biogas, for
stockfeed, or the extraction of pharmaceutical materials.
Screw pine is a valuable forage for honey bees because of its long flowering period. It is
particularly attractive to them during pollen shortage. The honey produced is however dark
and has a strong and unpleasant flavour.
Because screw pine is an agave, it can be distilled to make a tequila-like liquor.

1.4 EPOXY RESIN

Epoxy is the cured end product of epoxy resins, as well as a colloquial name for the
epoxide functional group. Epoxy is also a common name for a type of strong adhesive
used for sticking things together and covering surfaces, typically two resins that need to be
mixed together before use. It can also be used as a solver due to its high melting and
boiling points.
Epoxy resins, also known as poly-epoxides are a class of reactive prepolymers and
polymers which contain epoxide groups. Epoxy resins may be reacted either with
themselves
18
through catalytic homo-polymerization, or with a wide range of co-reactants including poly
functional amines, acids (and acid anhydrides), phenols, alcohols, and thiols. These coreactants are often referred to as hardeners or curatives, and the cross-linking reaction is
commonly referred to as curing. Reaction of poly-epoxides with themselves or
with poly-functional hardeners forms a thermosetting polymer, often with strong
mechanical properties as well as high temperature and chemical resistance. Epoxy has a
wide range of industrial applications, including metal coatings, use in electronic and
electrical components, high tension electrical insulators, fibre-reinforced plastic materials,
and structural adhesives commonly used in boat building.
Epoxy resin is employed to bind gutta percha in some root canal procedures.
Popular consumer two-part epoxy adhesives for home, shop, and hobby are available in
stores ranging in a wide selection of properties, including slow vs.
fast curing time, opaque vs. clear colors, water-proof Vs water-resistant, and flexible vs.
rigid. A common misconception is that all epoxies are waterproof, however many (perhaps
most) are not recommended for long-term submersion (such as flower vases) or below the
water line. Also, some epoxies bond better than others to different materials even to
different metals.
1.4.1 EPOXY RESIN COMPOSITION
Epoxy resins are low molecular weight pre-polymers or higher molecular weight polymers
which normally contain at least two epoxide groups. The epoxide group is also sometimes
referred to as a glycidyl or oxirane group. A wide range of epoxy resins are produced

industrially. The raw materials for epoxy resin production are today largely petroleum
derived, although some plant derived sources are now becoming commercially available.
Epoxy resins are polymeric or semi-polymeric materials, and as such rarely exist as pure
substances, since variable chain length results from the olymerisation reaction used to
produce them. High purity grades can be produced for certain applications, e.g. using a
distillation purification process.
One disadvantage of high purity liquid grades is their tendency to form crystalline solids
due to their highly regular structure, which require melting to
enable processing.
An important characteristic of epoxy resins is the epoxide content. This is commonly
expressed as the epoxide number, which is the number of epoxide equivalents in 1 kg of
19
resin (Eq./kg), or as the equivalent weight, which is the
weight in grams of resin containing 1 mole equivalent of epoxide (g/mol). One
measure may be simply converted to another:
Equivalent weight (g/mol) = 1000 / epoxide number (Eq./kg)
The equivalent weight or epoxide number is used to calculate the amount
of co-reactant (hardener) required when curing epoxy resins. Epoxies are
typically cured with stoichiometric or near-stoichiometric quantities of curative to achieve
the best physical properties.
As with other classes of thermosetting polymer materials, blending different grades of
epoxy resin, as well as use of additives, plasticizers or fillers is common to achieve the
desired processing and/or final properties, or to reduce cost. Use of blending, additives,
and fillers is often referred to as formulating.
1.4.2 HARDENERS
In general, uncured epoxy resins have poor mechanical, chemical and heat
resistance properties. However, good properties are obtained by reacting the linear epoxy
resin with suitable curatives to form three-dimensional crosslinked thermoset structures.
This process is commonly referred to as curing.
Curing of epoxy resins is an exothermic reaction and in some cases produces
sufficient heat to cause thermal degradation if not controlled.

Curing may be achieved by the reaction of an epoxy with itself (homopolymerisation) or by

forming a copolymer with poly-functional curatives
or hardeners. In principle, any molecule containing reactive hydrogen may react with the
epoxide groups of the epoxy resin. Common classes of hardeners for epoxy resins include
amines, acids, acid anhydrides, phenols, alcohols and thiols. Relative reactivity (lowest
first) is approximately in the order: phenol <anhydride < aromatic amine < cycloaliphatic
amine < aliphatic amine < thiol.
Whilst some epoxy resin/ hardener combinations will cure at ambient temperature, many
require heat, with temperatures up to 150 C being common, and up to 200 C for some
specialist systems. Insufficient heat during cure will result in a network with incomplete
polymerisation, and thus reduced mechanical, chemical and heat resistance. Cure them
20
perature should typically attain the glass transition temperature (T g) of the fully cured
network in order to achieve maximum properties. Temperature is sometimes increased in a
stepwise fashion to control the rate of curing and prevent excessive heat build-up from the
exothermic reaction.
Hardeners which show only low or limited reactivity at ambient temperature, but which
react with epoxy resins at elevated temperature are referred to as latent hardeners. When
using latent hardeners, the epoxy resin and hardener may be mixed and stored for some
time prior to use, which is advantageous for many industrial processes. Very latent
hardeners enable one component (1K) products to be produced, whereby the resin and
hardener are supplied pre-mixed to the end user and only require heat to initiate curing.
One

component products generally have shorter shelf-lives than standard 2-component

systems, and products may require cooled storage and transport.
The epoxy curing reaction may be accelerated by addition of small quantities of
accelerators. Tertiary amines, carboxylic acids and alcohols(especially phenols) are
effective accelerators. Bisphenol A is a highly effective and
widely used accelerator, but is now increasingly replaced due to health concerns with this
substance.

1.4.5 APPLICATIONS
The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives
and resin matrices for composite materials such as those
using carbon fibre and fibreglass reinforcements. The chemistry of epoxies and the range
of commercially available variations allow cure polymers to be produced with a very broad
range of properties. In general, epoxies are known for their excellent adhesion, chemical
and heat resistance, good-to excellent mechanical properties and very good electrical
insulating properties. Many properties of epoxies can be modified (for example silver-filled
epoxies with good electrical conductivity are available, although epoxies are typically
electrically insulating). Variations offering high thermal insulation, or thermal
conductivity combined with high electrical resistance for electronics applications,are avail
21
able. Some areas of application are paintings and coatings, adhesives,industrial tooling
and composites, electrical systems and electronics, consumerand marine applications,
aerospace applications and biology and art etc.,
1.5 NANOPARTICLES
Nanoparticles are particles between 1 and 100 nanometers in size. In nanotechnology, a
particle is defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit with respect to its
transport and properties. Particles are further classified according to diameter. Ultrafine
particles are the same as

nanoparticles and between 1 and 100 nanometers in size. Coarse particles cover a range
between 2,500 and 10,000 nanometers. Fine particles are sized between 100 and 2,500
nanometers. Nanoparticles are of great scientific interest as they are, in effect, a bridge
between bulk materials and atomic or molecular structures. A bulk material should have
constant physical properties regardless of its size, but at the nano-scale size-dependent
properties are often observed. Thus, the properties of materials change as their size
approaches the nanoscale and as the percentage of atoms at the surface of a material
becomes significant. The high surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles provides a

tremendous driving force for diffusion, especially at elevated temperatures. Moreover,

nanoparticles have been found to impart some extra properties to various day to day
products. For example, the presence of titanium dioxide nanoparticles imparts what we call
the self-cleaning effect, and, the size being nano-range, the particles cannot be
observed .Zinc oxide particles have been found to have superior UV blocking properties
compared to its bulk substitute. This is one of the reasons why it is often used in the
preparation of sunscreen lotions.

22

LITERATURE REVIEW
D. Nabi Saheb and J. P. Jog et al [1] have proposed that Natural fibre reinforced
composites is an emerging area in FRC research. These natural fibres are low cost fibres
with low density and high specific properties. These are biodegradable and non-abrasive.
The natural fibre composites offer specific properties comparable to those of conventional
fibre composites. However, in development of these composites, the incompatibility of the
fibres and poor resistance to moisture often reduce the potential of natural fibres and these
draw backs become critical issue. This review presents the reported work on natural fibre
reinforced composites with special reference to the type of fibres, matrix polymers,
treatment of fibres and fibre-matrix interface.
Samson O. Adeosun, G. I. Lawal, Sambo A. Balogun, Emmanuel I. Akpan et
Al [2] have explained that Green polymer nanocomposites show unique properties of
combining the advantages of natural fillers and organic polymers. Plant fibres are found
suitable to reinforce polymers. They have relatively high strength and stiffness, low cost of
acquisition, low density and produce low CO 2 emission.They are also biodegradable and
are annually renewable compared to other fibrous materials. Organic polymers on the
other hand, are desirable because they are either recyclable or biodegradable without
causing environmental hazards. This paper reviews current research efforts, techniques of
production, trends, challenges and prospects in the field of green nanocomposites.

H. Ku, H. Wang, N. Pattarachaiyakoop, M. Trada et al [3] have reviewed the tensile

properties of natural fibre reinforced polymer composites. Natural fibres have recently
become attractive to researchers, engineers and scientists as an alternative reinforcement
for fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites. Due to their low cost, fairly good
mechanical

properties, highspecific

strength,

nonabrasive,

eco-friendly and

bio-

degradability characteristics, they are exploited as a replacement for the conventional

fibre, such as glass, aramid and carbon. The tensile properties of natural fibre reinforce
polymers (both thermoplastics and thermosets) are mainly influenced by the interfacial
adhesion between the matrix and the fibres. Several chemical modifications are employed
to improve the interfacial matrixfibre bonding resulting in the enhancement of tensile
properties of the composites. In general, the tensile strengths of the natural fibre reinforced
polymer composites increase with
23
fibre content, up to a maximum or optimum value, the value will then drop. However, the
Youngs modulus of the natural fibre reinforced polymer composites increase with
increasing fibre loading.
Khoathane et al [4] found that the tensile strength and Youngs modulus of composites
reinforced with bleached hemp fibres increased incredibly with increasing fibre loading.
Mathematical modelling was also mentioned. It was discovered that the rule of mixture
(ROM) predicted and experimental tensile strength of different natural fibres reinforced
HDPE composites were very close to each other. HalpinTsai equation was found to be
the most effective equation in predicting the Youngs modulus of composites containing
different types of natural fibres.
Alcides L. Leao, Roger Rowell, Nilton Tavares et al [5] has explained the scope of natural
fibres in field of automobiles. Environmental and economical concerns are stimulating
research in the development of new materials for construction, furniture, packaging and
automotive industries. Particularly attractive are the new materials in which a good part is
based on natural renewable resources,preventing further stresses on the environment by
depleting dwindling wood resources from forests. Examples of such raw material sources
are annual growth native crops/plants/fibres, which are abundantly available in tropical
regions. These plants/fibres (like jute and sisal) have been used for hundreds ofyears for
many applications such as ropes, beds, bags, etc. If new uses of fast growing, native

plants can be developed for high value, non-timber based materials, there is a tremendous
potential of creating jobs in the rural sector.S.V. Joshia, L.T. Drzalb, A.K. Mohantyb, S.
Arorac et al [6] have explained thenatural fibre use over glass fibre. Natural fibres are
emerging as low cost, lightweight and apparently environmentally superior alternatives to
glass fibres in composites. We review select comparative life cycle assessment studies of
natural fibre and glass fibre composites, and identify key drivers of their relative
environmental performance. Natural fibre composites are likely to be environmentally
superior to glass fibre composites in most cases for the following reasons: (1) natural fibre
production has lower environmental impacts compared to glass fibre production; (2)
natural fibre composites have higher fibre content for equivalent performance, reducing
more polluting base polymer content; (3) the light-weight natural fibre composites improve
fuel efficiency andreduce emissions in the use phase of the component, especially in auto
applications; and (4) end of life incineration of natural fibres results in recovered energy
and carbon credits.
24
Ing. Eva Akov et al [7] have proposed the development in natural fibre reinforced polymer
composites. In the recent past, considerable investigations have been made in natural
fibres as reinforcement in polymer matrix. Manufacturing companies are in constant
search of new materials to lower costs and profit margins. Natural fibres are low-cost fibres
with high specific properties and low density. Performance characteristics that predestine
polymer use in automotive applications include corrosion resistance, low density, good
impact toughness and chemical resistance. The article reviews the recent development of
natural fibre reinforced polymer composites, including an experiment on composites
reinforced with hop fibres.
Dr.-Ing. Dipl.-Chem. Ulrich Riedel, Dipl.-Ing. Jrg Nickel et al [8] have narrated
the applications of natural fibre composites in the constructive parts of aerospace and
automobile industry. Although fibre-reinforced polymers (FRP)
have until now been largely applied to the area of aerospace technology, these
construction materials have also been used in many technical applications, especially
where high strength and stiffness are required, but With low component weight. The good
specific (i.e., weight-related) properties are due to the low density of the applied matrix
systems (unsaturated polyesters, polyurethanes, phenolic or epoxy resins) and to the
embedded fibres that provide the high strength and stiffness (glass, aramid, and carbon
fibres). Furthermore, great use is made of the fact that composite parts can be tailormade

during production specifically by orientating the reinforcing fibres in the directions of the
applied load.

In this way, the compound material is itself adirect result of structural manufacture and
many different technologies have been developed in order to achieve this.
Tara Sen and H. N, Jagannatha Reddy et al [9] have illustrated the industrial
applications of natural fibres. The materials chosen for structural upgradation
must, in addition to functional efficiency and increasing or improving the various properties
of the structures, should fulfill some criterion, for the cause of sustainability and a better
quality. For example, these materials should notpollute the environment and endanger
bioreserves, should be such that they are self sustaining and promote self-reliance, should
help in recycling of polluting waste into usable materials, should make use of locally
available materials, utilise local skills, manpower and management systems, should
benefit
25
local economy by being income generating, should be accessible to the ordinary people
and be low in monetary cost. Besides improving the strength of the structure using FRPs
as the raw material, it is also necessary to make use of local materials in construction.

MATERIALS REQUIRED & COST :

MATERIALS

QUANTITY

COST

TOTAL

Acetone

2L

240/lit

480

Sodium Hydroxide

500g

40/500g

40

Epoxy Resin

3 Kg

410 Kg

1230

Hardener

1/2 Kg

700/Kg

350

OHP Sheets

100

900/100 sheets

900

Paint brush

80/brush

400

Trays

100/tray

100

Waste cloth

1 Kg

130/Kg

130

Gloves

5 Pair

28/pair

140

MATERIALS

QUANTITY

COST

TOTAL

Mansion Polish Wax

400 ml

200/500 ml

200

TiO2 Nanopowder

10 g

1985/10 g

1985

screw pine

1 Kg

1000/Kg

GRAND TOTAL

1000
6055

FABRICATION PROCEDURE FOR NANO COMPOSITE

A glass slide is taken and kept as a base and other materials are taken before the
start of the experiment.
The glass slide is cleaned with the help of acetone.
Mansion polish wax is applied on the top of the glass slide to promote smoothness.
26
Now an OHP sheet is kept on the top of it. Now the fibre is weaved in a form of a
mat so that weight is evenly distributed & also resin/hardner mixture can be added
in right proportion to the fibre matrix.
Now on the top of the OHP sheet again wax is applied.
The ratio of the mat to the resin/hardener is taken as 1:4 and the ratio of resin and
hardener is taken as 100:10.
Two samples of resin are taken. Sample (A) has ordinary resin/hardener mixture
and sample (B) has resin/hardener mixture mixed with 1g of TiO2 nano powder.
Now the mat is taken and resin/hardener mixture is applied on it with the help of
brush.
Another OHP sheet is taken and again wax is applied on it and the sheet is kept on
top of the mat.

 Now the mat is sandwiched between two OHP sheets.

Now some weight is applied over it so the fibre matrix layer is well compressed.
Now the fabricated material is left to cure in 40-50 C.
Now the dried material is cut according ASTM standards and is brought to testing

3.3 METHODOLOGY

FIBRE EXTRACTION FROM SCREW PINE PLANT (RETTING PROCESS):

The stems of the sisal fibre are cut into pieces and dried under the sun .The fibre
can be extracted only once the stems are completely degraded.
The Stems were cut and left to soak in water for about 48 hrs or until it starts to
degrade.

27
The stems are then cut on sides to expose the cellulose part and are soaked in a
NaOH solution to speed up the degradation process.
The solution consists of about 5% NaOH and 95% water. This is left for another
48hrs or until it is degraded completely
The stems will then become tender, now the stems are stripped into sections and
the cellulose portion is removed from the fibres by using a blade. These fibers are
cleaned well and left to dry.
Once its dried completely, the fibers are split to sections and weighed.
These sections are then woven to form a mat.

3.3.2 PREPARATION

The glass mold with a dimension of 2*2m is cleaned using acetone and a layer of white
polish wax is applied to prevent the sheet from sticking to the plate. One OHP sheet is
placed on top of the glass plate and more wax is applied, a layer of the resin/hardener mix
is spread on the sheet and the mat is placed on top of it; in the case of sample(B) the
resin/hardener and TiO2 nanopowder is applied.
3.3.3 PROCEDURE
The fibre mat is then placed on top of the OHP sheet and is pressed well using a roller and
then the rest of the resin/hardener mixture is applied on top of the mat making sure that
the resin seeps through the mat and getting absorbed(shown in Figure 3.3.3 a). A second
OHP is coated with wax on one side and is placed on top of the coated fibre mat and is
pressed well using the roller to remove any excess resin (shown in Figure 3.3.3 b). A plane
surface is placed on it and weights are kept on top of it to distribute the weight evenly and
thus the layers and bounded together. This setup is left for at least 24 hours or until it gets
completely cured. This procedure is repeated for the other sample; with sample(b) the
resin/hardener consists of TiO2 nano powder blade. These fibres are cleaned well and left
to dry. Once its dried completely, the fibres are split to sections and weighed. These
sections are then woven to form a mat.
28
3.4 OUTPUT
The samples which are left for curing must be taken only after its completely cured. The
ASTM standard specimen sizes are marked on the samples using a marker and are cut
using the cutter. The ASTM standards for Tensile Test ASTM D638, Flexural Test ASTM
D970 and Impact Test ISO180 are used.

TESTS TO BE CONDUCTED ON THE SAMPLE

4.1 TENSILE TEST

4.1.1 SCOPE

This test method is designed to produce tensile property data for the control and
specification of plastic materials. These data are also useful for qualitative characterization
and for research and development. It covers the determination of the tensile properties of
unreinforced and reinforced plastics in the form of standard dumbbell-shaped test
specimens when tested under defined conditions of pretreatment, temperature, humidity,
and testing
machine speed. Test data obtained by this test method have been found to be useful in
engineering design. However, it is important to consider the precautions and limitations of
this method before considering these data for engineering design.
Tensile properties provide useful data for plastics engineering design purposes. However,
because of the high degree of sensitivity exhibited by many plastics to rate of straining
and environmental conditions, data obtained
by this test method cannot be considered valid for applications involving load-time scales
or environments widely different from those of this test method. In cases of such
dissimilarity, no reliable estimation of the limit of usefulness can be made for most plastics.
This sensitivity to rate of straining and environment
necessitates testing over a broad load-time scale (including impact and creep)
and range of environmental conditions if tensile properties are to suffice for
engineering design purposes.

29

4.1.2 APPARATUS
The figure 4.1.2 below shows the UTM machine.It consists of the following
parts:
Load

frame - Usually consisting of two strong supports for the machine.

Some small machines have a single support.

Load

cell - A force transducer or other means of measuring the load is

required. Periodic calibration is usually required by governing regulations or

quality system.
Cross

head - A movable cross head (crosshead) is controlled to move up or

down. Usually this is at a constant speed: sometimes called a constant rate

of extension (CRE) machine.

 Means

of measuring extension or deformation - Many tests require

measure of the response of the test specimen to the movement of the cross
head. Extensometers are sometimes used.
Output

device - A means of providing the test result is needed. Some older

machines have dial or digital displays and chart recorders. Many newer
machines have a computer interface for analysis and printing.
Test

fixtures, specimen holding jaws, and related sample making equipment

are called for in many test methods.

4.1.3 TEST SPECIMEN SIZE
The test specimen shall conform to the following dimensions
Overall Length, Lo

250 + no max

Overall Width, Wo

18 6.9

Length Of narrow section, L

56 0.5

Width of narrow section, W

14 0.5

Gauge length, G

50 0.25

Radius, R

76 1

Thickness, T

3.2 0.4

All dimensions are in mm

30
4.1.4 SPECIMEN PREPARATION
Test specimen is prepared by cutting, grinding and attaching the end tabs.
4.1.5 SPEED OF TESTING
Speed of testing shall be the relative rate of motion of the test fixture during testing.
Unfilled / Mineral filled materials - 5mm/min 10%
4.1.6 CONDITIONING
Condition the test specimen at 23 2 C and 50 5% relative humidity for not less than 24
*

hrs.

4.1.7 PRECAUTIONS
Always ensure all connections from the machine to the computer is
secured
Ensure that the limit switch is adjusted
Always ensure that the specimen is fitted correctly.

4.1.8 PROCEDURE
STEP 1: Measure the width and thickness of the test specimen with micrometer to nearest
of 0.025mm at several points along narrow section
STEP 2: Place the specimen in the grip of the testing machine, taking care of aligning the
axis of the specimen and grip with an imaginary line joining the attachment of grip to the
machine the distances between the grips.
STEP 3: Attach the extension indicator when the modulus is determined
31

STEP 4: Set the speed of testing as required in the speed of testing specimen
50mm/min and start the machine
STEP 5: Click ok

FORMULAS USED:
Strain = Change in length /Original length
% Elongation = (Change in length/Original length)*100

 Stress = Force/Area
4.1.9 RESULT:

TABLE 4.1.9 TENSILE TEST RESULT

Sample

Max
Load (KN)

Percentage
Elongation At
Max Load
(%)

Percentage
Elongation
(%)

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
(N/mm2)

0.57

25.8

32

10.8

0.78

6.9

8.1

14.4

32
4.2 IZOD IMPACT TEST :
4.2.1 SCOPE
This International Standard specifies a method for determining the Izod impact strength of
plastics under defined conditions. A number of different types of specimen and test
configurations are defined. Different test parameters are specified according to the type of
material, the type of test specimen and the type of notch. The method is used to
investigate the behavior of specified types of specimen under the impact conditions

defined and for estimating the brittleness or toughness of specimens within the limitations
inherent in the test conditions.
The method is suitable for use with the following range of materials: rigid thermoplastic
molding and extrusion materials, including filled and reinforced
compounds in addition to unfilled types; rigid thermoplastics sheets; rigid thermosetting
molding materials, including filled and reinforced compounds; rigid thermosetting sheets,
including

laminates;

fibre-reinforced

thermosetting

and

thermoplastic

composites

incorporating unidirectional or non-uni directional reinforcements such as mat, woven

fabrics, woven rovings, chopped strands, combination and hybrid reinforcements, rovings
and milled fibres and sheet made from pre-impregnated materials (prepregs); thermotropic
liquid-crystal polymers. The method is not normally suitable for use with rigid cellular
materials and sandwich structures containing cellular material. Also, notched specimens
are not normally used for long-fibre-reinforced composites or thermotropic liquid-crystal
polymers.
The method is suited to the use of specimens which may be either molded to the chosen
dimensions, machined from the central portion of a standard multipurpose test specimen
(see ISO 3167) or machined from finished or semi finished products such as moldings,
laminates and extruded or cast sheet. The method specifies preferred dimensions for the
test specimen. Tests which are carried out on specimens of different dimensions or with
different notches, or specimens which are prepared under different conditions may
produce results which are not comparable. Other factors, such as the energy capacity of
the apparatus, its impact velocity and the conditioning of the specimens can also influence
the results. Consequently, when comparative data are required, these factors must be
carefully controlled and recorded. The method should not be used as a source of data for
design calculations.
33
Information on the typical behavior of a material can be obtained, however, by
testing at different temperatures, by varying the notch radius and/or the thickness and by
testing specimens prepared under different conditions.
4.2.2 APPARATUS
Test Machine The principles, characteristics and verification of suitable

test machines are detailed in ISO 13802. Some plastics are sensitive to clamping
pressure. When testing such materials, a means of standardizing the clamping force shall
be used and the clamping force shall be recorded in
the test report. The clamping force can be controlled by using a calibrated torque wrench
or a pneumatic or hydraulic device on the vice clamping screw.

Micrometer Micrometers and gauges capable of measuring the essential dimensions of

test specimens to an accuracy of 0.02 mm are required. For measuring the dimension bN
of notched specimens, the micrometer shall be fitted with an anvil of width 2 mm to 3 mm
and of suitable profile to fit the shape of the notch.

4.2.3 TEST SPECIMEN SIZE

Long-Fibre-Reinforced Materials
A panel shall be prepared in accordance with ISO 1268 or another specified or agreed
upon preparation procedure. Specimens shall be machined in accordance with ISO 2818.
Overall Length = 63.5
Overall Width = 12.7
Thickness = 3.2 0.5
All dimensions are in mm
34

4.2.4 SPECIMEN PREPARATION

The test specimen is prepared by cutting and grinding.
4.2.5 CONDITIONING
Unless otherwise specified in the standard for the material under test, the specimens shall
be conditioned for at least 16 h at 23 C and 50 % relative humidity in accordance with
ASTM 256, unless other conditions are agreed upon by the interested parties. In the case
of notched specimens, the conditioning time is after notching.

4.2.6 PRECAUTIONS
The specimens shall be free of twist and shall have mutually perpendicular parallel
surfaces. The surfaces and edges shall be free from scratches, pits, sink marks and flash.
The specimens shall be checked for conformity with these requirements by visual
observation against straightedges, squares and flat plates, and by measuring with
micrometer calipers.
Specimens showing measurable or observable departure from one or more of these
requirements shall be rejected or machined to proper size and shape before testing.
4.2.7 PROCEDURE
STEP 1: Conduct the test in the same atmosphere as that used for conditioning, unless
otherwise agreed upon by the interested parties, e.g. for testing at high or low
temperatures
STEP 2: Measure the thickness h and width b of each test specimen, in the centre, to the
nearest 0.02 mm. In the case of notched specimens, carefully measure the remaining
width bN to the nearest 0.02 mm. In the case of injection-molded specimens, it is not
necessary to measure the dimensions of
each specimen. With multiple-cavity moulds, ensure that the dimensions of the specimens
are the same for each cavity.
STEP 3: Check that the impact machine is able to perform the test with the specified
velocity of impact and that it is in the correct range of absorbed energy W which shall be
between 10 % and 80 % of the available energy at impact, E. If more than one of the
pendulums conform to these requirements, the pendulum having the highest energy shall
be used.
35
STEP 4: Lift the pendulum to the prescribed height and support it. Place the specimen in
the vice and clamp. When determining the notched Izod impact strength, the notch shall
be positioned on the side that is to be struck by the striking edge of the pendulum.
STEP 5: Release the pendulum. Record the impact energy absorbed by the specimen.
STEP 6: Four types of break designated by the following code-letters may occur:
C complete break: a break in which the specimen separates into two or more pieces
H hinge break: an incomplete break such that both parts of the specimen are
held together only by a thin peripheral layer in the form of a hinge having low
residual stiffness

P partial break: an incomplete break that does not meet the definition for hinge break
N non-break: there is no break, and the specimen is only bent and pushed through the
support blocks, possibly combined with stress whitening.

4.2.8 RESULT
TABLE 4.3.8 IZOD IMPACT TEST RESULT
Sample

Thickness

Energy at
breakage
(J/mm)

Weight Of
Pendulum
(kg)

Impact
Strength(J)

10.84

3.5

14

10.84

12

10.84

3.5

10.84

(mm)

Where
A. Specimen without TiO2 nano powder
B. Specimen with TiO2 nano powder
36

FORMULA USED:
Energy at breakage=(Impact strength) *(thickness)

4.3 HARDNESS TEST (ISO D 2240)

4.3.1 SCOPE
.

This International Standard specifies a method for the determination of the indentation
hardness of plastics and ebonite by means of durometers of two types type A is used for
softer materials and type D for harder materials. The method permits measurement either
of the initial indentation or of the indentation after a specified period of time, or both.

The hardness of plastics is most commonly measured by the Shore (Durometer) test
or Rockwell hardness test. This method measure the resistance of plastics toward
indentation and provide an empirical hardness value that doesn't necessarily correlate well
to other properties or fundamental characteristics.Many other Shore hardness scales, such
as Shore O and Shore H hardness, exist but are only rarely encountered by most people
in the plastics industry.
4.3.2 APPARATUS
Durometer scale:There are several scales of durometer, used for materials with different
properties. The two most common scales, using slightly different measurement systems,
are the ASTM D2240 type A and type D scales. The A scale is for softer plastics, while the
D scale is for harder ones. However, the ASTM D2240-00 testing standard calls for a total
of 12 scales, depending on the intended use; types A, B, C, D, DO, E, M, O, OO, OOO,
OOO-S, and R. Each scale results in a value between 0 and 100, with higher values
indicating a harder material.
Intender: The intender used in this case is hardened steel rod with 30 with 1.40mm
diameter with extension of 2.54mm.Figure 4.4.2 shows the image of durometer
37
4.3.3 TEST SPECIMEN SIZE
Length L = 25mm
Width = 13mm*
Thickness = 6mm
4.3.4 SPECIMEN PREPARATION
The specimen is prepared by cutting and grinding.
4.3.5 PRECAUTIONS

 It is desirable to use the smallest ball and highest load that is practical because of this
loss of sensitivity.
Dust, dirt, grease, and scale or rust should not be allowed to accumulate on the indenter,
as this will affect the results. Steel ball indenters that have nicks, burrs, or are out of round
shall not be used
Many plastic materials have anisotropic characteristics which cause indentation
hardness to vary with the direction of testing. In such cases, the hardest face is generally
that one perpendicular to the molding pressure. Specimens with flashing on the side
supported by the anvil also may give erroneous results.
4.3.6 PROCEDURE
Step1: Choose the correct scale for the specimen under test. Rockwell hardness values
are reported by a letter to indicate the scale used and a number to indicate the reading.
The choice of scales shall be governed by the considerations concerned with the total
indentation readings and the final scale reading for a particular material and scale.
Step2: Discard the first reading after changing a ball indenter, as the indenter does not
properly seat by hand adjustment in the housing chuck. The full pressure of the major load
is required to seat the indenter shoulder into the chuck.
Step3: With the specimen in place on the anvil, turn the capstan screw until the small
pointer is at a zero position and the large pointer is within 65 divisions of B 30 or the set
position on red scale. This adjustment applies without shock a minor load of 10 kg, which
is built into the machine. Final adjustment of the gage to set is made by a knurled ring
38
located on some machines just below the capstan hand wheel. If the operator should
overshoot his set adjustment, another trial shall be made in a different test position of the
specimen; under no circumstances should a reading be taken when the capstan is turned
backward. Within 10 s after applying the minor load, and immediately after the set
position is obtained, apply the major load by releasing the trip lever. Remove the major
load 15 (+1, -0) s after its application. Read the Rockwell hardness on the red scale to the
nearest full-scale division 15 s removing the major load.
Step4: Record the readings as follows: Count the number of times the needle passes
through zero on the red scale on the application of the major load. Subtract from this the

number of times the needle passes through zero upon the removal of this load. If this
different is zero, record the value as the reading plus 100. If the difference is 1, record the
reading without change, and, if the difference is 2, record the reading as the scale reading
minus 100 . Softer plastic materials, requiring a less severe scale than the R scale, shall
be tested by Test Method D 2240.
Step5: Determine the total indentation, with the major load applied, by the number of
divisions the pointer travels from the zero set position during the 15 s from the time the
lever is tripped
Step6: If the total indentation, reading with the major load applied, for a particular scale
exceeds the limits of the test machine used (150 divisions for regular machines and 250
divisions for PL machines), use the next less severe scale. Thus, if the M scale indentation
(with the major load) is 290 divisions use the L Rockwell scale.
Step7: Do not make the tests so near the edge of the specimen that the indenter will crush
out the edge when the major load is applied. In no case shall the clearance be less than 6
mm [14 in.] to the edge of the specimen. Neither should tests be made too close to each
other, as the plastic surface is damaged from the previous indentation. Never make
duplicate tests on the opposite face of a specimen; if a specimen is turned over and
retested on the opposite face, the ridges on the first face will contribute to a softer reading
on the second face.

39

4.3.7 RESULT
TABLE 4.4.7 HARDNESS TEST RESULT
Sample

Shore D

Shore D

Shore D hardness

Hardness for 50

hardness for 75

for 100 kgf load

kgf load

kgf load

68

67

68

70

71

70

Where
A. Specimen without TiO2 nano powder
B. Specimen with TiO2 nano powder

40

CHAPTER 5
5. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
5.1 MECHANICAL TESTING RESULTS

TABLE 5.1 MECHANICAL TESTING RESULTS OF SAMPLE A & B

Sample

Tensile

Impact

Flexural

Shore D Hardness for

Strength

Strength

Strength

50kgf,75kgf and 100 kgf

(MPa)

(J)

(MPa)

loads respectively

10.83

32.03

68

67

68

14.47

36.81

70

71

70

Where
A. Specimen without TiO2 nanopowder
B. Specimen with TiO2 nanopowder

41

5.2 DISCUSSION:
It is observed that the tensile test values have relatively increased. The tensile strength
value of specimen A. i.e., Screw pine fibre before being reinforced with TiO2,was observed
to be 10N/mm2 and the same value of specimen B.i.e.,Sisal fibre after being reinforced
with TiO2 was found to 14.47N/mm 2.So it is incurred that the TiO2 does increases the

strength of the fibre & ductility of the material decreases as more amount of load is needed
to elongate the material.
Now talking about the impact strength they are of two types .i.e, Izod & Charpy. Now
from the tabulation it is seen that the Izod impact strength of specimen A is 2kJ whereas
Izod impact strength of specimen B is 4kJ.It is incurred that the Izod impact strength has
increased. This is because of the ability of a material to absorb shock and impact energy
without breaking .i.e, the impact strength is increased because of addition of TiO2 .
Now taking hardness of the specimens into account, the shore D hardness( according to
ASTM D 2240) of specimen A under the loads of 50kgf,75kgf and 100kgf was found to be
68,67 and 68 respectively and the hardness of specimen B was under the same load
condition wasfound to be 70,71,70 respectively.This is because the properties like
density,ductility,strength etc., are improved.

42

CHAPTER 6
6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
6.1 CONCLUSION

In our project we have demonstrated a stem based fibre extracted from Screw Pine plant.
Different samples have been prepared by using nanofillers. The mechanical properties are
compared by tensile, impact and hardness tests. It is observed that the sample containing
the nanofillers exhibit the best properties of the three. Research is increasingly
demonstrating the technical and economic benefits of including natural components in
industrial products. Therefore, competitive products based on the natural fibres are being
developed that show excellent technical performance and harm the environment less than
current products based on petrochemical materials. Fibre composites can be found in
packaging, building, and furniture materials in addition to the traditional products such as
rope, twine and carpets. The economic value of the fibre crop depends on its end-use
market and costs of production.
6.2 FUTURE WORK
Natural fibres are increasingly being recognized as a favorable substitute to synthetics
which use unsustainable inputs. Aside from technical and cost advantages, such products
have the added attraction of meeting growing consumer awareness with respect to
environmental, sustainability and social standards contributing to: Encouraging the growth
of sustainable agriculture, uptake of environmentally friendly production and processing
technologies, fostering economic development, strengthening the participation of
smallholders in the value chain.
The hard fibres: Acaba, Coir and Aloe Vera, and bast fibres: Jute and Kenaf,

are all

natural fibres which have various and multiple end uses. Their versatility and
environmentally friendly characteristics are strong advantagesover synthetic alternatives.
Each of the fibres has their particular strengths but all have the benefit of being naturally
derived and increasingly recognized as a sustainable choice.
43

WORK DONE:

Last ten years literature review.

 Raw materials procured to required amount and quantity.

Tools and safety equipments procured.

Fibres are extracted from sisal plant

Single fibre mechanical testing and comparing with theoretical value.

Fabrication of sisal fibre nano composite & cutting them into ASTM standards.
Mechanical Testing of the nano composite.
Preparation of final report.

RESULT:

Hence the fabrication of screw pine (natural fibre)nano composite with nano filler material
has been successfully carried out.
In conclusion, new technologies require materials showing novel properties and/or
improved performance compared to conventionally processed components. In this context,
nano composites are suitable materials to meet the emerging demands arising from
scientific and technologic advances. Processing methods for different types of nano
composites (CMNC, MMNC and PMNC) are available, but some of these pose challenges
thus giving opportunities for researchers to overcome the problems being encountered
with nano size materials. They offer improved performance over monolithic and micro
composite counterparts and are consequently suitable candidates to overcome the
limitations of many currently existing materials and devices. A number of applications
already exists, while many potentials are possible for these materials, which open new
vistas for the future. In view of
44

their unique properties such as very high mechanical properties even at low loading of
reinforcements, gas barrier and flame related properties, many potential applications and

hence the market for these materials have been projected in various sectors. Thus all the
three types of nano composites provide opportunities and rewards creating new world.
CHAPTER 7.
REFERENCES
[1] Hull D, Clyne TW (1996) An Introduction To Composite

Material,Cambridge

University Press
[2]

Chawla K.K (1987) Composite Materials, Science and Engineering, Springer,New

York, NY
[3] Amar K.M, Manjusri M, Lawerence T.D (2005) Natural Fibres, Biopolymers and biocomposites, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
[4]

S.V. Joshia, L.T. Drzalb, A.K. Mohantyb, S. Arorac (2004) Are Natural

FibreComposites Environmentally Superior to Glass Fibre Reinforced Composites?

Composites: Part A 35 (2004) 371376
[5]

Alfred Rudin (1998) The Elements of Polymer Science and Engineering D.R. Paul,

L.M. Robeson (2008) Polymer nanotechnology: Nanocomposites, Journal of Polymer 49,

31873204
[6] Ticolau A, Aravinthan T, (2005) Cardona, F.: A review of current development in natural
fibre composites for structural and infrastructure applications. Toowoomba : University of
Southern Queensland, 5 p. SREC2010F1-5
[7] D. NABI SAHEB and J. P. JOG (1999) Natural Fibre Polymer Composites: A Review,
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Engineering

Group, Chemical

Engineering

Laboratory, Pune 411 008, India

45
CHAPTER-8
8. TECHNICAL BIOGRAPHY

Division, National Chemical

I.RAZIK FAREED
MR.I.RAZIK FAREED (120021601153) was born IN Pazhani (Dindigul District) on
03/04/1995. He did hid schooling in chennai from Sri Sankara Vidhyashramam
Matriculation Higher Secondary School. He has scored 86.4% in SSLC and 76% in
Higher Secondary examinations. Razik is currently doing his B.TECH Mechanical
Engineering From B.S.Abdur Rahman University. His Area of interests are Automobile
Designing And fabrication. He can be reached at john.ivan95@gmail.com or +9189392-52555.

SAIYED AHMED RIFAI

MR.SAIYED AHMED RIFAI (120021601158) was born in Red hills on 19/03/1995. Rife
did his schooling in paratha matriculation higher secondary school. he has scored 80%
in SSLC and 86% in Higher secondary examinations. Rifais main area of interest lies
in modelling crafts.He is pursuing his engineering from B.S.Abdur Rahman University.
He can be reached at +91-96006-65948.

G.VIGNESH
MR.G.VIGNESH (120021601195) was born in Chennai. Vignesh Did his schooling
From an Reputed Institution and has secured Good marks at the time of his study.
Inseams the main interest of Vignesh is Designing. Currently vignesh is doing his
B.TECH

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING from B.S.Abdur Rahman university.